Scheduling in WiMAX based wireless networks
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this thesis is
my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This thesis does not
include proprietary or classified information.
Srivathsan Soundararajan
Certificate of Approval:
Shiwen Mao
Assistant Professor
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Prathima Agrawal, Chair
Samuel Ginn Distinguished Professor
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Thaddeus A. Roppel
Associate Professor
Electrical and Computer Engineering
George T. Flowers
Dean
Graduate School
Scheduling in WiMAX based wireless networks
Srivathsan Soundararajan
A Thesis
Submitted to
the Graduate Faculty of
Auburn University
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the
Degree of
Master of Science
Auburn, Alabama
December 19, 2008
Scheduling in WiMAX based wireless networks
Srivathsan Soundararajan
Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this thesis at its
discretion, upon the request of individuals or institutions and at
their expense. The author reserves all publication rights.
Signature of Author
Date of Graduation
iii
Vita
Srivathsan Soundararajan, son of Soundararajan and Geetha Rajan, was born on July
29, 1985 in Chennai, India. He completed his Bachelor of Engineering at SSN College of
Engineering, Anna University, in Chennai, India. He entered the Electrical Engineering
graduate program at Auburn University in August of 2006.
iv
Thesis Abstract
Scheduling in WiMAX based wireless networks
Srivathsan Soundararajan
Master of Science, December 19, 2008
(B.E, Anna University, 2006)
73 Typed Pages
Directed by Prathima Agrawal
This thesis describes two transmission scheduling algorithms and a hybrid ARQ trans-
mission handling algorithm designed for WiMAX based wireless networks. WiMAX net-
works are based on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) technique.
In OFDMA based wireless networks, the bandwidth is divided into narrow sub-divisions,
each of which is called a sub-carrier. Sets of these sub-carriers are allocated to users.
The first algorithm is based on graph theoretic techniques and is employed to schedule
user transmissions by assigning selective OFDMA subcarriers. This algorithm allocates re-
sources based on the instantaneous channel properties like signal to interference and noise
ratios experienced by users.
The second scheduling algorithm deals with transmission scheduling in WiMAX based
hybrid wireless networks. An important application of WiMAX technology is to serve as
backbone to connect to the internet for 802.11 networks. The proposed scheduler aims at
minimizing the delay experienced by 802.16 users due to increase in the number of 802.16
users. The design and implementation of these algorithms is discussed and the results are
summarized in the subsequent chapters.
v
Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) is a technology used to enhance the cor-
rectness in wireless transmissions. HARQ efficiently uses both forward error correction and
error detection techniques in order to provide better throughput performance in poor signal
quality conditions. The effectiveness of this technology in Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA) based wireless networks is studied. The proposed HARQ algo-
rithm assigns sub-carriers for retransmissions and schedules them in time. The algorithm is
tested for certain applications such as video, VoIP that pose stringent limits on delay and
jitter. These applications have critical delay requirements especially on retransmitted pack-
ets, as delayed out-of-sequence packets are generally ignored. In the proposed algorithm,
a timestamp is attached to the retransmission request and its value is determined based
on delay requirements. The OFDMA scheduler allocates sub-carriers and time offsets to
these packets based on channel properties and the timestamp value. In the case when the
timestamp value is less than the estimated propagation time, the retransmission is aborted.
Therefore, the traffic load introduced by unnecessary retransmissions is reduced and the
throughput performance of the system can be improved.
ThisthesisreportexplainstheimportanceofeffectivetransmissionschedulinginWiMAX
networks with the help of these three cases.
vi
Acknowledgments
Firstly, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Prathima Agrawal, for her continued
support, encouragement and timely valuable advises. I convey my sincere gratitude to my
advisor for supervising me in every step in my research and for providing flexibility and
freedom in my work.
I am grateful to my lab-mates Yogesh Reddy Kondareddy, Pratap Prasad, Shaoqiang
Dong, Nirmal Andrews, Harish Kongara, Santosh Pandey and Priyanka Sinha for their
useful suggestions and encouragement. They make Lab405, a great place to work with a
friendly atmosphere. I was blessed with great state-of-art simulationtools in mylab. I would
like to extend my special thanks to Pavithra Raman for her motivation, encouragement and
support.
Finally, I thank my parents for their love, support and encouragement throughout my
life. I extend my special thanks to my sister, Vidhya and brother-in-law Aravind for being
great teachers and for their guidance in my academics.
vii
Style manual or journal used Journal of Approximation Theory (together with the style
known as ?aums?). Bibliograpy follows van Leunen?s A Handbook for Scholars.
Computer software used The document preparation package TEX (specifically LATEX)
together with the departmental style-file aums.sty.
viii
Table of Contents
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 WiMAX basic operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Quality of Service in WiMAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Scheduling in OFDMA based wireless networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 A Graph theoretic scheduling algorithm for WiMAX based wireless
networks 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Double Greedy Scheduling Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Scheduler Design Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Simulation and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 Application traffic over UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Application traffic over TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 A Scheduling Algorithm for Wireless Hybrid Networks 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Scheduling Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Simulation Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Conclusion and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 An efficient HARQ retransmission algorithm in OFDMA based wireless
networks 39
4.1 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 HARQ Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2.1 Code Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
ix
4.4.1 HARQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4.2 VOIP application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.3 Video Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5 conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5 Conclusion 55
Bibliography 57
x
List of Figures
1.1 WiMAX network deployment options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 IEEE 802.16e OFDMA TDD frame structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Pseudo code of the double greedy scheduling algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 The bipartite representation of users and subcarriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Graph representing the mismatched user connections and subcarriers . . . . 20
2.4 Throughput variation over number of nodes for CBR traffic over UDP . . . 22
2.5 Throughput variation over number of nodes for Pareto traffic over UDP . . 23
2.6 Congestion window vs time for FTP application over TCP . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7 Throughput variation over number of nodes for FTP application over TCP 25
2.8 Throughput variation over number of nodes for CBR application traffic over
TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.9 Throughput of UDP users over number of nodes running TCP traffic . . . . 27
2.10 Overall Throughput of UDP users over number of nodes running TCP traffic 28
2.11 Average Throughput of UDP users over number of nodes running TCP traffic 29
3.1 Topology of a hybrid network with 802.11 WLANs with an 802.16 backhaul 33
3.2 Steps of network operation based on the scheduling algorithm . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Number of unsuccessful packets vs. number of nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Delay vs. number of users in CBR traffic over UDP connections . . . . . . . 38
4.1 HARQ modification in base station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 Simulation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
xi
4.3 Throughput improvement using HARQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 HARQ transmission rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5 Voip application throughput using conventional HARQ mechanism . . . . . 48
4.6 Voip application throughput using improved HARQ mechanism . . . . . . . 49
4.7 VoipapplicationthroughputofimprovedandconventionalHARQmechanism
on node 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.8 Average packet end to end delay in improved HARQ mechanism on node 2 50
4.9 Overall VoIP average packet delay variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.10 Video application throughput of conventional HARQ mechanism on node 2 52
4.11 Video application throughput of improved HARQ mechanism on node 2 . . 53
4.12 Number of packets destroyed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
xii
List of Tables
1.1 Differences between 802.16 and 802.11 standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1 Common Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2 HARQ Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
xiii
Chapter 1
Introduction
WiMAX, officially termed as IEEE 802.16 standard is the state of the art technology
developed for wireless metropolitan area networks (WMANs). While the 802.11 standard
was designed for local area wireless networks, the 802.16 standard was designed to address
wireless metropolitan area networks. This technology offers several advantages such as
longer range of up to 30 miles and high data rates up to 70Mbps [1]. Salient features of
IEEE 802.16 include adaptive modulation scheme from 64-QAM to QPSK, OFDM technol-
ogy, directional antennas and transmit and receive diversity. Some of the major MAC layer
improvements incorporated in this technology are connection oriented protocol, QoS based
packet scheduling and differentiated services based on traffic requirements [2]. The primary
function of WiMAX is to offer last-mile wireless broadband services. But, the 802.16 net-
work can also be designed to efficiently serve as a backbone for 802.11 access points (AP)
for connecting to the Internet. The advantages of WiMAX over other popular technologies
such as WiFi are explained in [3].
