THE EFFECTS OF ANIMATION AND CUEING IN THE ACQUISITION OF 
SPANISH VOCABULARY 
 
 
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this thesis is 
my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This thesis does not 
include proprietary or classified information. 
 
 
 
_______________________ 
Alvaro Villegas Erce 
 
Certificate of Approval: 
 
 
_______________________      _______________________ 
Iulia Pittman       Gilda Socarr?s, Chair 
Assistant Professor      Assistant Porfessor 
Foreign Languages - German     Foreign Languages - Spanish 
 
 
 
_______________________     _______________________ 
Robin Sabino       George T. Flowers 
Associate Professor      Interim Dean 
English       Graduate School 
 
 
THE EFFECTS OF ANIMATION AND CUEING IN THE ACQUISITION OF 
SPANISH VOCABULARY 
 
 
Alvaro Villegas Erce 
 
 
A Thesis 
Submitted to 
the Graduate Faculty of 
Auburn University 
in Partial Fulfillment of the 
Requirements for the 
Degree of 
Master of Arts 
 
 
 
Auburn, Alabama 
August 9, 2008 
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THE EFFECTS OF ANIMATION AND CUEING IN THE ACQUISITION OF 
SPANISH VOCABULARY 
 
 
 
Alvaro Villegas Erce 
 
Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this thesis at its discretion, 
upon request of individuals or institutions and at their expense. The author reserves all 
publication rights. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
___________________________ 
Signature of Author 
 
 
 
___________________________ 
Date of Graduation 
 
 
 
 
 
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THESIS ABSTRACT 
THE EFFECTS OF ANIMATION AND CUEING IN THE ACQUISITION OF 
SPANISH VOCABULARY 
 
 
Alvaro Villegas Erce 
Master of Arts, August 9, 2008 
(B.A., University of Granada, 2002) 
 
100 Typed Pages 
Directed by Gilda Socarr?s 
 
 
According to Paivio?s (1971, 2007) Dual Coding Theory (DCT), cognitive 
information is stored in two separate systems, the visual and the verbal system. Both are 
linked through cognitive connections that lead to better memorization and remembering 
of both words and images. The current thesis intends to study the use of dynamic and 
static images in Spanish L2 vocabulary acquisition and the effects of cueing when 
presented with those two types of visual representations. An experiment was conducted 
in twenty-two sections of beginner Spanish at Auburn University in four days. Two 
conditions were applied, i.e. dynamic versus static images and cueing versus absence of 
cueing. The twenty-two sections were divided in four treatment groups: static and 
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absence of cueing (Control group), static and cueing (Group A), dynamic and absence of 
cueing (Group B), and dynamic and cueing (Group C). In order to gather data, 
participants were provided a recall and a recognition test both in a short term (after 
instruction) and a long term period (thirty-six days after instruction). Also, recall was 
divided in two different analyses: effectiveness (i.e. when the words were correct or 
orthographically related to the original) and production (i.e. only exact words were 
considered right). Results showed that there are no significant differences in the use of 
dynamic and static images in four of the six tests. However, dynamic images proved to be 
more effective in the short term recall test when measuring production. On the contrary, 
static images proved to be significantly better than static images in the long term recall 
test when measuring production. Discussion on the findings is presented. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
I would like to thank Dr. Gilda Socarr?s for her invaluable support, time, 
patience, and comments on how to make this thesis what it needed to be and to the 
members of my thesis committee, Dr. Iulia Pittman and Dr. Rabin Sabino who offered 
their constructive criticism to help polish this thesis. Also, I am grateful to all instructors 
and teaching assistants in the Department of Foreign Language and Literatures at Auburn 
University for their participation in the study by opening their classes to the researcher to 
conduct the study. Finally, thanks go to my family and girlfriend for their patience and 
understanding while I completed the research. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Style manual used: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Fifth 
Edition. 
 
Computer software used: Microsoft Word and SPSS 16.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii 
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii 
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1 
1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................1 
1.2. Research Questions .................................................................................................3 
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................4 
2.1. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition .............................................................4 
2.2. Paivio?s Dual-Coding Theory (DCT)  ....................................................................7 
2.3. Research on the Contents of the Study .................................................................10 
2.3.1. Visual Stimuli as Vocabulary Strategy ........................................................10 
2.3.1.1. Static versus Dynamic Images ............................................................11 
2.3.1.2. Functions of Animation ......................................................................13 
2.3.1.3. Characteristics of Animation ..............................................................14 
2.3.1.4. New Trend in Animation ....................................................................16 
2.3.2. Research in L1 and L2 Acquisition .............................................................17 
2.3.2.1. Research in L1 ....................................................................................17 
2.3.2.1.1. Practice and Feedback ................................................................18 
2.3.2.1.2. Narration versus Text Information Presentation ........................20 
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2.3.2.1.3. Cueing ........................................................................................22 
2.3.2.2. Research with Graphical Representations in L2 .................................25 
2.3.2.2.1. Research with Static Images ......................................................25 
2.3.2.2.2. The Use of Advance Organizers in Video and Animation ........27 
2.3.2.2.3. Research on Animation ..............................................................28 
2.3.2.2.4. Other Uses of Animation in L2 Research ..................................30 
3. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................32 
3.1. Data Collection .....................................................................................................32 
3.1.1. Setting ..........................................................................................................33 
3.1.2. Subjects ........................................................................................................33 
3.1.3. The Conditions .............................................................................................35 
3.1.3.1. Animated versus Static images ...........................................................35 
3.1.3.2. Use of cueing versus Absence of Cueing ...........................................35 
3.2. The Materials ........................................................................................................36 
3.2.1. Vocabulary ...................................................................................................36 
3.2.2. Animation ....................................................................................................37 
3.2.3. Cueing ..........................................................................................................38 
3.2.4. Lesson Plan ..................................................................................................39 
3.3. Procedures .............................................................................................................39 
3.3.1. Pre-Questionnaire ........................................................................................39
3.3.2. Day One .......................................................................................................40 
3.3.3. Day Two .......................................................................................................42
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3.3.4. Day Three .....................................................................................................44 
3.3.5. Day Four and Short-Term Posttest ..............................................................46 
3.3.6. Long-Term Posttest ......................................................................................48 
3.4. Data Analysis ........................................................................................................49 
3.4.1. Variables ......................................................................................................49 
4. RESULTS ......................................................................................................................50 
4.1. Dynamism in Short-Term Period ..........................................................................50 
4.2. Dynamism in Long-Term Period ..........................................................................53 
4.3. Cueing in Short-Term Period ................................................................................55 
4.4. Cueing in Long-Term Period ................................................................................57 
5. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................59 
5.1. The Conclusions....................................................................................................59 
5.1.1. The Results...................................................................................................59 
5.1.2. Predicted Variables Affecting Results .........................................................61 
5.1.3. The Dual Processing Theory and the Overload of the Visual System .........61 
5.1.4. Unpredicted Effects of a Variable between the Short and the Long-Term 
Posttest .........................................................................................................63 
 5.2. The Study and Further Research ...........................................................................64 
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................65 
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................72 
Appendix A: Pilot Study for Images ............................................................................73 
Appendix B: Static Images of the Target Vocabulary .................................................75 
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Appendix C: Pretest to Measure Previous Knowledge ................................................76 
Appendix D: Lesson Plan and Materials .....................................................................77 
Appendix E: Short-term Recall Test ............................................................................84 
Appendix F: Long-term Recall Test ............................................................................85 
Appendix G: Short-term Recognition Test ..................................................................86 
Appendix H: Long-term Recognition Test ..................................................................86 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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LIST OF TABLES 
 
Table 1. Total Percentage of Image-Word Relation in the Pilot Study. ............................36 
Table 2. Dynamic and Static Means in Short-term Period  ...............................................52 
Table 3. Dynamic and Static Means in Long-term Period  ................................................53 
Table 4. Cueing and Absence of Cueing Means in Short-term Period  .............................56 
Table 5. Cueing and Absence of Cueing Means in Long-term Period  .............................57 
Table 6. Significance of Post-tests for Dynamic and Cueing Conditions. .........................58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
 
Figure 1. Schematization of Paivio?s Dual-Coding Theory and cognitive connections ......9 
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
 
1.1. Introduction 
One of the fields in which the study of L2 vocabulary has paid special attention has been 
the use and effects of visual stimuli in memorization.  One of the most influential theories 
on memory and cognition is Paivio?s (1971, 2007) Dual Coding Theory (DCT).  This 
theory defends the position that the human cognition is split into two different coding 
systems, i.e., the visual coding system and the verbal coding system.  Information is 
linked within and between these two systems through referential, associative, and sensory 
connections.  Therefore, learning an image will lead us to a specific word and vice versa.  
Also, stronger memorization will happen if both the image and the words are hold in and 
connecting between their corresponding systems.  However, a question arises when 
differentiating between different types of images.  Research conducted in L1 and L2 has 
tried to clarify the implications and effects of using dynamic and static images in 
vocabulary learning.  The researcher believes that not all images are the same as they do 
not provide the same amount of information.  Colors, forms, or movement, for example, 
might allow understanding more clearly what the image is showing.  However, Weiss, 
Knowlton, and Morrison (2002) suggest that, from a cognitive perspective, images are 
stored in the visual system and that there are no differences in use in terms of the type of 
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image.  Mayer and Moreno (1998) introduce the Dual Processing Theory which proposes 
that, from a processing perspective, images and text are stored in the same system and 
suggest that presenting them together may create an overload of the system.  Therefore, 
they argue that images should be presented with audio instead of text. 
These statements indicate that using animated images, in comparison to static 
images, might not have an effect in vocabulary learning.  As Weiss et al. (2005) indicate, 
if a static image is as informative as a dynamic image, there is no need to use dynamism 
for the presentation.  However, that statement is provided in a L1 context and the 
researcher believes that the same cannot be applied in L2. 
Research conducted in L1 has provided inconclusive results.  Some studies provide 
positive effects on the use of animation in instruction (Mayer, 1994; Rieber, Boyce, & 
Assad, 1990).  Many other studies were proved to be inconclusive or even benefited from 
the use of static images (Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, & Campbell, 2005; Owens and Dwyer, 
2005; Wilson & Dwyer, 2001; Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Rieber, 1990; Rieber, 1989; 
Rieber & Hannafin, 1988).  However, research conducted in L2 acquisition on the 
comparison between static and dynamic images is not as abundant as research in L1 (Lin 
& Chen, 2006, 2007; Sun & Dong, 2004; Xiao & Jones, 1995).  Furthermore, the 
researcher could not find any study that was fully conducted in the classroom where the 
real instruction takes place.   
In this study, I want to provide some evidence on the use of animated images in the 
acquisition of L2 Spanish in comparison to the use of static images.  Chapter one 
introduces the study and states the goal of the study.  Chapter two reviews the most 
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influential papers and research on the use of dynamic and static images in L1 and L2. 
Chapter three describes the methodology followed when the study was conducted.  
Chapter four explains the results obtained through data analysis.  Finally, chapter five 
discusses of the most relevant findings.   
 
1.2. Research Questions 
The present study tries to address to the following questions: 
1. Do dynamic images improve the acquisition of L2 Spanish vocabulary more than 
static images? 
2. Does cueing, when presented with static and dynamic images, affect the 
acquisition of L2 Spanish vocabulary? 
3. Does cueing, when presented with dynamic images, overload the visual systems 
according to Mayer and Moreno?s (1998) Dual processing theory? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
2.1. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition 
 
