A Presidential Curriculum: An Examination of the Relationship between Higher Education Administration Programs and Preparation towards the University Presidency by Sydney Freeman, Jr. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama August 6, 2011 Keywords: University, President, Higher Education Graduate Programs Theoretical Framework Copyright 2011 by Sydney Freeman, Jr. Approved by Frances K. Kochan, Chair, Professor of Educational Foundations, Leadership and Technology Jose Llanes, Professor of Educational Foundations, Leadership and Technology Maria M. Witte, Associate Professor of Educational Foundations, Leadership and Technology ii Abstract Since the election of the first American college president in 1640?Henry Dunster of Harvard College?the position of president has been one of extreme responsibility and high visibility. There are many questions regarding how best to prepare individuals to attain this role (Chandler, 2006). Individuals come to the presidency from a variety of environments. Some come from corporations, some from governmental settings, and others come through traditional academic venues, having received doctoral degrees in an academic field of study. Recent data from the American Council of Education (2008) reported that over 40% of college and university presidents have earned a doctoral degree in either education or higher education. Graduate programs are viewed as a powerful force that not only structures the mind, but helps to shape the facts one legitimizes and how one interprets them (Brown, 2008). This study sought to examine the content and effectiveness of these programs from the perspective of university presidents who graduated from them and to formulate recommendations for improving their effectiveness in preparing future executive leaders. iii Acknowledgments To my mentors? Although there have been many who have been a source of strength through my doctoral process, I would like to acknowledge a few individuals who have helped me develop into the man and scholar I have become. Dr. Don-Terry Veal, thank you for having the hard conversations with me about my professional development. Mentoring and advising me not to take the easy road out. Dr. Nat Irvin, thank you for challenging me to think as a ?Thrival.? Ms. Fran Smith, thank you for encouraging me to pace myself through my graduate program. Dr. David Diramio, my advisor through my masters and doctoral program. Thank you for always challenging me to be the best I could be. Dr. Ivan Watts, you have been such a great mentor. You do not know how much you impact the Black men in our department. Thank you for your support. Mrs. Elaine Jordan, thank you for all of your spiritual/encouraging words and conversations. Fred ?Pops? Murphy Sr., thank you so much for your listening ear and advice. I share a piece of this degree with you. To my colleagues? Pastor Nicardo Delehaye, It seems just like it was yesterday that we were talking about earning our graduate degrees and now we are seeing our dreams fulfilled. Be faithful, because if God can do this for me, he can do it for you. Andrew Patterson (college roommate), I truly appreciate our friendship. Your time is coming soon! And to my friend Dr. Brandon Wolfe, words cannot express my gratitude to you for your support, encouragement and mentorship. Even when I tried to develop a dissertation study group and no one else came, you stuck in there iv with me until the very end. I appreciate your friendship and look forward to future professional collaborations. To my committee? My deepest gratitude and thanks belong to my dissertation chair, Dr. Frances K. Kochan. I am forever indebted to you for your guidance and support. Even when naysayers said I could not complete this type of a-typical dissertation, you provided the expertise for this project to be completed. You will always be my Dean! Dr. Maria Witte, you were the first person I spoke to here at Auburn. Thank you for your investment in my professional development over these past four years. Dr. Jose Llanes, you have made a consistent effort to make sure that I was growing professionally from my first conference to my final project, the dissertation. Thank you for making sure I left Auburn with the knowledge, skills and competencies I need to be successful in my career. And to Dr. Jared Russell, thank you for being a mentor and friend. Serving as an outside reader just topped the cake. To my family? One wise person once said that when a person earns a doctorate they do not just earn a degree. The effect of this attainment has the potential to inspire and change the trajectory of your family. As the first person in my immediate family to earn an academic degree I pass the baton of academic excellence to my brother Marcus and sister Cassie. Always keep God first and strive for excellence in whatever path you decide to take. Sydney Sr. (Dad) and Cassandra (Mom) Freeman, thank you for your sacrifice and support throughout the years. And to my lovely wife Lynda, I could not accomplish the degree without your endless love and support. To God? Be the glory, great things he hath done!!! v Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... xxix List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xxxi List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. xxxii Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................. 1 Purposes of Study ............................................................................................................. 2 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 3 Methodological Framework .............................................................................................. 3 Phase 1 .................................................................................................................. 3 Population and Sample ..................................................................................................... 5 Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis ......................................................................... 7 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................. 9 Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................. 10 Assumptions of the Study ............................................................................................... 10 Definitions....................................................................................................................... 11 Summary ......................................................................................................................... 14 vi Chapter 2. Review of Literature................................................................................................. 15 Higher Education as a Field of Study ............................................................................. 15 Community College Presidents........................................................................... 17 Student Affairs Practitioners ............................................................................... 20 Graduate Program Development..................................................................................... 26 Defining the Program .......................................................................................... 26 Program Faculty Expertise .................................................................................. 28 Departmental Resources ..................................................................................... 29 Student Needs ..................................................................................................... 29 Assessing Student Learning Outcomes ............................................................... 31 Teaching, Learning and the Curriculum ............................................................. 32 Student Diversity ................................................................................................ 33 Student Expectations ........................................................................................... 35 Student Learning Styles ...................................................................................... 35 Identify Costs ...................................................................................................... 37 Accreditation (Regional/Discipline Specific) ..................................................... 