There are two types of deployment of WiMAX networks - point to multipoint and mesh
network topology as shown in Figure 1.1. The most common type is point-to-multipoint
(PMP) where every communication has to be routed through the base station. In such
networks, transmission scheduling is easier. The mesh and PMP topologies are compared
in [4]. The remainder of this report is based on WiMAX networks working in PMP topology.
1
Figure 1.1: WiMAX network deployment options
The flavors of this standard are described as follows:
1. 802.16a - This amendment specifies non-line-of-sight extensions in the 2-11 GHz spec-
trum and supports data rates up to 70 Mbps and range up to 20 miles.
2. 802.16d - This amendment was developed to address backhaul applications. The
standard focusses on the 11 to 66 GHz unlicensed spectrum.
3. 802.16e - The 802.16e amendment enables support for combined xed and mobile op-
eration for licensed and license-exempt frequencies below 11 GHz. It is expected to
support mobility in the order of 70 - 80 mi/hr.
1.1 WiMAX basic operation
The basic operation of WiMAX is explained as follows. The MAC layer is divided into
three sub-parts convergence sub-layer (CS), Common Part sub-layer (CPS) and security
sub-layer. Service specific convergence sub-layer classifies service data units (SDUs) to the
2
proper MAC connection. It provides a mapping between the service flow ID and the con-
nection ID. This mapping depends on the type of services. The convergence sub-layer is also
responsible for payload header suppression and reconstruction to enhance airlink efficiency.
MAC protocol data unit (PDU) consists of a fixed length MAC header (generic or band-
width request), a variable length payload and a cyclic redundancy check (CRC). Bandwidth
request messages do not contain any payload. WiMAX MAC employs fragmentation that
divides the SDU into smaller chunks called fragments and packing that combines multiple
SDUs into a single PDU. In order to eliminate interference at an 802.16 base station (BS)
due to multiple packet arrivals, the subscribers are required to synchronize with the BS
before establishing communication links. Such synchronization requires round trip delay
that depends on the distance between 802.16 subscriber and BS. These delay measurements
are done using a ranging method. The BS estimates the timing offset and operational power
level for each subscriber and broadcasts a ranging code. A detailed analysis over the initial
ranging process is described in [5]. The MAC layer at the BS defines a set of subcarri-
ers as a ranging channel. The 802.16 subscribers are allowed to contend in the ranging
channel for the initial ranging process and only those successful subscribers can establish
communication with the BS [5].
In 802.16 networks, the uplink channel (from Subscriber Station (SS) to BS) employs
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and the downlink channel employs TDM (Time
Division Multiplexing). The BS dynamically determines the timeslots at which each SS
can transmit on the uplink channel. The BS broadcasts the data packets on the downlink
channel and an SS accepts only the packets destined to it. A detailed analysis over the
802.16 MAC is provided in [6]. The number of time slots assigned to an SS and the channel
access grants provided by the BS depends upon the number of other 802.16 users and their
service requests.
3
The entire data transmission is divided into frames and subframes. The DL sub-
frame is made up of a preamble, Frame Control Header (FCH), and a number of data
bursts. The FCH specifies the burst profile and the length of one or more DL bursts that
immediately follow the FCH. The DL-MAP, UL-MAP, DL Channel Descriptor (DCD),
Channel Descriptor (UCD), and other broadcast messages that describe the content of the
frame are sent at the beginning of these first bursts. The remainder of the DL sub-frame is
made up of data bursts to individual SSs. Each data burst consists of an integer number
of OFDM symbols and is assigned a burst profile that specifies the code algorithm, code
rate, and modulation level that are used for those data transmitted within the burst. The
UL sub-frame contains a contention interval for initial ranging and bandwidth allocation
purposes and UL PHY PDUs from different SSs. The DL-MAP and UL-MAP completely
describe the contents of the DL and UL sub-frames. They specify the SSs that are receiving
and/or transmitting in each burst, the sub-channels on which each SS is transmitting (in
the UL), and the coding and modulation used in each burst and in each sub-channel. The
SS listens to the downlink channel for the entire downlink sub frame duration to check if
there is a packet intended for it. Downlink data packets intended for it are sent to higher
layers. SS determines its uplink transmission time and duration of transmission by decoding
uplink control message. SS also generates bandwidth requests to be sent to BS. SS then
schedules uplink data packets and request packets in the allocated slots and transmits them
accordingly.
At the BS, the incoming packets classified into one of the four-service classes are shaped
and placed in one of the downlink traffic queues. BS also receives uplink data and request
packets sent on uplink channel by various SSs. Data packets are handed over to higher layer
while request packets are given to uplink grant classifier. The BS examines the downlink
and uplink traffic queues and divides the total bandwidth between downlink and uplink
4
sub frames. BS then schedules the downlink data into the downlink sub frame and creates
downlink control messages. BS also encodes the information about the bandwidth allocated
to each SS in uplink control message. At the start of the frame, BS transmits downlink
and uplink control message on downlink channel followed by downlink data for various SSs.
The design of a WiMAX based last mile network solution is provided in [7]. The differences
between the 802.16 and 802.11 standards are listed in table .
Table 1.1: Differences between 802.16 and 802.11 standards
Parameters IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.11
Standards 802.16a in April 2003,
802.16d in 2004, 802.16e
in 2005
802.11b in Oct 1999,
802.11a in Oct 1999,
802.11g in June 2003
Frequency of Operation NLOS - below 11 GHz
(primarily 5 - 6 GHz),
LOS - 11 - 66 GHz
802.11b/g - 2.4 to 2.6
GHz, 802.11a - 5.15 -
5.25/ 5.25 - 5.35/ 5.725
- 5.875 GHz
Data rate 802.16d - 75 Mbps,
802.16a/e - 30 Mbps
54 Mbps
Range Optimized for 7 - 10 km,
theoretically up to 50
km
up to 110 m
Medium access method QoS based re-
quest/grant
CSMA/CA
Spectral Efficiency 3.8 bps/Hz 2.7 bps/Hz
Security 128 bit 3-DES and 1024
bit RSA
WEP, WPA and WPA2
5
1.1.1 Quality of Service in WiMAX
The most important application of IEEE 802.16d standard is to provide backhaul
services for 802.11 hotspots. The main advantage of this technology is its long transmission
range that can blanket a large number of 802.11 hotspots. Transmit diversity and Multi-
Input Multi-output (MIMO) antennas, space time coding and other physical advantages
make WiMAX a popular solution for backhaul services. The 802.16e standard that deals
with mobility in WiMAX networks aim at providing last mile services to end users. It
supports mobility up to 70 miles per hour and data rates up to 40 Mbps [8]. This technology
is apt for applications such as video over mobile wireless devices, backhaul for WLAN last
mile wireless networks and other broadband wireless access services. The study of service
quality over WiMAX is discussed in [9]. In this report, the dynamic problems by temporary
allowing traffic to flow in a reserved channel are discussed. The service quality in 802.16e
is divided into five classes.
1. UGS(UnsolicitedGrantService)-requiresstrictdelayspecificationsandisdesignedto
support real-time applications (with strict delay requirements). Mostly, applications
that deal with fixed-size data packets at periodic intervals such as T1/E1 and VoIP
without silence suppression, are classified with UGS service. This service requires
three specifications from the users - the minimum reserved traffic rate, grant interval
and the tolerated jitter. The unsolicited grant interval specified by the subscriber is
used as the base period to closely follow the packet arrival pattern such that the offset
does not exceed the tolerated jitter specification. The UGS connection grants are
based on the minimum reserved traffic rate and do not require bandwidth requests.