Traditionally, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research has been directed towards 
the study of syntax and phonology (Zimmerman, 1997; Nation, 2001).  In contrast, less 
emphasis has been placed on second language vocabulary acquisition until recently.  It 
gained importance when researchers found that the study of grammar does not provide 
the learner of a second language all the necessary tools to communicate successfully.  
Knowing about how a language functions, i.e., its grammar, does not entail the ability to 
use it appropriately.  In this sense, producing a foreign language is like building a house.  
One might have the theoretical knowledge of how to build it, but the house will never be 
built without other essential materials, e.g. vocabulary. 
 Knowing a word, however, is complex.  Nation (2001) argues that knowing a 
word is to know its meaning, its function, and its use.  In other words, vocabulary 
learning does not only involve form recognition - spoken or written -, but also the 
position - grammar and collocation -, its function - frequency and appropriateness -, and 
meaning - concept and associations - (Nation, 1990).  However, these fields evolving 
word knowledge are gradually organized.  First, the learner discovers what real concept 
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the word refers to and then pays attention to its appropriate use, as stated by Nation 
(1990). 
Ma & Kelly (2006) distinguish two perspectives in the acquisition of vocabulary: 
Implicit and explicit learning.  Implicit vocabulary learning proposes that vocabulary 
should be presented naturally and without effort and learning will happen accidentally.  
Learners must be exposed to as much input language as possible.  Explicit vocabulary 
learning, on the other hand, validates the necessity of mentally engaging the learner 
through strategies to make vocabulary store and retrieve more efficiently. 
One of the most influential models of implicit vocabulary learning has been 
presented by Krashen?s Second Language Acquisition Theory (Krashen, 1982) and the 
Natural Approach (Krashen & Terrell, 1983).  They present five hypotheses to account 
for Second Language Acquisition.  The first is the Learning-Acquisition Hypothesis 
which posits that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious.  The former is a 
product of communication and the latter of studying; both might lead to the mastering of 
the language.  The second hypothesis, the Natural Order, states that some grammatical 
structures are acquired in a predictable order, similar to the order in L1, and that some 
structures are acquired before.  However, this hypothesis argues that not all acquirers 
follow the same order when acquiring these structures.  The third hypothesis is the 
Monitor Hypothesis which argues that production starts with the acquired system of the 
language while the learned system, called the Monitor, only plays a role before or after 
linguistic production.  If the Monitor acts after production, it performs a self-repair 
action, i.e., applies the learned rules to correct the produced utterance.  Next, the Input 
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Hypothesis, one of the most influential Krashen?s hypotheses, states that i+1 input, i.e., 
information beyond the level of competence of the learner, leads to acquisition.  Finally, 
the Affective Filter Hypothesis states that affective variables play an important role in 
converting input (i.e., received information) into intake (i.e., processed information).  
When that filter is opened, there is a higher chance to achieve intake because the student 
is motivated, confident and there is no anxiety.  In contrast, when the learner is not 
motivated, confident or is anxious, the filter is closed resulting in reduced language 
acquisition.  The authors also point out that other variables as aptitude, the role of the first 
language, individual differences, and age can also affect the level of acquisition. 
In contrast, explicit vocabulary learning states that vocabulary words and learning 
strategies must be taught in order to create a vocabulary base for the learner.  Nation 
(2001) argues that low level learners need a set of high frequency words (2,000 words) in 
order to reach a minimum vocabulary for effective comprehension.  This can be achieved 
by direct teaching (teacher explanation, peer teaching), direct learning (using word cards, 
consulting dictionaries), incidental learning (contextual guessing, communicative 
activities), and planned encounters with the words (graded reading, vocabulary 
exercises).   
The explicit vocabulary learning hypothesis also supports the idea that instruction of 
learning strategies is necessary for students to be able to find their own ways of 
expanding their vocabulary knowledge.  Oxford and Scarcella (1994) divide these 
strategies into three types: (i) decontextualized, (ii) partially contextualized, and (iii) fully 
contextualized.  Decontextualized activities must be carefully used in the classroom and 
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are not as effective as the other two strategies.  They include the use of word lists, flash 
cards, and dictionaries.  Partially contextualized learning strategies refer to word 
grouping, word or concept association, visual imagery, aural imagery, keyword, physical 
response, and semantic mapping.  Each of these activities provides some degree of 
context.  Finally, fully contextualized strategies involve vocabulary learning in authentic 
communication. 
Oxford and Scarcella (1994) affirm that the differentiation of these three types of 
strategies does not indicate that they should be taken separately, but rather it suggests that 
more vocabulary can be acquired if more strategies are used.  Moreover, context is vital 
as guessing from context is probably the most effective learning strategy.  It is expected 
that providing students with partially contextualized strategies in a fully contextualized 
context will result in better vocabulary learning.  In the following sections, I will present 
a theoretical background that supports the use of image-style strategies for the 
enhancement of vocabulary acquisition. 
 
2.2. Paivio?s Dual-Coding Theory (DCT) 
Paivio?s Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971, 2007; Paivio and Begg, 1981) is a seminal 
work on the acquisition of vocabulary that is supported by a vast body of research such as 
the power of animation in memory (Wilson & Dwyer, 2001; Owens & Dwyer, 2005; Zhu 
& Grabowski, 2006; Mayer, 1994; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer et al., 2005; Mautone 
& Mayer, 2001; Rieber, 1989, 1996; Rieber & Hannafin, 1988; Rieber, Boyce, & Assad, 
1990), the influence of animation (Lin & Chen, 2007; Kuo & Hooper, 2004; Nassaji, 
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2004; Hew & Ohki, 2004; Lai, 2000; Chang, Lin, & Lee, 2005), and the influence of 
cognitive strategies in L2 (Shapiro & Walters, 2005; Atkinson & Raugh, 1975; Saltz & 
Donnenwerth-Nolan, 1981).  As explained by Kobayashi (1986), the power of this theory 
comes from the intensive research that supports it.   
Paivio (1971, 2007) states that the information can be divided into two different 
coding systems, a visual coding system and a non-visual coding system.  On the one 
hand, the visual coding system contains all the visual information while, on the other 
hand, the non-visual code system deals with all the linguistic information, i.e., the word.  
Paivio and Begg (1981) refer to the elements contained in the visual system as imagens 
and the elements contained in the non-visual system as logogens
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.  Imagen can constitute 
any pictorial representation either given or internally created.  This means that the visual 
system controls not only the elements of the real world that we can see but also the 
representations that human beings can generate themselves.   
Paivio (2007) explains that, although the visual and the verbal systems are 
independent, there are certain cognitive connections that relate the contents of both 
systems.  The first type of connections refers to associations of logogens and imagens 
within each system, i.e., logogens associate to logogens in the verbal system and imagens 
associate with imagens in the visual system.  Both visual and verbal systems possess 
internal correlations in their systems.  Paivio and Begg (1981) illustrate this with an 
example of a face.  A face can be a single imagen but it is compound of other imagens 
smaller in hierarchy such as eyes, mouth, nose, etc.  Similarly, logogens can relate within 
the verbal system because human beings connect words with words and can differentiate 
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?Paivio borrowed this term from Morton (1969)?
between synonyms and antonyms.  Secondly, there are connections that relate the verbal 
and visual content with information outside.  For example, relations with the external 
world occur through sensory and motor connections.  These exist outside of the two 
systems and they relate the information contained in the visual and verbal systems to the 
real world.  Sensory connections are visual, auditory, and haptic (by active touch) while 
the motor relations are established through drawing, writing, and signing.  They relate 
independently to the elements of both systems although they do not affect the way 
imagens and logonens relate to each other.  Also, Paivio (2007) explains that, while 
sensory stimuli can relate to any verbal or imaginable item, the opposite cannot happen.  
There is no image or word that can produce a feeling or emotion by itself.   
 
VERBAL?STIMULI? NONVERBAL?STIMULI?
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SENSORY?SYSTEM
 
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IMAGENSLOGONENS?
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REFERENTIAL?
CONNECTIONS
 
 
 
 
 
VERBAL?RESPONSES? NONVERBAL?RESPONSES?
 
 Figure 1. Schematization of Paivio?s Dual-Coding Theory and cognitive 
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Finally, Paivio distinguish referential connections.  These references reciprocally 
connect both logogens and imagens from the verbal and visual systems.  That is, by 
naming an object in the world, one can create a representational image of that object.  
Similarly, a visual representation of an item can be linked to a verbal one.  In a more 
practical way, if we see a picture of a cat, we can name what we see with the word cat.  
The opposite also occurs.  If we hear the word cat, we can easily recall or generate a 
picture that represents that concept.  Therefore, as Mayer (1994) points out, referential 
connections have a direct effect on memory.  That is, information will be better 
memorized when it is processed in both systems rather than only one because if part of 
the information is lost, the other still remains. 
 
2.3. Research on the Contents of the Study 
2.3.1. Visual Stimuli as Vocabulary Strategy 
As reported by Kobayashi (1986), the earliest studies conducted with pictures date back 
at the end of the 19th century and focus on the human capacity for retention and 
memorization.  It was shown that pictures could be remembered up to an 87.0% and 
57.7% after 7 days and 120 days of their presentation respectively.  Later, similar 
investigations studied the relations between verbal information and pictures.  
Investigation demonstrated that visual stimuli enhance vocabulary learning (Webber, 
1978; Jones & Plass, 2002; Nassaji, 2004).  Deno (1968) explained that images and 
words cannot be considered as equivalent stimuli when representing the same concept.  
With new developments and advances in technology, new perspectives in the field 
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evolved.  More recently, research on visual stimuli has been focused on the use of 
dynamic representations in Computer Based Instruction (CBI).  In this section, I review 
the most relevant research related to the field of visual stimuli and the use of animation in 
L1 and L2 acquisition. 
 
2.3.1.1. Static versus Dynamic images 
The introduction of dynamism into CBI became a popular area of discussion for scholars 
at the beginning of the 1980?s (Rieber, 1990) and its study continues today although 
scholars look at it with more critical eyes.  Authors like Rieber (1990, 1994), Xiao and 
Jones (1995), and Weiss et al. (2002) collect and present important guidelines on the use 
of animation and when it should be used instead of static visual materials.   
Xiao and Jones (1995) argue that computer animation improves learning but they 
state the need to clarify some criteria for the use of animated materials in the classroom.  
Similarly, Weiss et al. (2002) point out that most research to date has focused on 
empirical research in animation but has not defined the principles that lead to its use.  
Rieber (1994) and Weiss et al. (2002) introduce these criteria.  All these authors 
investigated the role of animation as visual stimuli in CBI in comparison to static visual 
stimuli.  Their investigation gives some insight on the role that animation plays in 
designing materials.   
Weiss et al. (2002) highlight some criteria to take into consideration in deciding 
between the uses of static or dynamic images.  They argue that preference should be 
given to static images if the dynamic ones provide the same amount of information.  
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First, following Rieber (1994), they agree that dynamic pictures should only be used 
when they differentiate from static images in their capacity to provide trajectory and 
movement.  Moreover, they state, following Paivio?s Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971, 
2007; Paivio and Begg, 1981) that dynamic and static visuals follow the same usage 
principles, i.e., in terms of use, both static and dynamic images have the same 
representational value.  In Paivio?s theory, images and words are encoded in two different 
systems ? the visual and the verbal systems.  Hence, the comparison between static and 
dynamic images is irrelevant because all images are hold in the same visual system.  
However, I would like to point out that if animation presents extra information that static 
visual stimuli cannot, it is important to separate its informative potential.  Mayer et al. 
(2005) point out the difficulty in presenting equally modified treatments on research since 
it is impossible to make dynamic and static images equally informative.  Support for this 
view is found in a study conducted by Schnotz and Grzondziel (1996).  In the study, 
participants were required to solve problems related to time zone differences using static 
and dynamic images.  The study shows that those students using animated graphics 
answered better than those using static graphics.  The researchers explain these 
differences stating that the dynamic graphics provided more information.   These results 
seem to indicate that, from a L2 perspective, the most effective visual stimuli will be the 
one that represents more closely the world the students already know. 
Further support for the use of dynamic representations when they provide more 
information is found in Xiao and Jones (1995).  They assert the added value of using 
dynamic images in ESL with verbs of motion.  Dynamic images can easily provide more 
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information than static images allowing the learner to discriminate slight differences in 
meaning as in the comparison between the actions to hop, to walk, or to run.  In terms of 
the DCT, an animated image can provide more information that, consequently, will lead 
to better referential connections with the word that best defines it, ultimately resulting in 
better learning.   
 
2.3.1.2. Functions of Animation 
Researchers (Weiss at al., 2002; Xiao & Jones, 1995; Rieber, 1990) distinguish five 
functions in animation:   
1. Cosmetic function: This is the type of animation used to decorate the presentation of 
the materials.  These visuals are normally used to create an impressive opening 
although they hardly help in the learning process.  They are mostly decorative. 
2. Attention gaining function: This function has two main purposes.  One is to keep 
students focused on the presentation.  The other is to highlight the main information 
within the material.  The main criticism of employing animation for this purpose is 
that once the use of this pictures becomes familiar, attention gaining effects will 
decrease and eventually will no longer be effective (Large, 1996).  However, such an 
objection is hardly reason enough to dismiss the use of this tool as long as it remains 
effective. 
3. Motivation function: This function relates to the feedback given to learners? 
responses.  However, giving an animation as feedback does not always imply that that 
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reinforcement is going to be better.  Special attention to the type of animation related 
to positive or negative feedback is especially important. 
4. Presentation function: This is considered to be the best direct type of application.  
When a text is presented, animation helps in understanding the information, from the 
most specific, such as meaning of words, to the most general, such as concepts.  They 
are more effective when they present more abstract and dynamic processes together. 
5. Clarification function: This function is similar to the presentation function although 
animation might not provide any new information beyond the concept itself. 
 
It is important, then, to consider this classification when designing learning materials.  
Designers must consider what type of function their animation fits into and how relevant 
and helpful it is in relation to the content. 
 
2.3.1.3. Characteristics of Animation 
Research has also focused attention on the physical properties of animation and how it 
can be better designed to become a more powerful teaching tool (Xiao & Jones, 1995; 
Weiss et al., 2002; Chang et al., 2005).   
From a theoretical perspective, Weiss et al. (2002) give heightened attention to the 
nature of animation.  On the physical level, pictures must have a certain texture, color, 
pixel density, and size must fit the goals of the presentation.  Additionally, realism should 
also be considered.  Whether it is a low quality or high quality image, it is important to 
consider specifications such as its equivalence to the real world or level of detail when 
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designing teaching materials and adapting them to learning objectives.  Along with the 
consideration of the type of image used, it is important that the designer follows a certain 
consistency with the materials presented.  Xiao and Jones (1995) differentiate between 
the contents of the animation that are more frequent: frame-by-frame animation and real-
time animation, and both differ on the speed of the animation and the items presented.  
Frame-by-frame animation is a continuous flow of static images that create the illusion of 
movement and in which one frame is the same as the previous one except for the element 
that is being animated.  Real-time animation is formed by frames but they are reproduced 
at certain speed so they show full motion as in movies. 
From a more empirical perspective, Chang et al. (2005) conducted a study to 
measure young (ages from 5 to 7 years old) children?s preferences for dynamic images.  
The goal of the study was to examine the effect and complexity of dynamic images and 
the children preferences in a multimedia learning environment.  They used a picture of an 
apple with a face and modified it according to dynamism (completely or partially 
dynamic) and complexity (high, medium, or low level).  Results show that the subjects 
preferred dynamic pictures over the partially dynamic images.  In terms of complexity, 
subjects showed a preference for highly complex pictures over medium complex pictures, 
and the medium over images with low complexity.  The researchers consequently 
conclude that these results indicate that an ideal image for computer-assisted vocabulary 
item learning is one with entirely dynamic effects and high complexity.  However, since 
the subjects of the study were children and the purpose of the study is based on 
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preference rather than learning, this seems to be an extreme generalization.  Further 
research on the type of dynamic image is needed. 
 