38 Relationship to the Hosting Academic Unit ....................................................... 38 Admission Policy/Application Rates .................................................................. 38 Assessing Student Learning Outcomes ............................................................... 39 Student Class Size ............................................................................................... 40 Faculty Rewards System ..................................................................................... 40 Doctoral Student Development ....................................................................................... 41 University Presidency ..................................................................................................... 43 vii Knowledge and Competencies ........................................................................................ 45 ACE: Pathway to the Presidency Study .............................................................. 48 Graying of the Presidency ............................................................................................... 50 Presidential Pathways .................................................................................................... 59 Academic Backgrounds ...................................................................................... 59 Experience........................................................................................................... 60 Considerations in Moving to the Presidency ...................................................... 62 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 64 Chapter References ......................................................................................................... 65 Chapter 3. Methods ..................................................................................................................... 75 Purposes of the Study...................................................................................................... 75 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 75 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 76 Research Design and Rationale ...................................................................................... 76 Phase One: Quantitative Analysis and Population and Sample Selection ...................... 76 Population and Sample ................................................................................................... 79 Phase 2: Qualitative Methodological Framework........................................................... 81 Life History Case Study ...................................................................................... 81 Multi-Grounded Theory ...................................................................................... 82 Data Collection Processes ............................................................................................... 84 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 88 Unitizing ............................................................................................................. 89 Coding ................................................................................................................. 91 viii Coding Process.................................................................................................... 93 Journaling ............................................................................................................ 96 Concerns for Internal/External Validity.......................................................................... 97 Concerns for Reliability and Generalizability of Results ............................................... 98 Approval and Endorsement........................................................................................... 101 Pilot Testing .................................................................................................................. 102 Limitations of the Methodology ................................................................................... 104 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 104 Chapter 4. Manuscript 1: University Presidents? Perspectives of the Knowledge and Competencies Needed for Executive Higher Education Leadership ............................ 106 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 106 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 107 The University Presidency ............................................................................................ 108 Community College Presidents......................................................................... 109 Methods......................................................................................................................... 112 Phase Population and Sample Selection ........................................................... 112 Data Collection Processes ............................................................................................. 114 Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 116 Concerns for Internal/External Validity........................................................................ 116 Concerns for Reliability and Generalizability of Results ............................................. 117 Limitations of the Methodology ....................................................................... 117 Findings......................................................................................................................... 118 Coding Process.................................................................................................. 118 Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................................... 119 ix Foundational Knowledge .............................................................................................. 119 History of Higher Education ......................................................................................... 120 Finance in Higher Education ............................................................................ 120 Knowledge Acquisition ................................................................................................ 122 Knowledge Acquisition of Context .................................................................. 122 Understanding Public Image ............................................................................. 123 Complex Cognitive Thinking ........................................................................... 124 Competencies ................................................................................................................ 124 Interpersonal Development ............................................................................... 125 Personal Attributes ............................................................................................ 126 Management .................................................................................................................. 127 Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning ....................................... 128 Enrollment Management ................................................................................... 128 Fundraising ....................................................................................................... 129 Strategic Planning ............................................................................................. 130 Communications ........................................................................................................... 131 Writing to Diverse Audiences ........................................................................... 131 Speaking to Diverse Audiences ........................................................................ 132 Discussion and Implications ......................................................................................... 133 President as Leader and Manager ..................................................................... 133 Suggestions for the Future Research............................................................................. 136 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 137 Chapter References ....................................................................................................... 