2. rtPS (real time Polling Service) - is also designed to support real-time applications but
requires lesser stringent delay specifications compared to UGS. Mostly, applications
6
that deal with variable-size data packets at periodic intervals, such as Moving Pictures
Expert Group (MPEG) video and VoIP with silence suppression, are classified with
this service. This service requires two specifications from the users - the minimum
reserved traffic rate, the maximum latency and an optional unsolicited polling period.
Since the size of arriving packets with rtPS is not fixed, they are required to notify
the BS of their current bandwidth requirements. The BS periodically grants unicast
polls to rtPS connections.
3. nrtPS (non-real time Polling Service) - is designed to support applications that do
not have any specific delay requirement and with variable bit rate. Some applications
that use this service are bandwidth-intensive such as File Transfer Protocol(FTP).
nrtPS service requires the minimum reserved traffic rate parameter and these connec-
tions are reserved a minimum amount of bandwidth. The BS grants unicast requests
less frequently as compared to rtPS connections. In case, the specifications are not
satisfied, contention request opportunities are allowed to be used.
4. BE (Best Effort) - These connections are required to conted for bandwidth request op-
portunities. There is no throughput or delay requirement specified with these service
requests. The grant opportunities are based on the available bandwith and current
network load. Common applications associated with this service are www and telnet.
A detailed explanation on QoS over WiMAX and their performance evaluation is done
in [10]. Since the service classification of applications are performed for enhancing quality,
it is required to design a scheduler with priority based on QoS. The requirements of such a
scheduler and a simple design is explained in [11]
The quality of service in WiMAX suffers from two main problems - lack of flow reso-
lution and lack of dynamic response [9]. Every service flow in WiMAX is associated with
7
a connection id(CID). The CID is the key assigned to every connection setup by the base
station with subscriber stations. A mobile terminal might request multiple connections and
services. Thus, in order to ensure service quality, flow resolution is required. This calls for
a QoS based transmission scheduler.
Salient features of IEEE 802.16 include adaptive modulation scheme from 64-QAM to
QPSK, OFDM technology, directional antennas and transmit and receive diversity. IEEE
802.16 networks manage channel bandwidth efficiently as described in [12]. The most im-
portant feature of WiMAX is Adjacent Modulation and Coding (AMC). AMC aims at
maximizing the data rate by probing the air transmission and adjusting transmission pa-
rameters to channel variations.
1.2 Scheduling in OFDMA based wireless networks
An integral medium access control (MAC) layer process is transmission scheduling
which decides the allocation of resources such as bandwidth, channel access, set of sub-
carriers and time slots to every subscriber during every scheduling time instance. The
standard [13] does not specify a scheduler and leaves it open for vendors to implement
custom scheduling algorithms.
Scheduling is an active area of research in IEEE 802.16 networks. The MAC structure of
the IEEE 802.16e contains three layers which are Convergence Sublayer (CS), Common Part
Sublayer (CPS) and the Security Sublayer. The 802.16e MAC works based on a Request-
Grant Mechanism. The Subscriber stations (SS) make bandwidth (BW) requests using
a separate MAC header subfield. The MAC is connection oriented and the Base Station
(BS) accepts connections after initial ranging that defines the power level of operation
and the timing offset. The Uplink Channel Descriptor (UCD) and the Downlink Channel
Descriptor (DCD) contain the channel information as depicted in the MAC frame. A
8
Figure 1.2: IEEE 802.16e OFDMA TDD frame structure
detailed explanation of the role of OFDMA in 802.16e based wireless networks is described
in [14].The TDD based OFDMA frame structure as defined in the WiMAX standard [13]
is shown in Figure 1.2.
Sub-channelization in OFDMA networks refers to the grouping of sub-carriers into
sub-channels. These sub-channels are assigned to the users based on a static or dynamic
procedure. The process of mapping subcarriers to sub-channels is called permutation. But,
in wireless networks, the channel properties such as channel to interference plus noise ratio
(CINR), maximum achievable data rate etc. change instantaneously. Properties of channels
and their subcarriers such as carrier to interference plus noise ratio (CINR), power levels,
bit error rate (BER) can affect the data rate and channel utilization. Hence, allocation of
9
channels to mobile users must be done based on instantaneous channel properties. Such
assignment is called as distributed subcarrier assignment.
Themappingofsubcarriersintosub-channelsiscalledpermutation. Thebasicobjective
of permutation mechanisms that define the combinations grouping subcarriers into sub-
channels is to increase the frequency reuse ratio. There are two types of permutation -
contiguous and diversity. Permutation refers to the random formulation using which the
sub-carriers in an OFDMA system are grouped into sub-channels. Diversity permutation
methods are used during poor channel conditions as they draw sub-carriers in random and
group them. Since the wireless channel conditions vary with respect to time and mobility
and result in poor signal quality, diversity methods are popular. The two types of diversity
permutation are:
1. FUSC (Fully Used Sub-Channelization) - the pilot subcarriers are first permutated
and then the remaining data subcarriers are grouped into sub-channels.
2. PUSC (Partially Used Sub-Channelization) - the used subcarriers are grouped into
subchannels and then the pilots are allocated in each subchannel.
Scheduling in 802.16e networks is based on the service flow priority. The types of ser-
vice flows are unsolicited grant service (UGS), extended real time polling service (ertPS),
non-real time polling service (nrtPS), real time polling service (rtPS) and best effort (BE)
in decreasing order of priority. The scheduler must be designed by considering the instan-
taneous variations in channel properties. Our aim is to design a scheduler based on the
distributed subcarrier assignment in order to maximize throughput. The scheduler assigns
a subset of subcarriers to a user that corresponds to a proportional fairness constraint. User
transmissions are scheduled based on priority of service flows.
These issues form the basis of designing schedulers for WiMAX based wireless networks.
The first scheduling algorithm is designed for OFDMA based WiMAX networks and is based
10
on graph theoretic approaches. The second algorithm is designed for WiMAX WLAN hybrid
networks and aims at throughput improvement by assigning appropriate schedules based
on dynamic user requirements. The design of these algorithms are discussed in subsequent
chapters.
1.2.1 Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
Automatic Repeat request (ARQ) is a mechanism in which error detection and re-
transmission principles are employed to reduce the number of packet transmission errors in
the network. An improved version of the ARQ mechanism is the hybrid ARQ mechanism
that efficiently uses both the error correction and detection modes to further reduce packet
transmission errors.
WiMAX uses simple stop and wait or sliding window protocol through which the sender
can transmit a certain number of packets (window size) without expecting an acknowledge-
ment from the receiver. The ARQ at the receiver end detects if there are any errors in the
received frame. If an error is found, a request for retransmission is initiated.
If the receiver receives an out-of-sequence packet, it sends a negative ack requesting the
sender to transmit the missed packet. On receiving the negative ack, the sender retransmits
blocks of data that were lost and moves the sliding window forward when service data unit
(SDU) blocks are acknowledged. However, in stop and wait protocol, every packet has to
be acknowledged and there is no necessity for a negative ack. The OPNET Modeler was
used which supports a stop and wait protocol in which the window size is one.
There is a trade-off between error correction and error detection techniques. In error
detection, for every error, a retransmission is initiated. Hence, this technique requires more
time to resolve an error. But, the advantage of this method is that it adds only a couple of
bytes to the frame. Hence, this method would prove to be efficient in bad channel conditions
11
also. In contrast, error correction transmits a frame with certain error correction bits. The
receiver can rebuild the original message even if it is corrupted by using the error correction
bits. But, error correction adds a considerable overhead to the original frame - almost
equivalent to the size of the frame. Hence, this method requires a fairly good channel to
operate efficiently.
There are two types of hybrid ARQ. Type I HARQ adds both Error Detection (ED)
and Forward Error Correction (FEC) information to each frame. This type uses both
error correction and detection techniques that is independent of the channel quality. If
channel quality is good, the errors are corrected at receiver end. Otherwise, a request for
retransmission is sent. Hence, this type proves to be useful for any channel condition. But,
this type uses more overhead as both error handling techniques are used.