2.3.1.4. New trend in Animation 
Hegarty (2004) distinguishes two main attitudes towards animation.  She explains that, 
early, researchers assumed that the use of animation was better and more beneficial for 
instruction.  However, Hegarty states that empirical investigation has demostrated 
animation not to be as effective as it originally seemed and we cannot generalize 
conclusions.  These days, researchers agree that the effectiveness of animation in 
instructional materials is inconclusive and there is a need for further investigation (Weiss 
et al., 2002).  Notice that animation has been thoroughly studied in different situations 
and, therefore, it is not advisable to generalize results to other studies with different types 
of animation or with different content as pointed out by Hegarty (2004), and Mautone 
and Mayer (2001).  In addition, there is a need to study not only the differences between 
dynamic and static images, but also between types of animations, their comparisons with 
dynamic displays, and the contexts of presentation as stated by Rieber and Hannafin 
(1988).  This is important as these investigations can provide better perspectives on what 
type of animations to use, when, and how to use them effectively to create a better 
medium for learning.   
 
 
 
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2.3.2. Research on L1 and L2 Acquisition 
Although the field of animation is not a new one, there is considerable disparity regarding 
the amount of research that has been conducted in the area of animation as related to first 
and the second language.  Most of the studies conducted on animation in a L1 have tried 
to link the effects of dynamism and the understanding of complex scientific procedures 
(Owens & Dwyer, 2005; Mayer et al., 2005; Rieber, 1996).  However, this has not been 
the case of L2 research which has primarily focused on the facilitation of static images in 
the acquisition of a second language (Deno, 1968; Dolphin, 1987; Nassaji, 2004).  Later 
advances in technology and L1 research has raised interest in the influence that 
dynamism might have on SLA (Lin & Chen, 2006, 2007).  In this section, I am going to 
review some of the most relevant studies on L1 and L2 and their use of dynamic visual 
aid for instructional purposes. 
 
2.3.2.1. Research on L1 
Research on dynamic visuals and learning has yielded contradictory results over which 
no conclusions can be drawn about the potential benefits of animation in the learning 
process.  For example, Rieber (1990) reviews twelve studies on animation.   In five of 
them, animation was more effective in learning.  The rest of the studies showed negative 
or inconclusive results.   In this section, I review studies that have addressed specific 
features of instruction related to animation. 
 
 
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2.3.2.1.1. Practice and Feedback 
Rieber and Hannafin (1988), Rieber (1989, 1996) and Rieber, Boyce, and Assad (1990) 
conducted a series of experiments on the effects of animation in the instruction and 
learning of Newton?s Laws of Motion.   
Rieber and Hannafin (1988) and Rieber (1989) examine the effects of animation and 
practice on Computer Based Instruction (CBI) with children.  Rieber and Hannafin 
(1988) results show that animated-orienting activities, i.e., activities showing an 
animation on a science concept that would be shown in a later lesson, did not have a 
significant difference in comparison to text-based orienting activities, i.e., those in which 
the learner had to read a summarizing text of the contents of a later lesson.  That is, 
neither condition had a particularly powerful influence on learning.  Rieber (1989) 
conducted a similar study on children and was surprised to discover that those groups 
with dynamic graphics, with and without text, did not perform differently than the others.  
He attributes these results to subjects ignoring or being distracted by the animation.  This, 
in turn, affected the influence of the animation in understanding the text presented.  
Additionally, he argues that the lesson was too complex for the subjects (kindergarten 
students).   
In contrast, Rieber, Boyce, and Assad (1990) carried out a study on undergraduate 
students and found some differences concerning the type of visual ? animations and static 
images ? when combined with practice.  The researchers provided two type of practice: 
behavioral practice and cognitive practice.  Behavioral practice specifically reinforced the 
participants after practicing while cognitive practice had the chance to control a 
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structured simulation.  The researchers found that, unlike children, adults that worked 
with animated graphics but received no practice performed better than those who worked 
with static images or with no graphics with cognitive practice.  However, when animation 
and practice occurred together, the results were not different than when practice was used 
with static representations.  This suggests that animation without practice helped to 
construct a mental image of the processes and, consequently, that learning of a practical 
Newton Law occurred at certain point during the encoding process of the images
2
.   
These results suggest that, in a L1 environment, it is not necessary to provide 
animated presentations when they accompany information that is self-explanatory.  
Mayer (1994) brings support for these findings.  In his article on the conditions under 
which animation becomes effective, he discusses his previous research.  He states that, 
when a test evaluated verbatim retention and recall, subjects in the animation groups 
performed less satisfactorily than those with no illustrations.  To explain this, Mayer 
(1994) affirms that his results are ?consistent with the proposal that powerful effects on 
meaningful learning occur when visual aids provided opportunities that otherwise would 
not be available for constructing a visual model of the system and connecting that visual 
model to corresponding verbal representations? (p.  132). 
 
 
?
2
?Positive results were found in Rieber (1996).  He conducted two experiments on the effects of acceleration 
and velocity with an alternative game-based measurement.  Results of the first experiment showed that the 
?game? scores were higher when they received automatic graphical feedback through animation.  The 
second experiment was modified increasing the number of trials when interacting with the game.  Subjects 
presented with some sort of animated graphic, with or without text, performed better than the subjects with 
only text in the test score.?
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2.3.2.1.2. Narration versus Text Information Presentation 
Another area of research has focused attention on the effect of the presentation of visual 
and aural information together with animation.   
Mayer and Moreno (1998) conducted two science experiments on college students, 
one on cloud formation and the other on a car braking system.  Following the Dual 
Processing theory with split-attention effects, the authors studied narration effects on 
learning in contrast to text effects.  This dual processing theory states that visual 
information is stored in visual working memory while auditory information is kept in 
auditory working memory.  The implication of the dual processing theory is that when 
students are presented with images and text at the same time, it results on an overload of 
the visual working memory.  In contrast, when animation is presented with an aural 
narration, the information is split between both working memory systems and, as a result, 
performance improves, as predicted by Mayer and Moreno (1998).  Researcher found that 
students presented with animation and narration outperformed those presented with 
animation and text on recall, matching, and transfer tests.  However, I believe that while 
texts can be revised to draw attention to more specific information, narrations are more 
difficult to review, especially when students are exposed to a second language. 
The use of text or aural information seems to have no effect in L1 whether the 
graphical representation is static or animated.  Mayer et al. (2005) conducted four 
experiments to study the differences between the effects of static images with printed text 
as compared to a computer-based animation with narration.  They used four experiments 
based on the topics of lighting formation, the workings of a toilet tank, the formation of 
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waves, and the braking system of a car.  Each experiment was tested by a retention test 
and a transfer test.  These four experiments showed that in four out of eight tests? results, 
static images and text were more efficient than animation with narration.  The other four 
results were inconclusive showing no benefit to any of the groups.  However, Mayer et al. 
(2005) explain these results arguing that subjects had more control over the learning 
materials in the paper-based treatment than in the computer-based one.  Also, the 
computer-based treatment lacks the cognitive processing needed to achieve apprehension 
and, therefore, they suggested the use of practice.  In a similar study, Wilson and Dwyer 
(2001) examined the correlation between an aural narration to static and dynamic 
representations using the functioning of the heart as the topic.  Results revealed no 
significant differences in relation to the visual representations.  These authors suggest 
that these findings may be a result of the type of visualization employed, i.e., dynamism 
impeded information processing.  In contrast, Lai (2000) conducted an experiment on 
abstract programming languages using three subject groups: (i) text and audio, (ii) text, 
audio, and static images, and (iii) text, audio and dynamic images.  She found that 
narration, together with animation, was more efficient than narration and static 
representations when learning abstract concepts.  Lai (2002) explains that when narration 
was used with animation, participants paid more attention to the dynamic illustration and 
also established strong connections between the concept and the illustration. 
The studies reviewed point to the effects of the type of presentation, i.e., aural, 
visual, text, etc, on the cognitive processes required for learning to occur.  Mayer et al. 
(2005) states that there are three types of processing information that can affect attention: 
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extraneous processing, intrinsic processing, and germane processing.  Extraneous 
processes are those cognitive processes used to understand the objective of the 
instruction.  Intrinsic processes are those used to attend to key material.  Finally, germane 
processes are those used to organize and map the information in relation to prior 
knowledge.  Attention is affected depending by the cognitive processes the students use 
while instruction takes place.  Consequently, the cognitive load affects the amount of 
attention students can engage in when learning new material.  Accordingly, narrated 
animation in L1 may be more beneficial to learning since it involves less cognitive 
processing as the animated images provide sufficient information.  However, students 
need to work cognitively to reach deeper learning (Mayer et al., 2005).  Nonetheless, 
practice in a learning environment would provide the germane processing necessary for 
this deeper storage of the information provided (Rieber, Boyce, & Assad, 1990). 
 
2.3.2.1.3. Cueing 
One of the main issues concerning multimedia design is the need to direct attention to the 
target information, i.e., cueing.  There is a need to calibrate and equalize the amount of 
attention in terms of cognitive processes when presenting subjects with animated and 
non-animated information. 
Mautone and Mayer (2001) investigated the effects of what the researchers call 
cueing or signaling in relation to animated visual aids.  Cueing, in this study, were 
considered as a cognitive guide to promote students? understanding of the presented 
materials.  Among those signals, Mautone and Mayer (2001) distinguished three types: 
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(a) titles and headings, (b) function and relevance indicators (e.g. thus, in summary, or 
it?s important), and (c) typographical indicators (i.e., bolding, italics, or colored text) that 
focused attention on specific words making them distinguishable from other words on the 
text.    
Mautone and Mayer (2001) conducted three experiments.  In the first experiment 
they studied the effects of cueing on paper on college students.  They found that, 
although there was no statistical difference on retention of information, signaling had an 
effect on the transfer test, i.e., when students had to apply the learned material to 
problem-solving questions.  The second experiment showed that signaling aurally had a 
significant effect on retention and transfer.  In the third experiment, researchers signaled 
the animation through coloring, arrows, and icons.  The results showed that there were no 
significant differences between signaled and non-signaled animations used with signaled 
and non-signaled narration.  Researchers present three possible explanations for this lack 
of effect: (a) weakness of treatment on signaling the animation, (b) the complexity of the 
animation making narration alone sufficient, and (c) the ability of the students to take 
better cues from text than pictures.  They also provided other explanations related to the 
participants? ability to use their own processing strategies on the presented information.   
Owens and Dwyer (2005) studied the effect of cueing strategies in animation alone.  
In their study, the researchers did not find any significant difference between the three 
treatment groups ? animation, animation with attention-directing strategies (i.e., the 
animation colored and moved to capture the viewer attention), and animation with visual-
elaborating strategies (i.e., the animation lacked information that a static representation 
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appearing in the same screen had, so participants had to refer back and forth to both 
visuals).  The researchers point out that cueing strategies did not affect learning was 
because of the powerful attraction that animation had in the materials used.  In other 
words, subjects in the study spent more time attending to the animation than working 
with the accompanying text.   
Later, Zhu and Grabowski (2006) replicated Owens and Dwyer?s (2005) experiment 
adding cueing strategies not only to the animation but also the accompanying text.  Text 
animation was introduced as pop-up text that specifically showed the most relevant 
information for each presentation.  After four different post-tests, results demonstrated 
that there was no difference between students presented with or without animation.   
However, it is important to note that these studies based on Dwyer?s study of the 
functioning of the heart (Owens & Dwyer, 2005; Zhu & Grabowski, 2006) were 
conducted in one session.  I would like to point out that the short amount of time given to 
process the large amount of information presented might have had a negative effect in 
their results.  Also, students? interest in the subject matter could have a significant 
influence on retention.   
Mayer and Moreno (2002) provide an explanation to these results under their dual-
processing model and a redundancy principle.  The dual-processing model argues that the 
working memory is split into a visual and an acoustic system.  The redundancy principle 
states that, in L1, it is more effective to present animation and narration only rather than 
animation, narration, and on screen-text.  Therefore, providing too much information in 
one system ? rather the visual or the acoustic ? may have overloading consequences.   I 
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will discuss later how this principle may not have the same effects on L2 instruction 
(Nassaji, 2004). 
 