138 x Chapter 5. Manuscript 2: Academic Pathways to University Leadership: Presidents Descriptions of Their Doctoral Education ................................................... 142 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 142 Purpose and Research Question .................................................................................... 143 Significance................................................................................................................... 143 Doctoral Student Development ..................................................................................... 144 Historical Overview of the University Presidency ....................................................... 144 Research on Academic Preparation for the Presidency .................................... 145 Higher Education Doctoral Programs ........................................................................... 145 Methods......................................................................................................................... 148 Phase One?Quantitative Analysis and Population and Sample Selection ...... 148 Case Study ........................................................................................................ 152 Data Collection Processes ............................................................................................. 153 Coding and Data Analysis Process ................................................................... 154 Concerns for Internal/External Validity, Reliability and Generalizability of Results .. 154 Limitations of the Methodology ................................................................................... 155 Presidents Descriptions of their Doctoral Education .................................................... 155 Knowledge ........................................................................................................ 155 Foundational Knowledge .................................................................................. 156 History of Higher Education ......................................................................................... 157 Finance .............................................................................................................. 158 Knowledge Acquisition of the Context............................................................. 159 Subject Matter Mastery ..................................................................................... 159 Knowledge Application .................................................................................... 160 xi Complex Cognitive Thinking ........................................................................... 161 Integrate Complex Ideas ................................................................................... 161 Intellectual Flexibility ....................................................................................... 162 Competencies ................................................................................................................ 162 Interpersonal Development ............................................................................... 163 Personal Attributes ............................................................................................ 165 Management ...................................................................................................... 165 Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning ....................................... 166 Enrollment Management ................................................................................... 167 Strategic Planning ............................................................................................. 168 Communications ........................................................................................................... 168 Writing .............................................................................................................. 169 Public Speaking ................................................................................................ 170 Program Weaknesses ........................................................................................ 171 Fundraising ....................................................................................................... 171 Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning ....................................... 172 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 173 Curricular Implications ..................................................................................... 173 Policy and Practice Implications ....................................................................... 176 Suggestions for the Future Research............................................................................. 177 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 178 Chapter References ....................................................................................................... 180 xii Chapter 6. Manuscript 3: Towards a Theory of Higher Education Leadership Development . 185 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 185 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 186 Significance................................................................................................................... 187 Methods......................................................................................................................... 187 Population and Sample ..................................................................................... 187 Multi-Grounded Theory .................................................................................... 188 Data Collection Processes ................................................................................. 190 Coding and Data Analysis Process ................................................................... 191 Concerns for Internal/External Validity, and Reliability of Results ................. 191 Theoretical Model ............................................................................................. 192 External and Internal Forces ............................................................................. 193 Elements of the Program Development Process ............................................... 194 Propositions and Discussion ............................................................................. 195 Presidential Perspectives ............................................................................................... 196 Curricular Issues ............................................................................................... 196 Faculty Topics ................................................................................................... 200 Student Factors.................................................................................................. 203 Curriculum Issues ............................................................................................. 205 Faculty Topics ................................................................................................... 209 Student Factors.................................................................................................. 211 Curriculum Issues ............................................................................................. 213 Faculty Topics ................................................................................................... 216 xiii Student Factors.................................................................................................. 217 Summary of Propositions and Elements ....................................................................... 219 Implications................................................................................................................... 221 Suggestions for Future Research .................................................................................. 222 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 222 Chapter References ....................................................................................................... 223 Chapter 7. Data Review ............................................................................................................ 228 Professional Biographies of the Participants ................................................................ 