Type II HARQ transmits either error detection or forward error correction bits. This
type switches between the two error handling techniques and thus comparatively uses lesser
overhead. In this type, the forward error correction bits are only transmitted on subsequent
retransmissions when needed. Type I suffers capacity loss during strong signal condition
while Type II does not. Some modifications include adding a part of the message to the
subsequent message in order to recover the message from the erroneously received frame effi-
ciently. Other modifications of type II use chase combining and code combining techniques.
A detailed analysis over these schemes are introduced and described in [15]
The final chapter provides an overview of other literature in this line of research. Then,
the improved HARQ mechanism is introduced. The later sections describe the simulation
setup and the results are explained.
12
Chapter 2
A Graph theoretic scheduling algorithm for WiMAX based wireless
networks
2.1 Introduction
WiMAX is an OFDMA-based wireless metropolitan area networking technology. The
MAC layer scheduling for uplink and downlink transmissions plays an important role in
affecting the performance of such networks. The assignment of subcarriers to the different
users is an important ingredient of MAC layer scheduling algorithms. In this chapter, a new
distributed subcarrier assignment algorithm suitable for WiMAX networks is described. In
OFDMA based networks, the bandwidth is divided into narrow divisions called sub-carriers.
These sub-carriers are modulated individually and assigned to users. The transmissions are
scheduled in time and every combination of sub-carrier and time offset is called a channel
resource. The described algorithm allocates these resources based on the instantaneous
channel properties like signal to interference and noise ratios experienced by users. Since
the properties of the wireless medium dynamically change with time and the mobility of
the user, static assignment of subcarriers may result in reduced throughput. The schedul-
ing algorithm presented here avoids such inefficiencies by intelligently assigning the channel
resources. The algorithm comprises two successive greedy heuristics that maximize through-
put per user. It makes use of a bi-partite graph model and an opportunistic matching of
subcarriers to users. The effectiveness of the algorithm is studied using NS2 simulations
and a variety of traffic scenarios. The resulting throughput with the new scheduler is shown
to be superior to that from a round robin scheduler.
13
2.2 Related Work
The major problem associated with wireless networks is the instantaneous change in
the channel state due to mobility of the users. This might cause significant throughput
performance degradation. When the transmission of these users are scheduled to use the
same sub-carrier set for all instances, the change in channel state will result in under-
utilization of channel resources. Hence, a static scheduler proves to be ineffective, especially
for mobile users. Pseudo random dynamic schedulers [16] can solve this problem to some
extent, but they will not adapt effectively to the changes in channel state. Hence, an
effective solution is to employ graph theoretic approaches for dynamic scheduling.
Dynamic scheduling can be interpreted as a graph theoretic partitioning problem where
the goal is to determine an efficient mapping of subcarriers and time symbols to the users.
This mapping can appropriately schedule transmissions of all users and thus reduce medium
access delays and utilize the channel to its maximum. The effects of infrequent channel
measurements and a dynamic scheduler design for such networks is discussed in [17]. The
authors introduce poly-matching where the resource allocation is represented as a matching
problem in a bi-partite graph with users and subcarriers as the two entities. Our work
uses this representation and we define a matching problem that considers the subscribers
bandwidth requests and service flow classifications.
Designing medium access schedulers has been an active area of research and various
dynamic adaptive scheduling algorithms have been proposed. The number of symbols on
uplink transmissions can be scheduled based on the congestion control mechanism at the
TCP layer. Such a mechanism is described in [18]. Scheduling is an important phenomenon
in orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) in which users are assigned sub-
sets of subcarriers. Users average signal-to-noise ratio can be used to decide the number
of sub-carriers assigned as described in [19]. The article also compares two different types
14
of greedy algorithms. Our work is also based on greedy algorithms but looks into physical
channel properties and assigns subcarriers based on a deciding factor. A general technique
of allocating upstream channel resources in any broadband wireless access networks is de-
scribed in [20]. This chapter explains a scheduler at the base-station that assigns uplink
opportunities. A mathematical modeling of time-varying channel and multi-user diversity
properties applied to optimal opportunistic scheduling is discussed in [16].
Queuing based scheduling is another efficient criterion for assigning subcarriers to users.
One such method applied to variable bit rate video applications is described in [21]. The
objective of our research is to design an algorithm to assign sufficient subcarriers to users
and schedule their transmission based on service priority. The algorithm is a sequence of
two separate greedy operations. One of these operations aims at maximizing each users
throughput by assigning the subcarriers that are best suitable for that user. The other
operation maximizes the whole networks efficiency by allowing the user that has maximum
channelproperties overaparticular subcarrier to utilize that subcarrier. Finally, amismatch
management is performed in order to obtain a net solution.
2.3 Double Greedy Scheduling Algorithm
The main idea behind the scheduler design is to assign subsets of subcarriers to users
based on physical channel properties. The main objectives behind hybrid scheduler design
are to maximize throughput using distributed subcarrier assignment, to assign a number of
subcarriers to a user that corresponds to a proportional fairness constraint, to schedule user
transmissions based on the priority of service flow and to design an optimal scheduler that
considers the instantaneous variations in channel properties and also maximizes individual
user throughput. The first step in designing such scheduler is to allocate sub-carriers to users
based on a deciding factor (df). The df is a function of inter-cell interference, channel state
15
information (CSI) (this is defined in Frame Control Header (FCH) in WiMAX) in terms
of pathloss (in db), data rate, SNR and BER. Then, the number of time slots assigned to
each user based on the bandwidth requested by each user is determined. The proportional
fairness criterion is introduced in order to account for fairness among users for a considerable
amountof time. Now, a bipartite graph is drawn, where the user connections and subcarriers
are taken as the vertices of the two partitions. The dfs are taken as weights on the edges.
The users are arranged according to the service flow priority. An opportunistic greedy
algorithm is performed on the subcarriers. Here, every subcarrier vertex selects edges with
higher df. The degree of each subcarrier vertex is the number of symbols (units of time).
Adjacency matrix is a matrix in which each entry is the number of edges adjacent to a
subcarrier vertex and a user vertex. Initially, the subcarrier adjacency matrix - adj-sc is
formulated. Then, an opportunistic greedy algorithm on the users is performed. Here, every
user vertex selects edges with higher df. The degree of each user vertex is the number of
time-slots allowed for that user. The user adjacency matrix - adj-u is formulated.
Finally, the final adjacency matrix is formulated by performing an element by element
OR operation i.e. adj = adj-sc OR adj-u. The user mismatches and subcarrier mismatches
are determined and time slots are assigned based on an adjustment algorithm. All other
connections are pseudo randomly assigned with the available subcarriers. The pseudo code
of the algorithm is shown in Figure 2.1.
16
Figure 2.1: Pseudo code of the double greedy scheduling algorithm
17
2.3.1 Scheduler Design Details
The first step is to allocate sub-carriers to users based on a deciding factor (df). The
number of sub-carriers depends upon the bandwidth requested by a user connection. Each
service flow request is translated by the WiMAX MAC as a connection. This function is
performed by the service specific convergence sublayer of WiMAX MAC. The proportional
fairness criterion is introduced in order to account for fairness among users for a considerable
amount of time.
The scheduler assumes that the channel quality index is available at each scheduling
period. A deciding factor (df) is computed using the relation :-
dfij = CINRij Pwrij PLij
where, CINR Carrier to Interference plus Noise ratio Pwr Transmission Power level (in
dB) PL pathloss (in dB) and and scaling constants j Subcarrier index
No of subcarriersi = BWRi * pfi
where, BWRi bandwidth requested by user i. Pf proportional Fairness criterion
Then, a mapping bipartite graph is drawn where the user connections and subcarriers
are taken as the vertices of the two partitions as shown in Figure 2.2.