2.3.2.2. Research with graphical representations in L2 
Animation has also been the subject of considerable interest in Second Language 
Acquisition.  Although research is not as robust in the area of static graphics versus 
animated graphics (Lin & Chen, 2006, 2007), there are several studies on the role that 
animation plays in acquiring a second language (Finkbeiner, Nicol, Greth, & Nakamura, 
2002; Kuo & Hooper, 2004; Sun & Dong, 2004).  It is generally believed that animation 
can benefit the acquisition of a second language although it effectiveness has been 
relegated to the categories of phonetics, action verbs and culture (Xiao & Jones, 1995).   
 
2.3.2.2.1. Research with Static Images 
Using visual aids in teaching and learning foreign languages has been proved to be a 
beneficial advantage.  Deno (1968) found that individuals learn better from pictures and 
words pairs than from word and word pairs when presented with similar concepts.  
Scholars such as Dolphin (1987) defend the use of visuals to promote vocabulary 
acquisition and comprehension.  Among other stimuli, still images can be used to 
reinforce vocabulary, provoke oral expression, improve aural comprehension, and even 
show cultural differences.  Also, Dolphin (1987) advocates for the use of still images 
over moving pictures since they are cheaper and one can work more extensively with 
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???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
them.  However, new trends in technology are providing new paths for inserting 
animations more efficiently into classroom materials.   
In contrast to the split-attention effect (Mayer and Moreno, 1998), and the 
redundancy principle (Moreno and Mayer, 2002), Nassaji (2004) found positive effects 
using visual graphics when combined with aural and written made-up words.  He 
presented color pictures of recognizable objects together with (a) written word only, (b) 
aural word only, and (c) mixed written and aural word.  The researcher concluded that 
subjects benefited the most from presentations that joined word and aural information 
with the visual stimuli. 
However, other studies conducted with other types of static pictorial representations 
proved to have opposite results.  Morimoto and Loewen (2007) studied the learning 
progress of Japanese high school students of English as a Second Language.  In their 
study, one group of participants was taught with Image-Schema-Based Instructing (ISBI) 
materials and the other group with Translation-Based Instruction (TBI).  Results of the 
study showed both treatments to be equally effective in all judgment posttests with the 
exception of one
3
 in which the ISBI treatment was shown to be more efficient.  Kuo and 
Hooper (2004) studied the effects of self-generated visual mnemonics in relation to 
Paivio?s (1971, 2007) DCT in students learning Chinese as an L2. Self-generated visual 
mnemonics used in this experiment are memory aids created by the student, e.g. the 
rhyme of two words or linking an image and a word, that relate common features 
between a target word and a picture.  The researchers found out that learning vocabulary 
?
3
?This was an acceptability judgment test in which the participant had to read thirty sentences containing 
the target word and judge if they were semantically appropriate or not.?
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using self-generated cognitive strategies, such as creating links between the word and the 
image, is more effective than presenting the student with given mnemonics.  It was also 
interesting that these students used mnemonics from their own country.  For example, to 
learn the symbols for door, they used the mnemonic of western doors, which were closely 
related in form.  Hence, it is important to first ascertain whether or not the graphical 
representations used in relation to the target culture is meaningful to the students taught.  
Second, materials must offer cognitive relations within coded information so information 
is learned. 
 
2.3.2.2.2. The Use of Advance Organizers in Video and Animation 
We should remember that video materials supporting specific course content were the 
first type of animation implemented into the L2 classroom.  Kauffman (1996) points out 
the importance of video contextualization.  He argues that just as students receive 
introductory information before they travel to a foreign country, the same must be done 
when presenting them with cultural material.  Herron (1994) and Herron, York, Cole, & 
Linden (1998) conducted experiments on the introduction to video through advance 
organizers (i.e., introductory information).  They found that their use leads to a better 
understanding of the visual materials showed.  In summary, it has been demonstrated that 
when using any sort of animated visuals, it is better to use introductory information that 
prepare learners to the information that is going to be presented. 
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???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Due to the resemblance between video and animation, as pointed out by Xiao and 
Jones (1995)
4
, it is very difficult to establish the boundaries that separate video with these 
representations.  This is another reason why the use of advance organizers in animation is 
advantageous.  Sun and Dong (2004) studied vocabulary learning of English as a Second 
Language in Chinese children.  Content was based on an animation-based context and the 
results demonstrated that animation was less effective in learning L2 vocabulary when 
there was no learning support.  These results have two important implications for 
vocabulary teaching.  The first one is that before presenting animated information, the 
students should be properly informed about what they are going to see in the animation.  
The second is that the teacher is still needed in the learning environment to prepare the 
students before showing the visual representation
5
.   
 
2.3.2.2.3. Research on Animation 
There is less research on the application of animation in L2 than in L1 in terms of the 
effects of animation in comparison to static visual stimuli.  Lin and Chen (2007) postulate 
that although the use of animated materials has been practically researched n second 
language acquisition, ?few studies have compared the learning effects of static and 
dynamic visuals, as well as strategies embedded to foster learning from animation in a 
foreign language context? (p.  86).  They only identify one study by Xiao and Jones 
(1995) which suggests that animation is recommended to be used in L2 to teach 
phonetics, action verbs, and culture. 
?
4
 See page 9 for differences between how static and animated visuals are built. 
5
?See also Mayer at al.  (2005).?
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Very few studies on animation and its effects on L2 can be found and few have been 
able to identify principles for the design of foreign language materials.  Lin and Chen 
(2006, 2007) investigated the use of animation and advance organizers in reading 
authentic English as Foreign Language (EFL) texts.  Results from their experiment show 
that there was no difference in posttests? performance between the group that used 
animation and the no animation group.  However, advance organizers proved to have a 
significant effect on language learning between the animation and no animation groups. 
It is important to note that the study conducted by Lin and Chen (2007) in L2 was a 
modified version of that conducted in L1 by Wilson and Dwyer (2001), Owens and 
Dwyer (2005), and Zhu and Grabowski (2006) on the functioning of the heart.  
Modifications consisted of time and situational training.  The researchers divided the 
study into two days.  They provided simplified texts and word banks to students during 
the first day based on considerations of difficulty of content material difficulty.  The 
second day was used to conduct the study.  This raises some concerns about the results.  
The researchers stated that there were limitations concerning time constraints, i.e., 
students presented with animation and question advance organizers had more exposure to 
the materials than those presented with static representations. 
Verhallen, Bus, and Jong (2006) also compared the use of animated features in 
storytelling.  They exposed five-year-old, at risk, immigrant children to a storybook with 
dynamic and static visuals.  After several encounters with this material, both groups 
benefited learning the target language.  However, those subjects in the animated graphic 
groups benefited the most.  This experiment seems to support to two aspects considered 
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in the present study.  First, the number of encounters has a positive effect on learning.  
Second, under certain conditions, animation, compared to static graphics, is a more 
powerful tool to SLA.   
 
2.3.2.2.4. Other Uses of Animation in L2 Research 
Other L2 studies have investigated the influence of annotations and feedback and 
animation (Hew & Ohki, 2004), classroom roles (Sun & Dong, 2004), the implications of 
using self-generated or given mnemonics (Kuo & Hooper, 2004), and the 
conceptualization of verbs (Finkbeiner et al., 2002) 
Hew and Ohki (2004) studied the use of animation as annotations and feedback on 
the acquisition of Japanese sounds by Malaysian students.  Annotations were presented as 
symbols designed to help the students to distinguish low pitch, high pitch, voiceless, 
voiced and explosive sounds, short and long vowels, and single and geminate consonants.  
Feedback was presented by showing a native speaker demonstration of the sounds in 
comparison to the student production.  Results of their study showed that those students 
that received animated instruction performed better than students that only received audio 
and text.   
Consistent with the cultural selection of animated stimuli and its relation to language, 
Finkbeiner et al. (2002) studied the conceptualization of an animation showing manner 
(e.g. a ball rotating in place) and motion (e.g. a ball moving towards a target) verbs in 
English, Spanish, and Japanese students.  Results showed that English speakers pointed 
to the animation showing manner more than Spanish and Japanese did.  Participants may 
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have used of their native languages to better remember and process the visual 
information.  In other words, they related the visual and linguistic information as stated 
by the DCT (Paivio, 1971). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER THREE 
METHODOLOGY 
 
3.1. Data Collection 
Three sets of data were collected through a short-term and a long-term posttest, 
administered to twenty-two sections of second semester of the first year Spanish at 
Auburn University.  All procedures were applied uniformly to each group, with the 
exception of varying instructors.  Instructors formally informed the participants that an 
study was going to be conducted in the class and it would not affect their grades.  Data 
were collected through class participation and from activities originally planned as part of 
the class.  The study was of no cost for the participants, and they did not receive any 
monetary incentive for their participation.   
Responses were collected from the different class sections under the participants? 
names in order to facilitate data gathering.  However, the database was organized under 
two digit numerical code to maintain anonymity of the participants.  Data were stored in 
the researcher?s office and only he had access to the materials.  The researcher?s advisor 
also had temporary access to the data for guidance purposes. 
 
 
 
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3.1.1. Setting 
The study was conducted in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures at 
Auburn University, Alabama during spring semester 2008 with the permission of the 
Department Chairperson and the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human 
Subjects Research (IRB).  This place was selected by the researcher since he is a graduate 
student in Auburn and works as a Spanish graduate teaching assistant.    
All twenty-two sections in the second semester of beginner Spanish were included in 
the study.  Instructors involved in the study had at least two semesters of teaching 
experience at the university level.  The study was conducted over three fifty minutes class 
periods as part of the class.  In addition, participants completed lab work outside the 
classroom with multimedia instructional materials online within the Quia platform.  
However, this component was not part of the study but a regular part of the Spanish first 
year course.   
 
3.1.2. Subjects 
Participants were English-speaking, undergraduate students enrolled in a required second 
semester Elementary Spanish class (N=511).  Only those participants that attended all 
classes pertaining to the study were included (N=199).  Furthermore, the participants 
were given the choice to sign a consent form to authorize the use of the data in the 
analysis of the study.  Out of a total of 199 participants, those who signed the consent 
form were included in the study (N=166).  Finally, the researcher excluded the 
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participants that were part of his own sections in order to avoid any biases.  Hence, the 
total number of participants included in the study after filtering all subjects was N=149. 
Course sections were divided into four different treatment conditions: static visual 
and no cueing (Control Group), static visual and cueing (Group A), animation and no 
cueing (Group B), and animation and cueing (Group C)
6
.   
Originally, treatment assignment in each of the four treatment groups was randomly 
chosen to maintain an initial equal number of subjects in each group.  However, after the 
criteria for subject selection were applied, the number of participants in each group was 
not identical.  Control Group had a total number of thirty-seven participants; Group A 
had thirty-eight participants; Group B had twenty-nine participants; and Group C had 
forty-five participants. 
A total of ten instructors were responsible for teaching the twenty-two sections of 
elementary Spanish.  Six of the teachers were instructors in the department and four were 
experienced teaching assistants.  Six of the instructors were native speakers of Spanish 
and four were English speakers with near-native proficiency in Spanish.  All teachers 
belonged to the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures at Auburn University, 
were trained in the communicative method, and had experience with Computer Assisted 
Language Learning (CALL) in the classroom. 
 
 
 
 
?
6
 See next section for conditions. 
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3.1.3. The Conditions 
Two conditions were used in the present study: animation versus static pictures and 
cueing versus absence of cueing.  These two conditions were crossed to study the 
implications that they had with each other. 
 
3.1.3.1. Animated versus Static pictures 
In order to study the implications of movement in the acquisition of Spanish vocabulary, 
participants were presented with both animated and static images.  The goal of the 
researcher was to identify the effect of movement presented as visual stimuli in the 
Spanish acquisition.  Research regarding the use of animation has mainly been conducted 
in L1 and results have been inconclusive.  By adding this condition, this study might shed 
some light on the use of animated and static images in the field of Spanish L2 vocabulary 
acquisition. 
 
3.1.3.2. Use of Cueing versus Absence of Cueing 
A second condition used in the study was the use of cueing strategies for the clarification 
of the target Spanish vocabulary taught.  Cueing consisted on adding a red flashing 
highlighted color around the target word.   It has been shown that pictures are better 
retained than words (Kobayashi, 1986).  Therefore, when presenting L2 Spanish 
vocabulary in the classroom accompanied by visual stimuli, instructors must be careful 
about which is the relevant information we want the students to acquire.  For example, in 
the acquisition of vocabulary the word itself must be the target with the visual stimuli 
only serving as a support to understand the real representation of the word introduced.   
 
3.2. The Materials 
3.2.1. Vocabulary 
The initial target words for the study were selected from the vocabulary list of the Dos 
Mundos: Comunicaci?n y Comunidad textbook (Terrell, Andrade, Egasse, & Mu?oz, 
2006) and all belong to the noun category since they were more easily conceptualized 
through pictures.  Some additional words not included in the book wordlist were also 
added to supplement the available nouns of the chapter. 
Due to the importance of the relation between words and images in this study, words 
were selected according to the representational value of the pictures illustrating the 
words.  From a set of thirty-nine initial words, only seven ? enfermera ?nurse,? cirujano 
?surgeon,?, veneno ?poison,?, embarazada ?pregnant woman,?, silla de ruedas 
?wheelchair,?, fonendo ?sthetoscope,? and pastilla ?pill? ? were finally selected on the 
basis of their clarity and representational value.   
 