228 Meet the Participants......................................................................................... 231 Elijah Alexander ................................................................................... 231 Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................................... 232 Gavin Benjamin .................................................................................... 233 Levi Carter ............................................................................................ 234 Nolan Cooper ........................................................................................ 235 Joshua Dillan ......................................................................................... 235 Jessica Elliott ........................................................................................ 237 Ian Flynn ............................................................................................... 238 Lucas Jacob ........................................................................................... 239 William James ....................................................................................... 239 Peter Johns ............................................................................................ 240 Emelia Lily............................................................................................ 241 Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................................... 242 xiv Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 243 Unitizing ........................................................................................................... 244 Coding ............................................................................................................... 244 Coding Process.................................................................................................. 245 Journaling .......................................................................................................... 246 Presidential Quotations ................................................................................................. 246 Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning ....................................... 248 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 248 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 248 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 248 President William James ....................................................................... 248 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 249 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 249 President William James ....................................................................... 249 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 249 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 249 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 249 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 249 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 250 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 250 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 250 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 250 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 250 xv President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 251 Attendance and Membership in Professional Societies .................................... 251 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 251 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 251 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 252 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 252 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 252 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 253 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 253 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 253 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 253 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 253 President Nolen Cooper ........................................................................ 254 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 254 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 255 Case Study ........................................................................................................ 256 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 256 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 256 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 256 President William James ....................................................................... 256 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 256 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 257 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 257 xvi President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 257 Communications ............................................................................................... 257 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 257 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 258 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 258 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 258 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 258 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 258 President William James ....................................................................... 259 President Jessica Elliot .......................................................................... 259 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 259 Complex Cognitive Thinking ........................................................................... 259 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 259 President William James ....................................................................... 259 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 259 President William James ....................................................................... 260 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 260 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 260 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 260 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 261 President William James ....................................................................... 261 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 261 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 261 xvii President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 261 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 261 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 262 Crisis Management ........................................................................................... 262 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 262 Curriculum ........................................................................................................ 263 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 263 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 263 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 263 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 263 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 264 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 264 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 264 Enrollment Management ................................................................................... 264 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 264 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 264 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 265 President William James ....................................................................... 265 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 265 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 265 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 265 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 265 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 266 xviii President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 266 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 266 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 267 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 267 Finance .............................................................................................................. 