18
Figure 2.2: The bipartite representation of users and subcarriers
The deciding factors are taken as weights on the bipartite edges. An opportunistic
greedy algorithm is executed on the subcarriers. In this operation, every subcarrier vertex
selects edges with the next highest deciding factor. The degree of each subcarrier vertex is
the number of time symbols. This is done in such a way that the degree on the user vertices
do not exceed respective bandwidth request indices stored in the array degu(i).
The next step is to perform a greedy operation on the users. After the greedy subcarrier
assignment operation, the user transmissions are arranged based on service priority in the
order of UGS, ertPS, nrtPS, rtPS and BE. This makes the cross-layer scheduler comprehen-
sive, proportionally fair and also throughput efficient. Now, for every user the best set of
subcarriers is chosen such that the user vertex degree does not exceed the respective entry
19
in the degu array. Also, care is taken to ensure that the degree on each subcarrier vertex
does not exceed beyond the maximum number of time symbols. The adjacency matrices
are computed during these processes.
Now, there may be many mismatches. A mismatch graph is drawn with excess edges
as solid edges. Every connection vertex that requires a subcarrier assignment is connected
with all subcarrier vertices with broken edges as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Graph representing the mismatched user connections and subcarriers
At every subcarrier vertex, excess edges of lesser deciding factor are removed and
newer edges with limits on degrees of this subcarrier vertex and other connection vertices
are drawn. Thus, the degree of each vertex in both graph partitions are maintained within
their respective constraint values. The mismatches are such that the sum of all mismatch
vectors is zero. Since the degree of each vertex during both operations are unaltered, the
number of edges of the final bipartite graph during both operations remain the same. An
edge is drawn between any two vertices and in any simple graph, the total number of edges
20
is half of the total number of vertices. Hence, the total number of edges remain the same as
the total number of vertices remain the same. All connections other than those addressed
by the double greedy algorithm are randomly assigned with the available subcarriers.
2.4 Simulation and Results
Thealgorithmwasimplementedusingthe WiMAXpatchforNS2 simulatorprovidedby
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) [22]. An external executable of the
double greedy algorithm was linked with the scheduler developed by NIST. Various scenarios
were simulated using the original round robin and modified double greedy scheduler and the
efficiency of the algorithm was determined. The simulator settings are described in Table
2.1
Table 2.1: Simulation Parameters
Parameter Value
Packet Size 1500 bytes
Packet gap length 0.001 s
Downlink to uplink traffic ra-
tio
0.3
OFDM cyclic prefix 0.25
Frequency of operation 2412 MHz
The simulation setup consisted of an 802.16 base station and a sink node connected
to it using a duplex link. The simulated network was hierarchical with the WiMAX base
station on top of the hierarchy. The mobile subscriber nodes were placed randomly in a
grid of 1100X1100. Application traffic was initiated among the nodes and the sink and all
traffic were routed through the base station. The results obtained are explained as follows.
21
2.4.1 Application traffic over UDP
UDP agents were setup on the mobile nodes and the sink node and CBR application
was used. The average throughput was measured and plotted by running the simulation for
different number of WiMAX nodes. It can be noted that the throughput in the case of the
double greedy scheduler is about 40Kbps greater than that of the round robin scheduler as
shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Throughput variation over number of nodes for CBR traffic over UDP
Similarly, it was found that the double greedy algorithm yields better throughput for
Pareto application traffic as shown in figure 2.5. Pareto traffic has a distribution in which
the probability that X is greater than some number x is
Pr(X > x) = (x/xm)-k
For larger number of WiMAX nodes, the double greedy algorithm behaves similar to
the round robin as the limit on the number of subcarriers used is a constant value. Hence
22
there are not enough resources to match all requirements and so, the scheduler assigns the
available sub-carriers to users requesting better service quality and higher priority. This is
similar to the round robin mechanism.
Figure 2.5: Throughput variation over number of nodes for Pareto traffic over UDP
2.4.2 Application traffic over TCP
The second simulation is to employ TCP agents and run FTP application over them.
In this case, the measured throughput in the double greedy scheduler is much greater
than that of a round robin scheduler. The throughput improvement in this case is well
pronounced than using application traffic over UDP. The main reason is that UDP is based
on best effort packet delivery while TCP works on congestion avoidance. In this case, the
congestion window keeps on incrementing during the congestion avoidance phase. This is
because every subscriber is scheduled to access a particular sub-carrier at a time and so
23
there are no collisions. Hence we can see that TCP congestion window increases with round
trip time as shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Congestion window vs time for FTP application over TCP
Thus, the number of packets in a connection depends almost entirely on the receiver
advertised flow control window size (rwnd). This is because in a TCP connection the effec-
tive window size is the minimum of congestion window size (cwnd) and receiver advertised
flow control window size. Since cwnd keeps on increasing due to no congestion, after some
time the rwnd entirely decides the throughput.
Thus, more packets are allowed to be pumped through the medium and hence an in-
crease in the throughput can be noted. Using the double greedy scheduler, the MAC delays
are reduced and hence the round trip times (RTT) remain fairly constant at a lower value.
The TCP retransmission timeout (RTO) value depends upon RTTs consistency. In the
double greedy scheduling case, constant RTO and smaller MAC delays lead to less retrans-
mission. Thus, we can see that TCP remains in congestion avoidance. The throughput
24
performance for FTP application and CBR traffic over TCP connections is determined and
plotted. It can be seen from figures 2.7 and 2.8 that the double greedy scheduler yields
better throughput than the round robin scheduler.
Figure 2.7: Throughput variation over number of nodes for FTP application over TCP
The scheduler performance is oblivious to the transport layer protocols. In this work,
the classic TCP model was used. It was found that the scheduler improves per-user average
throughput for both TCP and UDP agents. The primary function of the scheduler is to
reduce medium access delay and in both TCP and UDP protocols, lesser medium access
delay would yield better throughput. For constant bit rate applications, the packet size
used was 1500 bytes in 0.001 seconds with a data rate of 12Mbps.
25
Figure 2.8: Throughput variation over number of nodes for CBR application traffic over
TCP
In real-time, users may employ different types of traffic. For example, a voice over IP
(typically CBR traffic over UDP connections) user might experience poor service quality
due to the increase in overall network traffic. It is important to study the effect of increase
in TCP users on the users running VOIP applications. It is interesting to note that the
double greedy scheduler yields better throughput compared to the round robin scheduler,
for nodes running CBR application over UDP when the number of nodes running TCP
traffic is increased as shown in Figure 2.9.
26
Figure 2.9: Throughput of UDP users over number of nodes running TCP traffic
Munkre?s assignment algorithm also known as the Hungarian algorithm [23] is an al-
gorithm that provides optimal solution to matching problems. However, it has a running
time in the order of O(n3), where n is the number of users. The Double Greedy scheduler
is simple and has a running time of O(n2). The throughputs were measured for similar
settings as described before. The average throughput is the average of every packet?s in-
duvidual throughput. The overall throughput is a measure of the number of packets sent
over the entire session. The average throughput and the overall throughput was compared.
It was found that Double Greedy scheduler yields the best overall throughput as shown in
Figure 2.10.
27
Figure 2.10: Overall Throughput of UDP users over number of nodes running TCP traffic
Munkre?s assignment based scheduler could yield better average throughput for lesser
number of nodes as shown in Figure 2.11. The munkres C++ implementation found in [24]
was used. This was ported on NS2 and the elements of the cost matrix was determined by
inversing every element of the df matrix.
28
Figure 2.11: Average Throughput of UDP users over number of nodes running TCP traffic
2.5 Future Work
The future work in this line of research includes efficient computational techniques
to increase the speed of operation. There are various graph theoretic algorithms and im-
plementing these techniques for scheduling would be interesting. Famous graph theoretic
algorithms such as Kernighan-Lin [25] can be employed for matching the two bi-partite
vertices.
2.6 Conclusion
An efficient algorithm to schedule user transmissions in an OFDMA based wireless
network was designed and implemented. The algorithm works on two successive oppor-
tunistic greedy modules that assign a set of subcarriers to users. Such assignment leads to
high average throughput per user and also makes the best use of the available subcarriers.