 
 Static pretest Dynamic pretest 
Pastilla 94.4% 97.8% 
Embarazada 83.3% 91.3% 
Silla de ruedas 97.2% 97.8% 
Fonendo 83.3% 82.6% 
Veneno 86.1% 93.4% 
Cirujano 86.1% 91.3% 
Enfermera 97.2% 93.5% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 1. Total percentage of image-word relation in the pilot study. 
 
 
 
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In order to know which set of words were easier to identify by the participants, a pilot 
study was conducted in four sections of the first semester of elementary Spanish level at 
Auburn University.  Participants in this test were shown a set of thirty-nine pictures.  
After each picture, they were asked to write in English on a piece of paper what they 
thought the visual on the screen represented.  Thirty-six participants were tested with 
static visual stimuli and forty-six with animated visual stimuli.  The images whose 
answers matched both the native language and the correspondent translation in Spanish 
were selected.  This was done to assure the validity of the images used, i.e., the selected 
images were interpreted by the students as representation of the vocabulary words to be 
used in the study. 
 
3.2.2. Animation 
Animated visual stimuli were initially obtained from the website 
www.animationfactory.com and then were modified by the researcher with Macromedia 
Flash 8 to assure the uniformity of their characteristics.  For example, the image 
representing the surgeon had longer pauses in its movement than the image representing 
the nurse.  Therefore, the researcher decreased the time span of the pauses in the surgeon 
image.  The movement shown consisted of a set of frames that played continuously to 
give a sense of movement.  The animations were short movie clips showing an item 
conceptualizing a Spanish vocabulary word.  Each image was continuously repeated 
while the target vocabulary was presented.  Moreover, static pictures were obtained from 
the corresponding animated picture by selecting a single-framed image that was as 
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representative as the animated picture.  The representativeness of each pair of images, 
i.e., static and animated, was tested in the pretest.   
However, to prevent participants from only focusing on the target animations and 
vocabulary presented in the instruction period, pictures and words were also included in 
the lesson plan. 
 
3.2.3. Cueing 
All target words were cued the exact number of times during the study.  The researcher 
used two techniques for cueing the words of the study.  This was done with two different 
purposes.  First, all words linked to a visual stimuli were bolded and marked in dark red 
in order to indicate to individual instructors which words were linked to images.  When 
the instructors clicked on those words, the corresponding image appeared in the lower 
part of the screen.  Also, these bolded words had the goal of directing attention purpose.  
In other words, bolded words might have an indirect effect of indicating which words 
were related to the topic of study.   
Secondly, only the seven target words studied were cued in the materials in 
specifically targeted sections of the instruction.  When the participants were presented 
with the target Spanish vocabulary words and their visual stimuli in the vocabulary 
section, words were cued with red flashing around the word in the cued condition groups.  
This flashing was repeated three times until it disappeared and the word and image 
remained until the end of its presentation.  For those groups under the no-cueing 
condition, no flashing appeared around the target vocabulary word in the presentation. 
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3.2.4. Lesson Plan 
To maintain consistency of materials used by instructors, the researcher created a set of 
computer-based instructional materials with modifications of the two existing conditions.  
These materials were created with Macromedia Flash 8 and consisted of an upper menu 
with four lessons, each containing the materials and activities used in class each day of 
instruction.  Each lesson had an introduction section, a vocabulary section, and a set of 
three to four practice activities.  In addition, each lesson included extra activities that did 
not contain the target vocabulary words to assure that instructors had enough materials 
for the entire class period.  Each activity was divided into presentation, activity, and 
feedback-reinforcement. 
The materials were presented in class as part of instruction with a computer and a 
projector.  All students in class had visual access through a white screen in the front part 
of the class where the lessons were projected.  Participants in the study could ask their 
instructor to navigate through the materials, moving forward and backwards if they had 
questions or needed to clarify content. 
 
3.3. Procedures 
3.3.1. Pre-Questionnaire 
Stated by Mayer et al. (2005), prior knowledge of the contents of study is crucial for 
learning.  The first step in the study was to measure how many of the target words the 
students knew.  Instructors gave participants the first questionnaire in the form of a test in 
which they had to write the English translation of the Spanish word given.  The test 
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contained a total of twenty-one words related to the topic of health.  Included in the list, 
there were some words related to previous course materials.  This questionnaire-test was 
used to measure previous knowledge on the target vocabulary. 
 
3.3.2. Day One 
The first day of instruction included the following materials: introduction to the topic, 
vocabulary, four activities, and additional activities to supplement the class.  None of the 
materials used during the first day of instruction contained any of the target words of the 
study.  Rather, this first section was to familiarize the instructors and students with the 
format of the new materials.  However, students were exposed dynamism through 
previous class activities. 
The introduction part of the lesson consisted of a review of previous vocabulary 
words learned in the first semester of instruction, e.g. body parts.  All participants were 
expected to know this vocabulary.  A set of five animated and static images were used to 
present the vocabulary and participants had to tell the instructor which parts of the body 
they could relate to the pictures. 
The vocabulary section introduced static images representing new vocabulary on the 
parts of the human body.  These images and the vocabulary were taken from the Dos 
Mundos: Comunicaci?n y Comunidad textbook (Terrell et al., 2006).  The students could 
refer to the book and tell the instructor which parts of the body they could identify.  
When the participants produced the vocabulary words, the instructor clicked in the 
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corresponding part of the body and the written word appeared in a box next to the picture.  
This vocabulary section consisted on five images and forty-five words in Spanish. 
Activity one was used to link the parts of the body with an action in which those 
parts were involved.  First, the instructors presented the parts of the body by clicking on 
them, e.g. boca ?mouth,? ojos ?eyes,? and piernas ?legs,? and showing the correspondent 
static or dynamic image.  Then, the students were asked to work in groups and link the 
parts of the body with their corresponding action, e.g. los ojos se usan para mirar ?eyes 
are used to look?.  Finally, participants gave the correct answer to the instructor and the 
instructor dragged and linked the vocabulary word to the corresponding verb. 
Activity Two covered the skills of recognition and spelling.  A definition of a 
vocabulary word was first introduced along with three images, static or dynamic, to 
choose from.  The definition was read and participants were asked to select an image and 
spell the vocabulary word related to it.  Eight sets were presented in this activity. 
Activity Three was divided in two parts.  The first part was an introduction to the 
verb haber, ?there is/there are,? in Spanish with corresponding examples of its use.  After 
the presentation, participants were asked to form groups and complete a text with the 
corresponding form of the verb haber.  Four words in the text were linked to a 
corresponding image that the instructor showed when the word was introduced. 
Activity Four practiced the reading comprehension skill.  The instructor introduced a 
set of four short paragraphs and the participants were asked to read them.  Some words 
were linked to corresponding images and the instructor showed them when the word was 
produced.  After reading the short paragraphs, the entire text appeared together with a set 
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of five questions.  In order to measure reading comprehension, participants were 
encouraged to answer. 
Additional activities consisted in the presentation of sayings in Spanish with the 
corresponding English translation and an interview activity in which the students had to 
ask their partners given questions showed in the screen.  However, none of the four 
groups of the study covered this section of the lesson given time concerns 
 
3.3.3. Day Two 
The second day of instruction was conducted two days after the first lesson.  This was the 
first time the participants were presented the target words of the study.  It included an 
introductory section, a vocabulary presentation, three practice activities, and additional 
activities.  In addition, instructors assigned homework for the following day. 
The introduction to the second lesson reviewed vocabulary learned in the previous 
lesson consisting of nine words.  Like in the first lesson, an animated or static image was 
introduced and the participants had to tell the instructor the word linked to the image 
given. 
The vocabulary was introduced in two different parts.  In the first part, the 
participants were asked to listen to an audio recording and look at the screen.  Before 
playing the audio, they received instructions as an advance organizer.  While the audio 
played, target words were presented along with the corresponding image.  Images were 
presented in either animated or static forms and words accompanying the images were 
cued or not depending on the treatment of the study.  All seven target words of the study 
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were presented in this section.  In the second part of the presentation, the audio script was 
projected after listening to the audio.  Additionally, words were linked to a corresponding 
static or dynamic image that appeared in a content box under the text.  Finally, 
participants were asked a set of six questions to measure their understanding of the 
materials presented and to produce the target vocabulary of the study. 
After presenting the vocabulary, subjects worked with activities.  The first activity 
developed the speaking skill.  Students were given four situations and they had to 
complete the sentence with different options.  Words were linked to corresponding 
dynamic or static images in order to facilitate understanding and reviewing of the 
material.  Next, participants were asked to change roles and ask their instructors what 
they did in certain circumstances. 
The second activity was a role play activity.  Instructors asked the participants to 
work in pairs, one being a doctor and the other the patient.  The patient reported a 
symptom to the doctor and the doctor gave a recommendation to the patient.  Both the 
situation and the answers were given although the participants playing doctor had the 
option of open-ended answers.  After completion, the instructor corrected the activity 
with the answers of the participants.  Then, participants changed roles and another five 
situations were presented. 
Activity three also was divided in two parts: a grammar presentation and a practical 
activity based on the grammar contents and vocabulary.  The first part presented the use 
of the Spanish reflexive verbs to express ?to become? and ?to get? ? volverse, hacerse, 
and ponerse plus an adjective or noun to express changes in state.  After the quick 
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grammar presentation, the students were asked to work in groups and interview each 
other with a set of five questions provided by the instructor.  These questions included 
target words of the study as well as non-target words.  After talking to each other, the 
instructor asked participants the questions they have previously practiced. 
An additional activity was included.  It consisted on a written activity in which the 
participants had to write sentences using a set of six images given.  Each image was 
linked to a word related to the chapter.  However, due to time constraints, none of the 
groups covered this activity. 
Finally, participants were given homework due the following day of instruction in 
which they had to write a paragraph on a topic related to the content of the study. 
 
3.3.4. Day Three 
During the third day of instruction, the lesson plan was structured as follows: an 
introduction, vocabulary, a set of three practice activities, and additional activities. 
The introduction section of the third lesson consisted on a review of the material 
studied until that moment.  As in other reviews, the participants were exposed to a set of 
seven animated or static images related to the vocabulary of the chapter studied and they 
had to tell the instructor what they saw in the images.  However, none of them belonged 
to the target vocabulary of the study.  A box next to the image showed the word related 
although the participants were encouraged to answer other possible words. 
Vocabulary was introduced as in day two.  Participants listened to an audio recording 
while they were shown an image and a word.  Animated and static images were crossed 
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with cued and non-cued words.  Only two target words were presented in this first part of 
this section ? enfermera ?nurse,? and cirujano ?surgeon?.  After the audio presentation 
with their corresponding pictures and words, participants listened a second time to the 
audio with the audio script projected.  Two other target words were bolded in red and 
linked to the corresponding animated or static image.  Finally, a third part in the 
vocabulary section presented questions that the participants used to speak with their 
partners.  After participants asked the questions to each other, the instructor interacted 
with them to reproduce what they practiced with their partners. 
The practice section started with a first vocabulary activity.  The participants were 
exposed to seven blurry animated or static images that progressively became clearer.  The 
objective of the activity was to make the participants guess what the image showed 
before the image became completely clear.  Vocabulary production was free until the 
word was produced.  Every time a student was willing to guess what the image 
represented, the instructor stopped its progression towards clarity. 
The second practice activity presented three verbs that introduce the present tense of 
the subjunctive mood and used indirect objects before the verb (aconsejar ?to advice,? 
decir ?to say,? pedir ?to ask for,? recomendar ?to recomend?).  After a brief introduction, 
participants had to practice the new structure with a practice activity.  The activity 
presented six sentences with a command that the participants had to transform into a 
subjunctive structure.  Two target words in the study were cued in this activity (veneno 
?poison? and silla de ruedas ?wheelchair?). 
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Next, a third activity introduced the practice of the speaking skill.  It was based on a 
signature activity, i.e., an activity that involved participants in looking for classmates who 
had performed any of the given statements.  They asked their classmates and if they 
received a positive answer, they wrote the name of the other participant.  Later, the 
instructor asked the participants who they talked to and what other extra information they 
can produce.   
Finally, additional activities consisted of a review of what was studied in previous 
lessons in the chapter, a vocabulary review, and a written activity.  In the first part, 
participants told the instructor what vocabulary and grammar was covered in the chapter.  
In the second part, in the vocabulary review, instructors showed ten animated and static 
images and the participants again had to produce what they saw.  Finally, six animated or 
static images were shown and participants wrote a small story including the vocabulary 
related to those images.  Due to time constrains, none of these activities were carried out. 
 