267 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 267 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 268 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 268 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 268 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 269 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 269 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 269 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 269 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 269 President William James ....................................................................... 269 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 270 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 270 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 270 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 270 Foundational Knowledge .................................................................................. 270 President William James ....................................................................... 270 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 271 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 271 xix President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 271 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 271 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 271 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 272 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 272 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 272 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 272 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 272 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 272 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 273 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 273 Fundraising ....................................................................................................... 273 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 273 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 273 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 273 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 274 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 274 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 274 President William James ....................................................................... 275 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 275 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 275 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 275 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 276 xx President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 276 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 277 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 277 Hands-on Experience ........................................................................................ 277 President William James ....................................................................... 277 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 277 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 278 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 278 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 278 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 278 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 278 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 279 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 279 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 279 History of Higher Education ............................................................................. 280 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 280 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 280 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 280 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 280 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 280 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 280 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 281 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 281 xxi President William James ....................................................................... 281 Interpersonal Development/Human Relations .................................................. 281 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 281 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 281 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 282 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 282 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 282 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 282 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 282 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 283 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 283 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 283 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 283 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 283 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 283 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 284 Knowledge Acquisition of the Context............................................................. 284 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 284 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 284 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 284 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 284 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 285 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 285 xxii President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 285 President William James ....................................................................... 285 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 285 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 286 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 286 Leadership ......................................................................................................... 286 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 286 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 286 President William James ....................................................................... 287 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 287 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 287 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 288 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 288 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 288 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 288 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 289 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 289 Learning Goals .................................................................................................. 289 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 289 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 289 Management ...................................................................................................... 290 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 290 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 290 xxiii President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 290 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 290 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 290 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 291 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 291 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 292 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 292 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 292 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 292 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 293 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 293 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 293 Mentoring .......................................................................................................... 293 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 293 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 293 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 294 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 294 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 294 President William James ....................................................................... 294 President William James ....................................................................... 