29
Moreover, the priority of service flows is considered in assignment. Thus, this scheduler
proves to be a comprehensive solution for OFDMA based wireless networks.
30
Chapter 3
A Scheduling Algorithm for Wireless Hybrid Networks
3.1 Introduction
Hybrid wireless networks can be conceived by combining suitably interfaced 802.11
access points (APs) and WiMAX (802.16) backhaul. Integration of heterogeneous wire-
less networks has been an interesting research topic. One such integration mechanisms is
described in [26]. However, integrating such networks requires considering factors such as
throughput fairness, capacity, average user delay etc. One of the major problems associated
with 802.16/802.11 networks is the increased communication delay experienced by 802.16
users. In this chapter, a plausible solution is described to address this problem. Containing
such delay is important in maintaining quality of service for VoIP applications, for exam-
ple. This delay can be substantially decreased by a strategic reduction in the number of
active 802.16 subscribers in the network. WiMAX connections at any point of time, that
are currently serviced by the base station is referred to as active subscribers. This chapter
deals with realizing such delay reduction by rerouting traffic thru lightly loaded 802.11 APs.
For doing so, a schedule has to be generated using an algorithm. A scheduling algorithm
was designed and its effect on the overall network performance, using end to end packet
delay as a metric, was analyzed. For this purpose CBR traffic were used over UDP con-
nections. NS-2 simulations using CBR traffic show significant improvement in end-to-end
packet delay.
31
3.2 Related Work
The effect of different scheduling algorithms on the packet delay and performance
degradation due to increase in the number of subscribers is discussed in [27]. A hybrid
network can be conceived by a network of 802.11 networks with an 802.16 backhaul network
as shown in figure 3.1. A methodology to extend the coverage of 802.11 networks by
reducing handoff probability based on signal strength variations in a hybrid network is
presented in [28]. Hence, the overall network performance can be improved by scheduling
transmissions of various heterogeneous users in a wireless hybrid network. This forms the
crux of the problem that this research aims to solve. The throughput capacity of hybrid
wireless networks and the effects of the number of nodes and base stations are analyzed
in [29]. Most of these approaches concentrate on the performance degradation due to
increase in the number of 802.16 subscribers. This report examines the potential of reducing
the effective number of 802.16 users on the network performance. Thus, by reducing the
number of active users, the contention in the network can be minimized and hence average
individual throughput can be improved.
32
Figure 3.1: Topology of a hybrid network with 802.11 WLANs with an 802.16 backhaul
3.3 Scheduling Algorithm
The main idea behind the scheduling algorithm is to allocate time slots to 802.16
subscribers based on their distance from the gateway. Typically, users placed farther away
from the base station take up more time for data transmissions. This is because, the
propagation delay is large with longer distances. Hence, the scheduler allocates resources
for one user with larger data rather than several users with lesser data. This transmission
aggregationprocessreducescontentioninranging, connectionestablishmentandcapabilities
negotiation processes. Thus, the scheme can improve the overall average user throughput
by enabling more frequent channel access.
The main idea is to allow those workstations, farther away from the 802.16 BS, to
forward their packets through an 802.11 AP. An important consideration is the traffic
support provided by the 802.11 AP. The 802.16 BS knows the bandwidth requested by an
33
802.11 AP and hence can decide whether the route through the 802.11 AP will be optimal.
For example, let the bandwidth requested by an 802.11 AP be only 100 kbps while it can
request up to a maximum of 5 Mbps. Now, suppose that an 802.16 subscriber farther away
from 802.16 BS but closer to the 802.11 AP requests 64kbps. Then, this 802.16 subscriber
can forward its packets through the 802.11 AP in order to aid the 802.16 BS in serving all
its active subscribers with sufficient time slots.
The scheduling algorithm aims at modifying the basic steps of operation of the 802.16
BS. The MAC management messages that are used to pass control messages between the
802.16 BS and SS are described in [2]. Initially, it is required to acquire the information
on the list of 802.11 APs. Threshold values of service parameters such as delay in VOIP
applications are determined and will be used in deciding the route for the workstations
packets. The 802.16 BS broadcasts a downlink map message (DL-MAP), downlink channel
descriptor (DCD) and uplink channel descriptor (UCD) with sync information that lists
out the available channels. The SS listens for this information in a defined frequency list
while operating in the licensed band. When the SS is synchronized with a downlink chan-
nel, it initiates the initial ranging process by sending a ranging request (RNG-REQ) MAC
management message to the BS. The 802.16 BS collects and processes all the RNG-REQ
messages and sends a ranging response (RNG-RESP) to the subscribers. Capability nego-
tiation, where the SS sends a capability request with a list of supported modulation levels,
coding rates and schemes is performed. At this juncture, the scheduling algorithm requires
the BS to analyze bandwidth and service requests by all 802.16 subscribers and assign al-
ternate routes through 802.11 APs for those subscribers requiring services lesser than the
threshold parametric values. This process is hooked into the basic WiMAX operation. The
BS updates the threshold values based on the aggregate service requested by the 802.11
APs. The BS broadcasts updated map messages to the new set of 802.16 subscribers. This
34
is followed by authentication by which an SS gets registered with the BS. The main steps
of the algorithm are illustrated using Figure 3.2. The average overhead delay incurred by
assigning routes through 802.11 APs will be lesser than that caused at the 802.16 BS for
ranging large number of 802.16 subscribers. The main advantage offered by this scheduling
algorithm is a comprehensive decision on an 802.16 subscribers interface selection made by
the 802.16 BS to improve the overall network performance.
Figure 3.2: Steps of network operation based on the scheduling algorithm
3.4 Simulation Setup
The simulation was performed using NS-2 simulator provided by Communication tech-
nology lab, Intel Corporation. The topology constitutes an 802.16 BS and a group of sub-
scribers scattered randomly around the BS. The workstations are employed with WiMAX
interface. The simulation parameters are listed in table 1.
35
Table 3.1: Simulation Parameters
Parameters Value
TDD Frame Duration 5 ms
TDD Ratio 2
Control Signals rate 10 Mbps
Burst rate 50 Mbps
Contention Slot duration 0.0001
Data Slot duration 0.0005
Number of contention slots 7
The frame duration is set to 5 ms as in the case of OFDMA. The TDD ratio defines
the number of downlink (D/L) frames to the number of uplink (U/L) frames. The control
signals rate refers to the transmission rate of the preamble, D/L map and U/L map. The
number of contention slots for the BS is set as 7. The average packet end-to-end delay was
estimated for one fixed subscriber. The algorithm was simulated by increasing the number
of subscribers by 1 for every 5 new users and the packet size for 5 subscribers were increased
by 512 bytes. This is similar to aggregating five user transmissions on to an 802.11 access
point and increasing the bandwidth requested by this 802.11 AP/802.16 SS device.
3.5 Results
The number of unsuccessful packets was found to increase with the number of 802.16
subscribers in the network as shown in Figure 3.3. This increase is due to the contention
between the 802.16 SS to obtain access over the ranging channel. The 802.16 subscribers
can get access to the wireless channel for data transmission only if hey are successful in
ranging with the base station. The algorithm design and results can be found in [30].
36
Figure 3.3: Number of unsuccessful packets vs. number of nodes
If there are more users contending for ranging with the base station, the probability of a
subscriber to get access to the channel is reduced. Thus, in order to assign frequent channel
access to the users, the base station can request data aggregation on one intermediate
node. This is the basic idea of the scheduling algorithm. This algorithm was implemented
in NS2 and the delay plots over number of users were obtained. These plots confirm the
improvement achieved by the algorithm. The delay was found to be reduced by around
40ms for a total of 50 workstations in the hybrid network. For lesser number of nodes, the
improvement is not very pronounced as there are enough resources to handle all connections.
However, as the number of nodes increase, the algorithm proves to be efficient by assigning
frequent channel access as shown in the figure 3.4.