3.3.5. Day Four and Short-term Posttest 
The last day of instruction was used to conduct the short-term posttest.  The tests were 
covered the materials used in the four days of instruction.  The whole lesson contained an 
introduction to the day, a recall test, a grammar and vocabulary presentation, three 
practice activities.  One of the practice activities included the recognition test.  Finally, 
additional activity to make sure instructors had enough materials to fill the entire class 
period. 
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The lesson started with a short introduction on the guidelines for the composition due 
the next day of class.  Immediately, students were given a recall test consisting of ten 
animated or static images and were asked to write the words related to them according to 
previous instruction.  They were given enough time until all participants were finished. 
Next, class continued with a grammar and vocabulary presentation.  No materials 
related to the study were presented in this section but they were introduced to create unity 
along the whole lesson plan and period of instruction.   
The first practice activity was an interview.  Participants were presented four 
questions to ask to their partners.  The activity contained four bolded words linked to 
animated or static images that appeared in a square after clicking on the word.  None of 
these words were target words for the study.  Once participants finished talking to each 
other, instructors asked them what they discussed with their partners and then clarified 
any questions. 
The second activity was used as a second short-term posttest intended to measure 
recognition.  A fill-in the blank test was presented on the screen.  The instructor read the 
text until reaching a blank.  Then, when the instructor clicked on the blank, an image and 
three possible words showed.  Participants were then prompted to recognize the correct 
word by selecting the correct answer in a multiple choice format.  The posttest was 
comprised of a set of thirteen questions.  After the posttest was completed, instructors 
collected the responses and gave them to the researcher. 
Next, a listening activity was conducted.  Participants listened to audio recording and 
organized a set of images in chronological order in relation to the audio recording.  Also, 
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another activity was provided to fill the time of the class if needed; however, none of the 
instructors used it in their teaching.  It consisted of given situations that participants had 
to use to write a short paragraph according to the given situations.  However, due to time 
constraints, none of the instructors used the second written activity. 
 
3.3.6. Long-term Posttest 
Thirty-six days after the short-term posttest, participants completed another test to assess 
long-term recall and recognition.  They were asked to complete two modified tests 
similar to those given in the short-term one. 
The first test was a recall test.  Participants were presented with ten images, animated 
or static depending on the group, and then they were asked to write on a paper the word 
related to the images.  Seven of the ten images were target words on the study. 
Immediately after the first test, instructors presented a second test to measure 
recognition with the same format as the short-term posttest.  The activity contained a fill-
in the blank paragraph read aloud by the instructor.  Before each blank, the instructor 
stopped and introduced an image with three possible multiple choice answers.  Students 
were asked to select A, B, or C according to the text and image shown. 
 
 
 
 
 
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3.4. Data Analysis 
3.4.1. Variables 
Four variables can be identified in the study concerning the instructors, the classes where 
instruction occurred, the participants? individual learning styles, and their varying levels 
of motivation. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
RESULTS 
 
4.1. Dynamism in a Short-Term Period 
The researcher conducted two short-term posttests in order to measure participants? 
performance.  They consisted of recall and recognition posttests.  In the recall posttest, 
participants were presented a total of ten dynamic or static images, both target and not 
target words, and they had to write the vocabulary word that referred to the picture.  The 
recognition posttest presented a short paragraph in a fill-in-the-blanks format.  Each 
blank introduced a static or dynamic image depending on the group condition and three 
words in a multiple choice format.  Both recall and recognition short-term posttests were 
conducted the last day of instruction. 
The recall short-term posttest was analyzed by the researcher in two different ways 
to measure both the influence of dynamism and its effectiveness in performance.  On the 
one hand, the results on influence were obtained by calculating the percentages on the 
words produced exactly or similarly to the target word.  However, if the word similar to 
the target word was another existing word in English or Spanish, the word was 
considered wrong, i.e., if they produced enferma, ?sick,? for enfermera, ?nurse,? the first 
was graded wrong.  As Nation (1990, 2001) states, knowing a word is not only a matter 
of knowing the form.  Therefore, the researcher estimates that words were not expected to
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be perfectly produced and that this analysis might provide a general idea on the influence 
of visual stimuli on the vocabulary learning process. 
The criteria used to evaluate if a produced word was similar are the following: 
i. A vowel or consonant was missing in the written word, e.g. embrazada for 
embarazada, ?pregnant woman.? 
ii. More than 50% of the letters are present in the word although in an incorrect 
order, e.g. cirjeon for cirujano ?surgeon.? 
iii. All words of a compound noun were right except for one that started with the 
same letter than the target word, e.g. silla de ruella for silla de ruedas, 
?wheelchair.? 
 
On the other hand, performance was analyzed by counting as correct only those 
words that were produced target-like.  All other words that were similar were rejected as 
incorrect.  The researcher considers that this analysis would show the results of how 
dynamic and static images can affect vocabulary acquisition. 
Dynamic and static images in the recall posttest were first analyzed in terms of the 
influence of images in vocabulary acquisition.  The comparison of the means of the 
groups treated with dynamic or static images showed that participants exposed to 
dynamic material performed better than those presented with static material 
(means=40.05% and 33.11% respectively).  To measure if this difference was significant, 
the researcher used a univariate analysis of variance with a significance at p=.05. Results 
showed that there was no statistical significant differences between groups treated with 
dynamic or static images (p=.085). 
Participants? performance when producing the precise target word was also 
analyzed.  The comparison of the means of both dynamic and static groups revealed that 
the dynamic groups performed better than the groups presented with static images.  
However, both dynamic and static percentages were lower than expected (means=25.81% 
and 19.23% respectively).  The researcher analyzed the statistical significance of 
dynamism in this posttest with a univariate analysis of variance with significance at a 
p=.05. In this analysis, dynamism was statistically significant to provide better results 
than static images (p=.05). 
 
Condition Means in short-term posttests 
 Recall 
(influence) 
Recall 
(precision) 
Recognition 
 
   
Dynamic 40.05% 25.81% 93.43% 
Static 33.11% 19.23% 95.61% 
Table 2. Dynamic and static means in short-term period 
 
 
 
 
In the short-term recognition posttest, the mean for each condition shows that the 
groups that used dynamic images in the class materials performed slightly worst 
(mean=93.4%) than the groups with static images (mean=95.61%).  With the purpose of 
finding the statistical significance of these results, a univariate analysis of variance was 
conducted with a significance at p=.05. Results showed that there was no difference 
between the use of dynamic and static images between groups (p=.151).  Both groups 
using dynamic and static images performed better in the recognition immediate posttest 
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than in the recall posttest.  This is not surprising as the test format used for recognition 
provided all the needed information to participants, i.e., the picture, the possible words, 
and the context. 
 
4.2. Dynamism in a Long-Term Period 
In order to measure the influence of dynamic and static images in the acquisition of 
vocabulary in a long-term period, the researcher used the same test format of test as in the 
short-term period, i.e., a recall and recognition posttests.  The recall long-term test was 
exactly the same than the short-term.  A set of ten dynamic or static images containing 
the target words were presented and the participants had to write down the word 
associated to the images.  In the case, the recognition long-term posttest presented a short 
paragraph with a fill-in-the-blanks format where each blank presented a dynamic or static 
image with three possible words in a multiple choice format.  Participants had to mark 
their answers in a piece of paper that was collected by their instructor.  Both long-term 
posttests were conducted thirty-six days after instruction. 
As in the short-term posttest, the recall test was analyzed in two different ways to 
differentiate between the influence of dynamism and its effect on performance. 
 
Condition Means in long-term posttests 
 Recall 
(influence) 
Recall 
(precision) 
Recognition 
 
   
Dynamic 40.35% 25.99% 95.03% 
Static 47.93% 36.85% 91.38% 
Table 3. Dynamic and static means in long-term period 
 
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In the long-term recall posttest that measured the influence of visuals in vocabulary 
acquisition, the group presented with static images performed better (mean=47.93%) than 
the dynamic group (mean=40.35%).  These results are opposed to those found in the 
same test in the short-term period.  Also, both groups performed higher than in the post-
test.  This difference in the performance might have been caused by the effect of an exam 
that took placed in between both short-term and long-term posttests.  The repercussion of 
this exam on the results will be discussed in the next section.  Statistical significance was 
measured with a univariate analysis of variance with a significance set at p=.05. The 
researcher again found no significant difference between groups exposed to dynamic or 
static images in this test (p=.116). 
The long-term recall posttest that measured precise production resulted in better 
performance of the groups presented static images than the groups presented with 
dynamic images.  The dynamic group had a mean = 25.99% and the static group had a 
mean = 36.85%.  A univariate analysis of variance was used to measure the statistical 
significance of the findings set at p=.05. Results in this test show a significant difference 
in both groups with the outperformance of the static group over the dynamic group 
(p=.010). 
Finally, means in the long-term recognition posttest revealed that both dynamic 
images (mean=95.03%) and static images (mean=91.38%) had a positive effect on the 
recognition of the vocabulary, dynamic visuals yielding slightly superior results.  A 
univariate analysis of variance was used to examine the statistical significance of the 
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results set at p=.05. Results showed that there was no significant difference between 
dynamic and static images (p=.93). 
 
4.3. Cueing in Short-Term Period 
The effects of cueing when accompanying dynamic or static images in the recognition 
and recall of L2 Spanish vocabulary were also measured through posttests conducted at 
the end of instruction.  On the one hand, the recall posttest showed a total of ten dynamic 
or static pictures containing the target words for the study.  Participants had to write 
down in a piece of paper the vocabulary word related to each of those pictures.  On the 
other hand, the recognition short-term posttest introduces a short paragraph in a fill in the 
blank format.  Each blank showed a dynamic or static picture and a set of three words in 
a multiple choice format.  Participants had to choose the most appropriate word for each 
of the blanks. 
 Two analyses were applied to the short-term recall posttest in order to measure the 
influence and effectiveness of cueing on vocabulary acquisition.  In order to measure the 
influence of cueing, the researcher analyzed all words that were exactly or similarly 
written to the original word in Spanish.  With the intention of measuring production, the 
researcher only analyzed those words that were produced exactly as the original in 
Spanish. 
 The means in the short-term recall posttest to measure the influence of the presence 
or absence of cueing with dynamic or static images in the acquisition of Spanish L2 
vocabulary show that the presence of cueing (mean=37.03%) helped the participants to 
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perform slightly better than those groups presented with no cueing (mean=36.13%).  In 
order to know the significant differences of this condition, the researcher conducted a 
univariate analysis of variance with a significance set at p=.05. Results showed that there 
is no significant difference between the presence and absence of cueing (p=.822).   
 The precise production of words by each group exposed to cueing or absence of 
cueing with dynamic or static images is illustrated by their means.  The analysis shows 
that the absence of cueing (mean=24.48%) was more effective on exact recall than 
the54presence of cueing (mean=20.56%).  This means that cueing affected negatively the 
performance of the participants in writing the word.  The significance between means 
was measured with a univariate analysis of variance with the significance set at p=.05. 
Results show no significant differences between the presence and absence of cueing in 
this test (p=.242). 
 
Condition Means in short-term posttests 
 Recall 
(influence) 
Recall 
(precision) 
Recognition 
 
   
Cueing 37.03% 24.48% 95.73% 
No cueing 36.13% 20.56% 93.30% 
Table 4. Cueing and absence of cueing means in short-term period 
 
 Finally, means in the recognition posttest show that groups presented with cueing 
benefited more (mean=95.73%) than those presented with no cueing (mean=93.30%) in 
this test.  A univariate analysis of variance with significance at p=.05 showed that there is 
no significant differences in the groups with or without cueing (p=.109). 
 
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4.4. Cueing in Long-Term Period 
The long-term effect of the presence or absence of cueing in the acquisition of Spanish 
L2 vocabulary was also evaluated with recall and recognition posttests.  Participants were 
presented with ten dynamic or static images in the recall posttest.  Also, they were 
exposed to a fill-in-the-blanks format short text to measure recognition, as previously 
explained.  Also, the long-term recall posttest was analyzed in two different ways to 
measure influence and performance. 
 The influence of cueing in the recognition of Spanish L2 vocabulary was measured 
first with a recall test.  The comparison of means on cueing (mean=44.25%) or absence 
of cueing (mean=44.03%) show that there was no difference between the presence and 
absence of cueing.  A univariate analysis of variance was conducted to find the 
significant difference between the presence and absence of cueing.  Statistical 
significance was set at p=.05. Results show that there is no significant difference in the 
use or absence of cueing in this test (p=.96) 
 
Condition Means in long-term posttests 
 Recall 
(influence) 
Recall 
(precision) 
Recognition 
 
   
Cueing 44.03% 32.46% 93.87% 
No cueing 44.25% 30.38% 92.53% 
Table 5. Cueing and absence of cueing means in long-term period 
 
 Exact production of target vocabulary presented with and without cueing was also 
measured with the data collected with the recall test.  The means show that the groups 
that used cueing (mean=32.46%) performed slightly better than those groups that did not 
use cueing (mean=30.38%).  The researcher used a univariate analysis of variance to 
analyze the statistical significance set at p=.05. Results proved that there was no 
difference on the presence or absence of cueing in this test (p=.617). 
 The presence or absence of cueing was also measured in the long-term recognition 
posttest.  The means in groups under those two conditions show that groups using cueing 
performed slightly better (mean=93.87%) than those with no cueing (mean=92.53%).  
The researcher used a univariate analysis of variance to measure the statistical 
significance set at p=0.50.  Results showed that no significant difference was given to 
those groups using cueing in comparison with those that did not use it (p=.535). 
 