295 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 295 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 297 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 297 xxiv President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 297 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 298 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 298 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 299 Personal Attributes ............................................................................................ 300 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 300 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 301 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 301 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 301 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 301 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 302 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 302 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 302 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 303 President William James ....................................................................... 303 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 303 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 304 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 304 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 304 Public Speaking/Presentations .......................................................................... 304 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 304 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 304 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 304 xxv President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 305 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 305 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 305 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 305 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 305 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 306 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 306 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 307 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 307 Program Faculty ................................................................................................ 307 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 307 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 307 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 308 President William James ....................................................................... 308 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 308 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 308 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 308 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 309 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 309 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 309 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 309 Stress Management ........................................................................................... 310 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 310 xxvi President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 310 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 310 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 311 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 312 Strategic Planning ............................................................................................. 313 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 313 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 313 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 313 President William James ....................................................................... 313 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 313 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 313 Understanding Public Image/Symbolic Leadership .......................................... 314 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 314 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 314 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 314 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 314 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 314 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 315 President William James ....................................................................... 315 President Gavin Benjamn ..................................................................... 315 Teaching and Learning Activities ..................................................................... 315 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 315 President William James ....................................................................... 315 xxvii President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 315 President William James ....................................................................... 316 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 316 President Emelia Lily ............................................................................ 316 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 316 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 316 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 317 President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 317 Theory ............................................................................................................... 317 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 317 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 317 President Levi Carter ............................................................................ 317 President Ian Flynn ............................................................................... 318 President Elijah Alexander ................................................................... 318 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 318 President Gavin Benjamin .................................................................... 318 President William James ....................................................................... 318 Writing .............................................................................................................. 318 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 318 President Joshua Dillan ......................................................................... 319 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 319 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 319 President Peter Johns ............................................................................ 319 xxviii President Evelyn Aurora ....................................................................... 319 President William James ....................................................................... 319 President Nolan Cooper ........................................................................ 320 President Emilia Lily ............................................................................ 320 President Lucus Jacob ........................................................................... 320 President Ryan Wyatt ........................................................................... 320 President Jessica Elliott......................................................................... 320 Section III?Definitions and Charts ............................................................................. 320 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 324 References ............................................................................................................................... 325 Appendix 1 Auburn University Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval Letter ............... 344 Appendix 2 ACE Request for Use of Survey Data and Approval to Use Data ........................ 347 Appendix 3 IRB Recruitment Script ......................................................................................... 351 Appendix 4 IRB Interview Guide ............................................................................................. 352 Appendix 5 Higher Education as a Field of Study: Bibliography ............................................ 355 xxix List of Tables Table 1 Study Participants ....................................................................................................... 