37
Figure 3.4: Delay vs. number of users in CBR traffic over UDP connections
3.6 Conclusion and Future Work
It can be concluded that the network performance degrades due to increase in number
of 802.16 users in hybrid 802.16/802.11 networks. A comprehensive solution to this problem
would be to assign schedules for lightly loaded 802.11 users with 802.16 interfaces based on
their position with respect to the 802.11 APs. The efficiency of the algorithm in a scenario
with a variety and different mixes of traffic applications can be determined. It will be
interesting to consider the handoff schedules for mobile users. Future work in this direction
includes modification of the scheduling algorithm to suit mobility and heterogeneous traffic.
38
Chapter 4
An efficient HARQ retransmission algorithm in OFDMA based wireless
networks
4.1 Related Work
Hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) is an efficient method to handle error cor-
rection and detection mechanisms. It enhances the reliability of the packets from source to
destination. Various methods have been proposed to enhance ARQ methods for wireless
networks. The performance of a selective repeat ARQ method for wireless ATM networks
is described in [31]. It is shown that retransmissions improve the link quality and has
no significant effect on the end-to-end delay. The sequencing of packets is required to be
properly maintained especially when using ARQ based error recovery. Hence, all packets
that are correctly received after an erroneous packet need to be retained until this packet
has been retransmitted correctly. This is called as re-sequencing delay and the methods
described in [32] aim to reduce such delays. These methods are important for applications
such as video traffic that require proper sequencing. Our method also addresses similar
problems but aims at maintaining the overall data rate and sequencing. A classical method
to improve bandwidth in an ARQ based system is to retransmit only the re-coded data
packet. Estimation of channel conditions in these cases is very important [33]. We make
use of channel estimations in our method in order to selectively retransmit the erroneous
data packets using sub-carriers best suited for these packets. Physical layer improvements
using MIMO antennas and space time architecture for enhancing HARQ performance is
39
discussed in [34]. ARQ techniques have been widely exploited in WiMAX and their perfor-
mance analysis is provided in [35]. The WiMAX standard [13] makes use of two important
technologies HARQ and OFDMA. It is important to analyze the HARQ schemes when
applied to OFDMA systems. Such analysis is performed in [36] in which it was found that
type II HARQ offers best throughput performance. In OFDMA based systems, each user
can assigned a set of subcarriers based on dynamic channel variations. We make use of
this fact to assign suitable subcarriers for HARQ retransmission purposes. Error recov-
ery and packet retransmission in multicast services over OFDMA systems are cumbersome
and uses up a lot of downlink resources. A method to minimize these issues is described
in [37]. Some improvements over TCP handle link layer retransmissions efficiently. The
effect of local retransmissions in wireless networks on TCP is discussed in [38]. The link
layer retransmission handling explained in [39], aims to improve throughput by introducing
timestamp and avoids out-of-segment packets. We employ similar technique in our research
and apply the timestamp method to packet retransmissions alone in OFDMA based sys-
tems. The scheduling of these packets in time is also based on the timestamp value. This
research area has been active in the past few years. A hybrid ARQ mechanism designed
for frequency selective fading channels is discussed in [40]. The authors use a turbo equal-
izer modification to achieve better exploitation of channel diversity and improved frame
error rates. Our approach also exploits channel diversity in order to appropriately schedule
the HARQ retransmissions. The following section introduces and describes the proposed
improvement.
4.2 HARQ Improvement
In this research, we introduce an improvement to the conventional HARQ scheme.
We concentrate on using the channel diversity by scheduling retransmissions effectively.
40
We assume that the variation of channel properties such as signal to noise, distortions and
interferenceratiosisrandominnature. Hence, theHARQtransmissionsandretransmissions
are scheduled based on this variation. By selecting a random sub-channel for the HARQ
frames, we can observe a throughput enhancement. This is due to the fact that the HARQ
scheme uses different sub-channels during different channel conditions. This scheme can
prove to be efficient especially for WiMAX nodes whose transmissions are spatially and
temporally diverse.
Another improvement to the HARQ scheme is to use timestamps to indicate the im-
portance of a frame. If a frame retransmission is out-of-sequence by several packets such
that it is close to unnecessary, then this packet would not be needed. In such cases, these
retransmissions can be avoided by discarding those packets at the sender end. A simple
flowchart of this modification at the base station is shown in figure 4.1
Figure 4.1: HARQ modification in base station
41
4.2.1 Code Implementation
This scheme was simulated using the OPNET Modeler (r) wireless suite. A stop and
wait based HARQ scheme is implemented in the node?s process models. A base station?s
uplink and downlink HARQ transmission handling procedures were modified to suit the
improvement. In the conventional HARQ implementation, the base station selects a partic-
ular HARQ channel. In the improved version, we assign a random sub-channel based on a
uniform distribution for HARQ transmissions and retransmissions. The modifications were
performed in the base station MAC control procedure.
4.3 Simulation Parameters
The simulations were performed using the OPNET modeler. The scenario consists of
WiMAX base-station, an application server and four WiMAX subscriber stations as shown
in figure 4.2. One of the nodes - node 2 was equipped with HARQ mechanism. All the
nodes were placed randomly within a distance of 500 meters from the base station. Different
applications were used and results were generated. The common parameters used for the
simulations are listed in table 4.1. The maximum power refers to the total transmission
power that a node can output over the entire channel bandwidth. The actual transmission
power is scaled down based on the fraction of bandwidth used by a node.
42
Figure 4.2: Simulation Scenario
The power density attributes are defined in the base station. They refer to the amount
of power in a single sub-channel. These attributes including the transmission power decide
the number of sub-carriers that can be scheduled for a particular user. The objective is to
study the effect of HARQ and its performance in poor channel conditions. This is achieved
by introducing packer errors through certain mechanisms. The classical freespace model
was used to introduce packet errors due to physical layer effects. In addition to this, packet
errors can be introduced by using the PDU dropping probability attribute in the server
node. The CQICH period refers to the amount of frames after which the subscriber station
would transmit the CQI (Channel Quality Indicator) back to the base station. The CQI is
a measure of channel properties such as signal to noise, distortions and interference ratios.
A subscriber station waits for 2p frames to transmit the CQI, when the CQICH period is
p. The request retries attribute refers to the number of times the subscriber station would
43
try to retransmit the CDMA based bandwidth request for a particular connection before
dropping the packet. As per the WiMAX standard [13], this value is set to be 16.
Table 4.1: Common Simulation Parameters
S. No. Simulation Parameters Value
1 Max. Pwr. Density re-
ceived power tolerance
-90 dBm/sub-
channel
2 Min. Pwr. Density re-
ceived power tolerance
-60 dBm/sub-
channel
3 Max. transmission
power
0.5 W
4 Pathloss model Free space
5 Modulation and coding QPSK 3/4
6 CQICH period 3
7 Request Retries 16
8 Server PDU dropping
probability
0.10
The HARQ parameters that were used by node 2 is listed in table 4.2. The maximum
number of HARQ retransmissions of an HARQ encode MAC PDU on a HARQ channel is
set as 4 before the PDU is discarded. The maximum number of HARQ UL channels is
defined to be 8 in the standard [13] and the maximum number of DL channels is 16. The
buffer size constant is used to calculate the size of the buffer in bits associated with one
HARQ channel as per the formula -
Buffer size (bits) = floor (512 X 2k/4)
44
The explicit ACK delay refers to the number of frames the sender must wait in order to
get an explicit acknowledgement from the receiver on the given HARQ channel. In WiMAX,
explicit acks are used in DL flows and implicit acks are used in UL flows.
Table 4.2: HARQ Simulation Parameters
S. No. Simulation Parameters Value
1 Max. HARQ retrans-
missions
4 packets
2 No. of HARQ U/L
channels
8
3 No. of HARQ D/L
channels
16
4 Buffer Size constant (K) 20
5 Explicit Ack Delay 1 frame
The simulations were performed on video and VoIP application traffic and the obtained
results are explained in the following section. Both these applications use UDP as their
transport protocol which is based on best effort delivery.