  
 SHORT-TERM 
 
LONG-TERM 
Dynamism
 
Cueing Dynamism Cueing 
Recall influence None None None None?
Recall production Pro-dynamic None? Pro-static None?
Recognition None None? None None?
Table 6. Significance of Post-tests for Dynamic and Cueing Conditions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
DISCUSSION 
 
5.1. The Conclusions 
Findings of the research show inconclusive results on the use of dynamic and static 
representations and the presence or absence of cueing in Computer Based Instructional 
materials in the classroom.  These results seem to agree with previous research on 
dynamism showing no positive effects of dynamic images over static images.  
Nonetheless, the researcher is aware of the existence of some influential variables that 
might have affected the results of the study.  In the following section, I am going to 
discuss the main outcomes of the experiment, present its weak and strong points, and 
consider how external variables might have modified the results. 
 
5.1.1. The Results 
Results found in the present study can be categorized as inconclusive.  First, in one of the 
six analyses conducted, animation proved to be statistically significant on the 
participants? production, i.e., when measuring the precise production in short-term recall 
of the word.  Surprisingly for the researcher, the same analysis showed opposite results in 
the long-term period, i.e., groups under the static visual condition performed better than 
the dynamic groups.  The researcher expected a decrease on the scores between both the 
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long-term and the short-term posttest due to time lapse between tests.  However, the 
results were completely opposite, i.e., participants? performance improved over time and 
a short-term and a long-term period.  Finally, the other four analyses show no difference 
between the use of animation and static images. 
 In addition, the researcher has found in this study that cueing, when presented in 
visual stimuli in the form of dynamic and static images, do not have an effect in the recall 
or recognition of Spanish L2 vocabulary. 
The initial goal of the researcher was to compare the effect of dynamism and cueing 
in a short term and a long-term period.  However, as I will discuss in section 5.1.4, results 
were influenced by an exam conducted in between both short and long-term treatments.  
This fact affected the results in such a way that a comparison between the short-term and 
long-term results was not reliable.  For that reason, results in chapter four have been 
presented individually for both terms. 
 Xiao and Jones (1995) stated that the three main fields of study in L2 where 
dynamism could be applied were phonetics, verbs of movement, and culture.  However, 
Weiss et al. (2002) classifies dynamic representations as a way to gain attention from the 
students.  As a result, the researcher hypothesized that dynamic images would have an 
effect on the acquisition of vocabulary.  Although they did not belong to any of the 
categories presented by Xiao and Jones (1995), it would still have an effect on attention 
and, therefore, retention of vocabulary.  Results show that this hypothesis was not borne 
out by the data. 
 
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5.1.2. Predicted Variables Affecting Results 
One of the weak points of the experiment was the division of the participants in groups 
taught by different instructors.  As I mentioned in chapter three, the classes were 
conducted by ten different instructors.  Although all instructors were trained in the use of 
the materials for the study, several problems occurred during the four days of instruction 
which could have affected the final results.  These problems were related to the use of 
technology and measurement of time which affected the uniformity of instruction in all 
groups. 
Another variable to consider was the distribution of the classrooms for the twenty-
two sections participating in the study.  Some of the instruction was conducted in tech 
rooms at the university.  However, some of the classes were not technologically equipped 
and multimedia carts had to be taken into the classroom to project the materials.  The 
amount of time setting the multimedia carts, the poor sound quality provided by the 
speakers, and the fact that the instructor had to stand next to the cart between the students 
affected the ability of the instructor to interact face to face with the participants.  In this 
sense, the interaction of the instructor with the students could have modified the 
outcomes of some of the groups in the study. 
 
5.1.3. The Dual Processing Theory and the Overload of the Visual System 
As I introduced in chapter two, the Dual Coding Theory (DCT) (Paivio, 1971, 2007) is an 
influential theory on the division of the cognitive memory into two systems, the visual 
system and the word system.  Later, Mayer and Moreno (1998) introduced the Dual 
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Processing theory which defends that the visual system has a limit and it can be 
overloaded if there is too much exposure to visual materials.   
The inconclusive results of this study can be explained in terms of the Dual 
Processing theory.  Participants were exposed not only to dynamic and static images but 
also to dynamic and static text through cueing.  Although when the participants were 
presented with audio at the time they were exposed to both dynamic images and words, it 
seems that they could not process all the information that they received.  In the average 
percentages on the participants? scores, the group that used dynamic images and flashing 
cueing at the same time performed lower than the group with dynamic images and not 
flashing cueing.  This might indicate that the group that saw both dynamic 
representations, i.e., in words and images, might have suffered an overwhelming dynamic 
overload.  However, if this was true, the group with no dynamic representations and no 
dynamic cueing should have scored higher than any other group since its participants 
were not exposed to any type of dynamism.  On the contrary, participants in this group 
scored lower in both recall posttests analysis in the short-term period than in the long-
term period.  This seems to indicate two things: (i) dynamic images had an effect on the 
short-term production since both groups under that condition scored higher than the 
groups with static image, and (ii) mixing both dynamic images and flashing cueing at the 
same time overloaded the participants? visual system decreasing their production. 
 
 
 
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5.1.4. Unpredicted Effects of a Variable between the Short and Long-Term Posttests  
The initial intention of the researcher was to compare the effects of dynamism and cueing 
in short and long-term periods of time.  Results were expected to decrease in relation to 
the amount of time elapsed after the first short-term posttest.  However, surprisingly for 
the researcher, means increased in the recall long-term posttest for three of the four 
groups, i.e., the group with static images and no cueing, the group with static images and 
cueing, and the group with dynamic images and not cueing.  More surprisingly was that 
the group with dynamic images and cueing lowered their scores while all those three 
groups increased their scores.  On the contrary, the difference on the scores of the short 
and long-term recognition test were less surprising.  Both groups presented with static 
images, with or without cueing lowered their scores when time passed.  Similarly, the 
group under the dynamic images and cueing conditions had the same outcome.  However, 
the group with dynamic images and no cueing increased its scores in the long-term 
recognition test.  The researcher believes that these unexpected results might have been 
caused by the preparation to an exam that participants had to take after the short-term 
posttests and two weeks before the long-term posttest. 
Although there was a clear influence of the exam on the increasing scores, the 
researcher noticed that those results might be representative of how students learn 
vocabulary outside the class.  Nation (2001) states that a person needs certain amount of 
encounters with a word in order to acquire that word.  It seems that the exam between 
tests gave the opportunity to the participants to encounter words with a sufficient 
frequency vocabulary to store vocabulary in their memory.   
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5.2. The Study and Further Research 
The present study has tried to present the implications of using dynamic and static images 
with cueing or absence of cueing in class instruction.  Nonetheless, the researcher would 
like to point out that the division of the groups and the statistical analysis conducted 
might present certain limitations on the results.  Both conditions, dynamism and cueing, 
were originally crossed and four groups were created, i.e., static images and absence of 
cueing, static images and cueing, dynamic images and absence of cueing, and dynamic 
images and absence of cueing.  However, for the purpose of this thesis, statistical analysis 
focused on the influence of dynamic and static images and the influence of the presence 
or absence of cueing independently.  Further statistical analysis is needed to show how 
the results of the four groups may be affected by crossing of the conditions.  Finally, the 
presence of an exam between the short-term and the long-term posttest made impossible 
the comparison between short-term and long-term effects of the two conditions.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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APPENDICES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Appendix A: Pretest for Images 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
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SECTION: 1010- _________ 
 
1. ______________ 
2. ______________ 
3. ______________ 
4. ______________ 
5. ______________ 
6. ______________ 
7. ______________ 
8. ______________ 
9. ______________ 
10. ______________ 
11. ______________ 
12. ______________ 
13. ______________ 
14. ______________ 
15. ______________ 
16. ______________ 
17. ______________ 
18. ______________ 
19. ______________ 
20. ______________ 
21. ______________ 
22. ______________ 
23. ______________ 
24. ______________ 
25. ______________ 
26. ______________ 
27. ______________ 
28. ______________ 
29. ______________ 
30. ______________ 
31. ______________ 
32. ______________ 
33. ______________ 
34. ______________ 
35. ______________ 
36. ______________ 
37. ______________ 
38. ______________ 
39. ______________
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix B: Static Images of the Target Vocabulary 
 
 
 
   
Fonendo   Embarazada   Enfermera 
Sthetoscope    Pregnant woman  Nurse 
 
 
   
 
Pastilla   Silla de ruedas    Veneno 
Pill   Wheelchair    Poison 
 
 
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Cirujano 
Surgeon 
 
 
 
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Appendix C: Pretest to Measure Previous Knowledge 
 
 
 
Questionnaire 
 
NOMBRE: ________________________  SECCI?N: ________________ 
 
?CU?NTO SABEN?: Escribe en ingl?s el significado de las siguientes palabras en 
espa?ol.  Esta actividad no es una prueba, solamente queremos saber cu?nto vocabulario 
saben: 
 
 
Dentista: ____________________ Estornudar: ______________________ 
Brazo: ____________________ Cirujano: ______________________ 
U?a: ____________________ Gripe: ______________________ 
Enfermera: ____________________ Embarazada: ______________________ 
Enferma: ____________________ Sida: ______________________ 
Accidente: ____________________ Pierna: ______________________ 
Catarro: ____________________ Veneno: ______________________ 
Muletas: ____________________ Pastillas: ______________________ 
Ojos: ____________________ Psiquiatra: ______________________ 
Farmac?utica: ____________________ Fonendo: ______________________ 
Silla de Ruedas: ____________________   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix D: Lesson Plan and Materials 
 
 
 
Tema 12, Clase 1 ? El cuerpo humano y la salud 
 
 
? Contenidos: 
 
VOCABULARIO: El cuerpo humano y la salud (p.  410) 
12.1: Expresiones con haber: distintas formas del verbo haber en el presente (hay), 
pret?rito (hubo), imperfecto (hab?a), subjuntivo (haya), futuro (va a haber) y obligaci?n 
(tiene que haber). 
 
 
? Lesson Plan: 
 
Cuestionario: 
 Materiales: cuestionario (est? al final del lesson plan) 
 Grupos: individual 
Procedimientos: Entregar a los alumnos el cuestionario.  Darles uno por persona.  
Decirles que no es una prueba y que queremos sabes cu?nto saben sobre las 
enfermedades.  Recoger el cuestionario y empezar la clase. 
Tiempo: 5 minutos 
 
Introducci?n:  
Materiales: Introducci?n de la lecci?n 1. 
Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimientos: Para empezar la clase, hacer que recuerden el vocabulario 
estudiado antiguamente en el Paso B sobre las partes del cuerpo.  Mostrar las 
im?genes y que digan lo que es. 
Tiempo: 5 minutos. 
 
VOCABULARIO: presentar el vocabulario del libro 
Materiales: Vocabulario de la lecci?n 1. 
Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimientos: Hablar con los alumnos para que vayan diciendo al instructor las 
partes del cuerpo.  A medida que los alumnos van diciendo las partes, el instructor 
puede hacer click en la parte del cuerpo para que la palabra aparezca.  Seguir los 
dibujos del libro.  Para usar el verbo haber, hacer preguntas como ?cu?ntos dedos 
hay en una mano?. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
Actividad 1: Las funciones de las partes del cuerpo. 
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Materiales: Actividad 1 de la lecci?n 1. 
Grupo: en grupos de 2 o 3 personas. 
Procedimientos: hacer que los alumnos unan las partes del cuerpo con las acciones 
en grupos.  Cuando pase el tiempo indicado, corregir la actividad con los alumnos 
presentando las im?genes para cada acci?n. 
Tiempo: 5-7 minutos. 
 
Actividad 2: Las definiciones. 
Materiales: Actividad 2 de la lecci?n 1. 
Grupo: individual. 
Procedimiento: Empezar el archivo de ordenador de la actividad.  Tienen que mirar 
la definici?n, luego los tres dibujos y elegir el dibujo apropiado.  Luego, tienen que 
deletrear la palabra diciendo las letras que la forma.  El instructor deber? hacer click 
en el hueco correspondiente a cada letra para que ?sta aparezca. 
Tiempo: 5-7 minutos.   
 
Actividad 3: Rellenar los huecos 
Materiales: Actividad 3 de la lecci?n 1. 
Grupo: individual 
Procedimiento: Presentar el texto en la pantalla de la clase.  Decirle a la clase que 
tienen que rellenar los huecos con las formas de haber (hay, tiene que haber, hab?a, 
haya, va a haber) Darles el tiempo indicado para trabajar individualmente.  Luego 
corregir con la clase en la pantalla.  El profesor debe escribir la forma correcta en los 
espacios en blanco a trav?s del ordenador. 
Tiempo: 5-7 minutos. 
 
Actividad 4: Actividad de lectura y escritura 
Materiales: Actividad 4 de la lecci?n 1. 
Grupo: lectura con toda la clase y escritura individual. 
Procedimiento: Hacer que cinco voluntarios lean las cinco partes del texto.  Si no 
hay voluntarios, elegir a los alumnos.  Para facilitar la comprensi?n, hacer click en 
las palabras en negrita para mostrar la imagen correspondiente.  Luego hacer que 
contesten las 5 preguntas sobre el texto que aparecer?n a continuaci?n. 
Tiempo: 15 minutos (7 y 7 m?s o menos para cada cosa) 
 
 
 
Tema 12, Clase 2 ? Las enfermedades y su tratamiento 
 
 
? Contenidos: 
 
VOCABULARIO: Las enfermedades y su tratamiento (p.  413) 
10.2. Expresar cambios de estado: become, get. 
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? Lesson Plan: 
 
 
Introducci?n:  
Materiales: Introducci?n de la lecci?n 2. 
Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimientos: Para empezar la clase, hacer que recuerden el vocabulario 
estudiado el d?a anterior.  Mostrar las im?genes y que vayan diciendo palabras de lo 
que ven en la pantalla.  Recuerden que no es importante que digan lo que es 
exactamente, sino que digan tantas palabras como puedan. 
Tiempo: 5 minutos. 
 