7 Table 2 Age Groups of College Presidents ............................................................................ 51 Table 3 Percentage of Presidencies Held by Women, by Sector ........................................... 55 Table 4 Marital Status of Presidents, 2006 ............................................................................ 56 Table 5 Distribution of Presidents by Race/Ethnicity ............................................................ 58 Table 6 Chi-square Analysis of Presidential Preparedness .................................................... 79 Table 7 Priori Codes ............................................................................................................. 89 Table 8 Priori Codes 2 ........................................................................................................... 90 Table 9 Priori Codes 3 ........................................................................................................... 92 Table 10 Priori Codes 4 ........................................................................................................... 92 Table 11 Priori Codes 5 ........................................................................................................... 94 Table 12 Priori Codes 6 ........................................................................................................... 95 Table 13 Priori Codes 7 ........................................................................................................... 97 Table 14 Study Participants ................................................................................................... 113 Table 15 Knowledge Areas .................................................................................................... 119 Table 16 Competency Areas .................................................................................................. 125 Table 17 Chi-square Analysis of Presidential Preparedness .................................................. 150 Table 18 Means and Standard Deviations for the College or University Presidents ............. 151 Table 19 Knowledge Areas .................................................................................................... 156 xxx Table 20 Competency Areas .................................................................................................. 163 xxxi List of Figures Figure 1 Empirical Data (ACE Presidential Study), Research Interest (Higher Education Programs) and Existing Conceptual Frameworks based on Goldkuhl and Cronholm, (2003) ................................................................. 82 / 190 Figure 2 Conceptual Framework for Study based on Multi-grounded Theory Developed by Goldkuhl and Cronholm (2003, p. 2) ................................................ 83 Figure 3 Model Used as a Dialectical Synthesis between Inductivism and Deductivism .... 102 Figure 4 Model of Higher Education Leadership Development in Academic Preparation Programs ............................................................................. 193 xxxii List of Abbreviations ACE American Council of Education Bac/AS Baccalaureate College-Arts & Sciences Bac/Diverse Baccalaureate College-Diverse Fields CEO Chief Executive Officer DRU Doctoral Research University Ed.D. Educational Doctorate GT Grounded Theory HBCU Historically Black College or University LHCS Life History Case Study Master?s/L Master?s College and University (Larger Programs? Master?s/M Master?s College and University (medium programs) MGT Multi-Grounded Theory PhD Doctor of Philosophy PWI Predominately White Institution RU/VH Research University (very high research activity) UP University President UPIU University President Information Unit 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Since the election of the first American college president in 1640?Henry Dunster of Harvard College?the position of president has been one of extreme responsibility and high visibility. There are many questions regarding how best to prepare individuals to attain this role (Chadler, 2006). Individuals come to the presidency from a variety of environments. Some come from corporations, some from governmental settings, and others come through traditional academic venues, having received doctoral degrees in an academic field of study. Recent data from the American Council of Education (2008) reported that over 40% of college and university presidents have earned a doctoral degree in either education or higher education. Graduate programs are viewed as a powerful force that not only structures the mind, but helps to shape the facts one legitimizes and how one interprets them (Brown, 2008). This study sought to examine the content and effectiveness of these programs from the perspective of university presidents who graduated from them and to formulate recommendations for improving their effectiveness in preparing future executive leaders. Statement of Problem Many years ago, Crosson and Glenn (1984) posed the questions ?What makes a distinguished program? What type of program responds best to students? aspirations and needs?? (p. 30). These are critical questions in an era of increased accountability and in times when higher education administration programs are being merged or even eliminated in light of 2 budget shortages (Katsinas, 2007). Yet, although these questions have been asked for many years, a lack of research has been conducted to adequately address them. Dressel and Mayhew conducted the seminal work on this topic. Their 1974 book entitled Higher Education as a Field of Study provided a critical assessment of the quality of higher education programs up to that time. They were pioneers in the study of higher education as a specialized field. Their text provided insights into the historical background, problems and issues, prospects and needs of this new emerging specialized field of study. In that study, Dressel and Mayhew found no empirical evidence to support the notion that higher education programs prepared college and university administrators better than other disciplines. The field of higher education has developed over the last 100 years. Higher education programs have been studied extensively by scholars in the field of education over the last 40 years (Altbach, Bozeman, & Janashia, 2007; Barnett, 2007; Dressel & Mayhew, 1974; Fife & Goodchild, 1991; Kienle & Loyd, 2005; Wright & Miller, 2007). However, although graduate student expectations and preparation for executive leadership in higher education have been studied as separate research topics, there is a lack of research that has addressed these topics collectively (AGBUC, 2006; Stuver, 2006). This study extends and enhances the existing research. Purposes of the Study The first purpose of the study was to investigate the core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by a sample group of sitting university presidents. The second purpose was to gather information on university presidents? perceptions of their training related to their preparation for the university presidency. The final purpose of the study was to propose a theoretical model of program development in higher education leadership. 3 Research Questions This study investigated the following questions: 1. What are the core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by university presidents? 2. What are the perceptions of university presidents of the adequacy of their doctoral training in preparing them for their role in executive leadership at the university level? 