4.4 Results
The simulations were performed under two conditions - the conventional HARQ and
the modified HARQ version. In the fist sub-section, the results of conventional HARQ
performance is described. In the second sub-section, the performance improvement by
using the modified HARQ scheme over the conventional HARQ for VOIP application traffic
is discussed. In the third sub-section, video application was employed and the performance
improvement was deduced.
45
4.4.1 HARQ
HARQ was enabled on node 2 and some important characteristics of HARQ can be
seen. For instance, the HARQ transmission rate is directly related to the achieved through-
put. Figure 4.3 shows the average throughput in bps and figure 4.4 depicts the average
HARQ transmission rate in packets per second. The nodes used VOIP application and the
scheduling service was based on best effort mechanism. We can see a better throughput
intially and then it becomes constant. The initial high throughput is because of lesser con-
gestion in the beginning. This characteristic was found to be similar in the improvement
case also.
Figure 4.3: Throughput improvement using HARQ
46
Figure 4.4: HARQ transmission rate
4.4.2 VOIP application
By using conventional HARQ, the throughput improvement on node 2 is shown in
figure 4.5 . Voice over IP application parameters were chosen to PCM quality as designated
by the OPNET Modeler. One frame was allowed to be sent in a single packet and the
delay in compressing and decompressing a voice packet was set to be the default value
of 0.02 seconds. The scheduling service associated with this flow is based on best effort
mechanism. It can be seen that initially there is significant thoughput improvement but as
time progresses, node 2 throughput is comparable to the others. This is primarily because
of higher congestion in the network as time progresses and packet losses due to the use of
same sub-channel over a considerable period of time.
47
Figure 4.5: Voip application throughput using conventional HARQ mechanism
The improvement in HARQ mechanism was performed and simulated. The improve-
ment yielded better throughput for node 2 as shown in figure 4.6. The throughput of other
nodes were comparatively lessened but the improvement in node 2 throughput is significant.
The comparison of the HARQ improvement and classical version is shown in figure 4.7. It
can be seen that the average throughput using the improved HARQ scheme is much higher
than the conventional scheme. The throughput variation is high initially and becomes con-
stant as time progresses. This variation is because initially the congestion of frames in the
network is less while congestion increases as time progresses. We can also observe that
the reduction in throughput is comparatively lesser. This is because the improved HARQ
scheme selects the HARQ transmission sub-channel in random fashion. Hence, the conges-
tion in a random sub-channel varies in a random fashion. Thus, by addressing a random
problem with a random solution, we are able to obtain better performance.
48
Figure 4.6: Voip application throughput using improved HARQ mechanism
The improvement also results in lesser packet end to end delay which is the major
service quality parameter in VOIP applications. This is depicted in figure 4.8.
49
Figure 4.7: Voip application throughput of improved and conventional HARQ mechanism
on node 2
Figure 4.8: Average packet end to end delay in improved HARQ mechanism on node 2
50
The average overall packet delay variation over time for both improved and conven-
tional HARQ schemes is shown in figure 4.9. We can observe that the delay variation is
almost the same. However, the initial delay in the improved version is lesser comparatively.
The improved HARQ scheme proves to improve network performance by providing higher
throughput with a slightly lesser delay.
Figure 4.9: Overall VoIP average packet delay variation
4.4.3 Video Application
Video application was used and the performance was evaluated. The video application
parameters were chosen to VCR quality as defined by OPNET Modeler. The frame inter-
arrival time was chosen to be the default value of 30 frames per second with a frame size
of 352X240 pixels. The video throughput analysis using the conventional HARQ scheme is
shown in figure 4.10. The throughput reduction as time progresses can be explained with
high initial congestion and use of same HARQ sub-channel. Since, the scheduling service
51
is based on best effort mechanism, as time progresses all nodes except node 2 achieves
comparable throughputs. Node 2 gets better throughput because of HARQ mechanism.
Figure 4.10: Video application throughput of conventional HARQ mechanism on node 2
It was found that the HARQ improvement yielded better throughput for this appli-
cation also as shown in figure 4.11. Here, the throughput is much higher than the other
nodes. Comparatively, this mechanism yields higher throughput for the node employing
HARQ than the other nodes because of using a part of the entire bandwidth for HARQ
transmissions. Better utilization of channel bandwidth is important in video applications as
more error-free packets can be sent through the network. The number of packets destroyed
in both schemes for video application traffic is compared as shown in figure 4.12. Lesser
number of packets are destroyed in the improved version. This is due to efficient usage of
channel resources and lesser errors. These results comprehensively prove the advantage of
the improved HARQ scheme.
52
Figure 4.11: Video application throughput of improved HARQ mechanism on node 2
Figure 4.12: Number of packets destroyed
53
4.5 conclusion
HARQmechanismemployedalong withOFDMA isan importantadvantagein WiMAX
networks. The channel diversity exploitation can be done by using OFDMA and the HARQ
retransmissions can be scheduled accordingly. HARQ can be used to reduce packet errors
in the network. Scheduling HARQ retransmissions is important and determining whether
a retransmission is necessary is required. These measures in unison can improve the overall
network performance. This fact has been proved by scheduling appropriate HARQ trans-
missions and retransmissions in a random sub-channel at a particular scheduling period of
time. The results prove the significant throughput and delay improvements in VoIP and
video application traffic.
4.6 Future Work
The future work in this line of research includes analyzing the effect of this algorithm
on the other HARQ types. The modification of the packet format and related analysis
would be interesting. The efficiency of the algorithm when applied at the subscriber end is
also a direction to be considered.
54
Chapter 5
Conclusion
WiMAX, officially termed as IEEE 802.16, is the latest wireless standard developed
for metropolitan area networks. It can be applied as backhaul or last mile networks. The
most important feature in WiMAX is the tansmission scheduler employed in layer 2. The
medium access method in WiMAX is based on a Request/Grant mechanism. In WiMAX
operation, the data transmission by a user with a particular frequency is scheduled in time.
The base station is responsible for making this scheduling decision. Three types of networks
were analyzed and performance enhancement and the importance of scheduling was studied.
In the first scenario, the problem of varying channel conditions over time and mobility
was addressed. It was found that transmission scheduling based on instantaneous channel
properties like signal to noise ratio could yield significant throughput improvement. In
order to perform this task, graph theoretic algorithms were used. Two successive greedy
heuristics were used to map the sub-carriers and time slots to users. The mismatches in
this typical bi-partite matching problem were handled and the algorithm was implemented
in NS2 simulator. The results showed significant overall throughput improvement over the
round robin scheduler and Munkre?s assignment algorithm based scheduler.
In the second scenario, the 802.11 nodes were connected to the internet using a WiMAX
back haul network. The 802.16 base station was assumed to be the gateway. In this hier-
archical network, it was found that the 802.16 subscribers suffered detrimental throughput
when there are too many nodes contending for connection with the base station. This
problem was tackled by assigning alternate routes for packets originating from 802.11 users
55
requesting lower service quality. NS2 simulator was used and it was found that the packet
end-to-end delay, a service quality metric for VOIP users was lesser and average network
performance was improved.
Hybrid automatic repeat request is an important phenomenon in WiMAX networks.
Scheduling HARQ transmissions in OFDMA based networks is an important task for wire-
less medium that contributes to high packet losses. We can observe that HARQ improves
the average throughput by using appropriate error handling techniques. Assigning appropri-
ate sub-carriers for these HARQ transmissions can further reduce the packet errors. Hence,
it proves to be an efficient method for HARQ in OFDMA networks. This algorithm was
compared and contrasted with the normal HARQ technique and the results show significant
improvement in average throughput and packet end to end delay for common applications
such as video and VoIP.
These solutions clearly indicate the importance of scheduling in WiMAX based wireless
networks and performance enhancement by using efficient scheduling techniques. Three
improtant applications of WiMAX networks were considered and solutions for significant
issues were implemented and analyzed.
56
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