VOCABULARIO: Mi familia y las enfermedades 
Materiales: Vocabulario de la lecci?n 2. 
Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimientos: Decirles a los alumnos que presten atenci?n a la pantalla de la clase 
y que cierren los libros.  Poner el audio primero y mostrar las im?genes en la pantalla 
principal del ordenador.  Posteriormente, repasar las palabras de vocabulario una a 
una haciendoles que lean el texto a la vez que escucha en audio de nuevo.  
Finalmente, hacerles unas preguntas para observar su comprensi?n. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
TEXTO  
 
? Mi familia siempre est? enferma.  Mi madre estuvo enferma en el hospital.  Ella tuvo 
gripe el a?o pasado.  En el hospital la enfermera la cuid? y le dio las medicinas.  Ella 
ahora est? mucho mejor y hace de enfermera cuando nosotros tenemos gripe. 
? Mi padre se fractur? una pierna la semana pasada.  Ahora ?l tiene que ir en silla de 
ruedas porque no puede usar muletas.  ?l no puede caminar y tiene que descansar todo 
el tiempo.  Se pone muy nervioso y est? siempre de mal humor. 
? Mi hermana ahora est? embarazada.  Ella va a tener un beb?.  El beb? se va a llamar 
Pedro.  Ella est? muy feliz pero est? muy cansada porque tiene una barriga muy grande. 
? Mi hermano, cuando ?l era peque?o, se tom? un poco de veneno.  Mis padres lo 
llevaron al hospital r?pidamente.  ?l estuvo en el hospital por dos d?as. 
? Pero por suerte tenemos un familiar que cuida de nosotros.  Mi t?o es cirujano.  ?l cuida 
de los enfermos y los opera.  Casi nunca se pone enfermo pero a veces tiene catarros y 
estornuda.  Normalmente, ?l me deja usar su fonendo cuando juego a los m?dicos. 
? Yo ahora tengo dolor de barriga.  Me duele mucho.  El m?dico me ha dicho que tengo 
que tomar unas pastillas, pero a m? no me gustan porque saben muy mal...  ?qu? asco! 
 
Actividad 1: Preferencias ? cuando me siento mal. 
Materiales: Actividad 1 de la lecci?n 2. 
Grupo: toda la clase 
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Procedimiento: Mostrar la actividad en la pantalla.  Luego, preguntarles a los 
alumnos qu? hacen en esas situaciones.  Tienen que elegir entre las opciones de la 
pantalla.  Mostrarles las im?genes de las palabras que est?n en negrita.  Preguntarles 
la misma pregunta a unos 2 o 3 alumnos m?s o menos y contrastarlos.   
Tiempo: 5-7 minutos 
 
Actividad 2: Doctor, ?qu? debo hacer? 
Materiales: Actividad 2 de la lecci?n 2. 
Grupo: grupos de 2 o 3 personas 
Procedimiento: Repasar r?pidamente la gram?tica del tema.  Despu?s, mostrar la 
actividad en la pantalla de la clase.  Leer las preguntas y repasar el vocabulario de las 
situaciones con los dibujos con la clase.  Luego dejar conversar a los alumnos para 
unir las situaciones con las soluciones posibles.  Recuerden que la letra f.  ???? 
Permite escribir lo que queramos en caso de que haya alguna respuesta alternativa de 
alg?n alumno.  Finalmente, corregir con la clase pidiendo voluntarios.  Cambiar los 
papeles y volver a repetir. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos 
 
Actividad 3: Conversaci?n 
Materiales: Actividad 3 de la lecci?n 2. 
Grupo: en parejas. 
Procedimiento: Mostrar en la pantalla las situaciones por las que tienen que 
preguntar a sus compa?eros.  Repasar las situaciones con ellos para saber que han 
comprendido.  Mostrar las im?genes de las palabras en negrita.  Luego hacerles que 
hablen con sus compa?eros.  Despu?s, corregir con toda la clase. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
 
TAREA PARA CASA: Escribir un p?rrafo de unas 50 palabras explicando cuando fue la 
?ltima vez que el alumnos se puso enfermo y qu? hizo para remediarlo.  Especificar que 
pueden invertarse la historia para poder usar el mayor n?mero de palabras del 
vocabulario que puedan. 
 
 
 
Tema 12, Clase 3 ? Las visitas al m?dico, a la farmacia y al hospital 
 
? Contenidos: 
 
Vocabulario: las visitas al m?dico, a la farmacia y al hospital 
12.3: Objetos Indirectos con mandatos y subjuntivo: Presenta 4 nuevos verbos que llevan 
objetos indirectos y luego piden un subjuntivo. 
 
 
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? Plan de clase: 
 
Prueba de CPS: Hacer la prueba de CPS. 
 Materiales: Archivo CPS 
 Grupo: individual 
Procedimiento: Encender el CPS.  Mostrar las preguntas y hacer que los alumnos 
contesten con los mandos. 
Tiempo: 10-15 minutos. 
 
 
VOCABULARIO: Las visitas al m?dico, a la farmacia y al hospital. 
 Materiles: vocabulario de la lecci?n 3 
 Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimientos: Presentar el vocabulario.  Primero los alumnos tienen que 
escuchar un audio y ver las palabras clave.  Hacer que los alumnos lean las frases 
en espa?ol y preguntar por las palabras que no conocen.  Mostrar el vocabulario 
de las palabras en negrita.  Luego hacer que los alumnos conversen entre ellos con 
las preguntas siguientes. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
Actividad 1: Juego de oscuro a claro. 
 Materiales: Actividad 1 de la lecci?n 3. 
 Grupo: toda la clase 
Procedimientos: Mostrar las instrucciones a la clase y el ejemplo.  Los alumnos 
tienen que mirar una imagen que pasa de borrosa a m?s claro progresivamente.  
Tienen que adivinar las palabras antes de que la im?gen se vuelva clara del todo. 
Tiempo: 5-7 minutos 
 
Actividad 2: ?Qu? les recomienda el Doctor S?nchez a estas personas? 
 Materiales: Actividad 3 de la lecci?n 3. 
 Grupo: toda la clase, por voluntarios. 
Procedimientos: Mostrar la gram?tica de los nuevo 4 verbos que introducen el 
subjuntivo.  Mostrarles el modelo a los alumnos.  Leer cada oraci?n antes de hacer 
la actividad y hacer que conviertan las oraciones como en el modelo para usar el 
subjuntivo. 
 Tiempo: 5-10 minutos. 
 
Actividad 3: Firmas 
 Materiales: Actividad 3 de la lecci?n 3. 
 Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimientos: Antes de empezar, leer las oraciones y mostrar las fotograf?as de 
las palabras que est?n en negrita.  Los alumnos tienen que levantarse y buscar a 
las personas que hacen las acciones indicadas en la pantalla.  Despu?s de 5 
minutos, hacerles que se sienten y digan qui?n hace esa cosa.  Expander la 
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conversaci?n con preguntas a los estudiantes alguna otra informaci?n relacionada 
con el vocabulario. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
 
Tema 12, Clase 4 ? Los accidentes y las emergencias 
 
 
? Contenidos: 
 
VOCABULARIO: los accidentes y las emergencias (p.  422) 
12.4. Sucesos sin planear con ?se?: introducir verbos como se descompuso, se cay?, se 
rompi? y otros con pronombre como se me olvido, se le perdi?, se me quedaron. 
 
? Plan de clase: 
 
QUIZ: Prueba del tema 12. 
 Materiales: documento de Word ?prueba de clase?. 
 Grupo: individual y sin copiarse. 
Procedimientos: Entregar los papeles para las respuestas.  Encender la pantalla y 
mostrar las im?genes.  Dejarles que completen los huecos con la palabra m?s 
adecuada a la imagen mostrada.  No hay contexto. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
VOCABULARIO:  
Materiales: Vocabulario del libro (pp.  422 y 423) 
Grupo: Toda la clase 
Procedimiento: Hacer que alg?n voluntario lea las palabras en espa?ol.  Si no hay 
voluntarios, elegir a una persona de la clase.  Hacer TPR para las palabras que los 
alumnos no comprendan. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
Actividad 1: Descripci?n de dibujos  
Materiales: archivo de flash o Actividad 12, p.  423 
 Grupo: toda la clase. 
Procedimiento: Mostrar las im?genes y leer las oraciones de cada una de las 
situaciones.  Hacer que los alumnos digan el n?mero de la imagen.  Poner especial 
?nfasis en el ?se? de sucesos sin planear. 
Tiempo: 5 ? 7 minutos. 
  
Actividad 2: Completar el texto estilo multiple choice 
 Materiales: PowerPoint para CPS 
 Grupo: individual 
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Procedimiento: Completar un texto con huecos.  Cada hueco tiene una imagen y 
varias opciones tipo multiple choice.   
 Tiempo: 10 minutos. 
 
Actividad 3: Pr?ctica de escuchar 2 
Materiales: documento flash ?El Accidente de Guillermo? (tomar las fotograf?as 
de la actividad 13 del libro, p.  424) 
Grupo: individual 
 Procedimiento: Decirle a los alumnos que cierren los libros ya que la actividad 
est? en la p.  424. Abrir el documento de flash en la pantalla principal.  Decirles 
que los dibujos est?n desordenados y que van a escuchar un audio con la historia.  
Luego decirles que tienen que ordenar las im?genes en su papel de acuerdo con el 
audio.  El texto se puede sacar de las letras azules de la actividad.  Luego, 
preguntar a los estudiantes y ordenar las im?genes de acuerdo con la informaci?n 
que nos digan.  Poner el audio 2 veces. 
Tiempo: 10 minutos  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Appendix E: Short-term Recall Test 
 
 
Prueba Cap?tulo 12    Nombre: _________________________ 
      Secci?n: 1020- _____ 
 
1. ?Qu? es esto? Mire las im?genes y escriba en su papel las palabras que se 
relacionan con ellas.  (10 puntos) 
 
a. _______________ f. _______________ 
b. _______________ g. _______________ 
c. _______________ h. _______________ 
d. _______________ i. _______________ 
e. _______________ j. _______________
 
 
2. Mario y los m?dicos.  Mario habla sobre las peticiones (requests) de los m?dicos.  
Escriba los siguientes verbos en el subjuntivo (5 puntos) 
 
a. Mi veterinario nos pide a mi mujer y a m? que nosotros _________________ (DAR) 
muchas medicinas a nuestro perro. 
b. La psiquiatra le aconseja a mi mujer que ella _________________ (ALEGRARSE) 
por las cosas buenas de la vida. 
c. Los m?dicos les recomiendan a los pacientes que ellos _________________ 
(HACER) ejercicio todos los d?as para vivir muchos a?os. 
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d. Voy a ir al hospital cuando __________________ (HABER) menos personas en la 
sala de espera. 
Appendix F: Long-term Recall Test 
 
 
 
Nombre: ______________________________ 
Secci?n: 1020- _____ 
 
1. ?Qu? es esto? Mire las im?genes y escriba en su papel las palabras que se relacionan 
con ellas.  (10 puntos) 
 
a. _______________ 
b. _______________ 
c. _______________ 
d. _______________ 
e. _______________ 
 
f. _______________ 
g. _______________ 
h. _______________ 
i. _______________ 
j. _______________
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix G: Short-term Recognition test 
 
Instrucciones: En esta actividad va a ver un texto con espacios en blanco.  En cada 
espacio hay una imagen y tres palabras para seleccionar.  Escriba en el papel que el 
profesor les va a dar la respuesta correcta.  El trabajo es individual, no pueden trabajar 
con su compa?ero.  Luego, devuelvan el papel a su profesor y corrijan la actividad. 
 
 
 
Actividad 2 ? Hoja de respuestas  Nombre:  ___________________________ 
      Secci?n: 1020-_______ 
 
Marque la respuesta correcta: 
 
1. ?A ?B ?C  8. ?A ?B ?C 
2. ?A ?B ?C  9. ?A ?B ?C 
3. ?A ?B ?C  10. ?A ?B ?C 
4. ?A ?B ?C  11. ?A ?B ?C 
5. ?A ?B ?C  12. ?A ?B ?C 
6. ?A ?B ?C  13. ?A ?B ?C 
7. ?A ?B ?C      
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Appendix H: Long-term Recognition Text 
 
Instrucciones: ?De qu? te acuerdas? Ahora complete el siguiente texto usando la palabra 
m?s adecuada para cada espacio en blanco. 
 
 
 
Hoja de respuestas  Nombre:  ______________________________  
    Secci?n: 1020-_______ 
 
Marque la respuesta correcta: 
 
1. ?A ?B ?C  8. ?A ?B ?C 
2. ?A ?B ?C  9. ?A ?B ?C 
3. ?A ?B ?C  10. ?A ?B ?C 
4. ?A ?B ?C  11. ?A ?B ?C 
5. ?A ?B ?C  12. ?A ?B ?C 
6. ?A ?B ?C  13. ?A ?B ?C 
7. ?A ?B ?C      
 
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