3. What theoretical model should be used in developing an academic preparation program to prepare university presidents? Methodological Framework The research used a mixed-methods approach involving both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase one used quantitative methods to identify the sample population and to examine presidents? beliefs about the importance of identified skills and competencies for presidential leadership and the degree to which their programs prepared them for the presidency. This information was used to develop interview questions for the study. Phase two of the study involved the use of qualitative methods to gather data needed to address the research questions posed. Phase 1 The initial research phase involved analyzing quantitative data provided by the American Council of Education?s (ACE) study published as ?The American College President: 2007 Edition.? There were 2,148 presidents who participated in this study. Of these, 891 identified themselves as having earned a terminal degree in education or higher education. After sorting out these two groups, the researcher conducted a study to examine if and how these differences 4 in educational backgrounds related to the participants? perceptions of their preparedness for the presidency. In addition to other questions, the ACE study included the question, ?In which of the following areas did you feel insufficiently prepared for your first presidency? The question included 17 variables: (1) Academic issues (e.g., curriculum changes), (2) Accountability/ assessment of student learning, (3) Athletics, (4) Budget/financial management, (5) Capital improvement projects, (6) Community relations, (7) Crisis management, (8) Enrollment management, (9) Entrepreneurial ventures, (10) Faculty issues, (11) Fund raising, (12) Governing board relations, (13) Government relations, (14) Media/public relations, (15) Personnel issues (excluding faculty), (16) Risk management/legal issues, and (17) Strategic planning. These competencies have been identified, developed, and refined over 20 years through interviews and feedback from college and university presidents (ACE, 2008; J. King, personal communication, September 4, 2010). A t-test was used to determine the extent of the differences the degree to which these two groups of presidents believed they were prepared for their first presidency in these seventeen competency areas. Out of the 17 variables in the study, presidents with doctorates in education or higher education felt more prepared than presidents with doctoral backgrounds in other disciplines in the area of enrollment management. In contrast, presidents with doctorates in education or higher education felt less prepared than presidents with doctoral backgrounds in other disciplines in the area of fundraising. While not statistically significant, presidents with a terminal degree in education/ higher education felt more prepared to assess student-learning duties (Question 35B) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (no chi-square results). This information was 5 used to assist in creating the interview script. The study and process are described more fully in Chapter 3. Population and Sample The population of this study was derived from the 1,647 college and university presidents, affiliated with the American Council of Education, and listed on their organizational website as of December 26, 2010 (American Council of Education, 2010, para. 1). The sample was reduced to include only presidents who received a doctorate with a specialization in higher education administration and served in institutions whose official name included the word ?university.? This was done to limit the population, to bring consistency to the study sample, and to meet the purposes of the study, which was focused on academic programs in higher education. Eight hundred-ninety one (891) college and university presidents identified themselves as having either earned a doctoral degree in education or higher education. These 891 presidents were located in four-year colleges and universities that represented all regions of the United States, and a mixture of urban, suburban, and rural settings. The following university types were represented in the study: Master?s Universities (smaller, medium, and larger programs); Research Universities (high and very high research activity); and Doctoral/Research Universities. Identification of university type was based on the 2009 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching standard listing. Of these 891 presidents, 150 were located in universities. These university presidents were solicited via email or phone to participate in this study as approved by Auburn University?s Institutional Review Board (see Appendix 1). Thirteen of these presidents agreed to participate. There were several reasons the presidents stated that they were unable to participate. Among 6 their stated reasons were: lack of time, they were not university presidents; and they did not possess a doctoral degree in education with a specialization in higher education. Creswell (2002) advocates that data saturation can be met by including 3?5 participants in case study projects and 15?20 in grounded theory projects. Maxwell?s (1998) suggests that a small sample size is acceptable in qualitative research because qualitative research is a rigorous and systematic methodology. Thus, it was determined that 13 would be an adequate sample for the study. The 13 participants are described by their sex, ethnicity, doctoral degree emphasis, region of the country where their current institution is located, and the historic designation of the university they currently serve. In addition, the table identifies whether the current institution where the president serves is governed or controlled by a private or public board and denotes the enrollment size of the institution. Pseudonyms are used in the table when identifying the presidents and their institutions. 7 Table 1 Study Participants President (Pseudonym) University (Pseudonym) Gende r Ethnicity Region Historical Designation Control Carnegie Classification Enrollment Size 1 Peter Johns Ethansville Male White Southeast PWI Private/ Religious Master?s/M Less than 5,000 2 Lucas Jacob Landon State Male White Southeast PWI Public Bac/Diverse Less than 3,000 3 Gavin Benjamin Connor State Male White Southeast PWI Public Master?s/L Less than 10,000 4 Elijah Alexander Owen A&M Male Black Southeast HBCU Public Master?s/L Less than 7,000 5 Nolan Cooper Maddox Central Male Black Southeast HBCU Public Master?s/L Less than 8,000 6 Emelia Lily Ava-Asher Female White Northwest PWI Public Bac/AS Less than 5,000 7 William James St. Nathan Male White Northeast PWI Private/ Religious Master?s/L Less than 8,000 8 Jessica Elliott Madison Female White Northeast PWI Private/ Religious Master?s L Less than 4,000 9 Joshua Dillan Grayson Male White Southeast PWI Private/ Religious Bac/AS Less than 2,000 10 Levi Carter Xavierville Male White Northeast PWI Private Bac/Diverse Less than 3,000 11 Ian Fynn Dominic State Male White Mid-West PWI Public RU/VH Less than 51,000 12 Evelyn Aurora Alexis Female Black Northeast HBCU Public Master?s/M Less than 2,000 13 Ryan Wyatt Micah-Henry Male White Midwest PWI Private/ Religious Bac/AS Less than 2,000 Historical Designation PWI? Predominately White Institution HBCU? Historically Black College or University Carnegie Classification DRU? Doctoral Research University Bac/Diverse? Baccalaureate College? Diverse Fields Master?s/L? Master?s College and University (Larger Programs? Bac/AS? Baccalaureate College-Arts & Sciences RU/VH? Research University (very high research activity) Master?s/M? Master?s College and University (medium programs) Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis This qualitative phase of the study was guided by both Life Histories Case Study methods (LHCS) and Multi-Grounded Theory (MGT). LHCS is a qualitative approach that enables researchers to understand the in-depth and comprehensive meanings in people?s lives and to 8 gather background information about the study participants (Campbell, 1999). The first part of this phase used life history as a methodological tool to explore the participants? perceptions of their graduate training in higher education administration and its role in preparation for their current position. In addition, this particular method is specifically designed to help researchers share people?s lives with outsiders (Atkinson, 1998). Therefore, this approach enabled the researcher to gain a complete and holistic perspective of the presidents? experiences to assist in understanding the findings and to begin the development of a theory of program development in higher education. This approach was also used to explore the knowledge, and competencies the presidents acquired somewhere other than in their doctoral programs, prior to and during their presidencies. To augment their stories, their curriculum vitas and published biographical sketches were reviewed. Additionally, a series of guided interviews were conducted to ask university presidents key questions about their past and present. Two guided interviews were conducted and university presidents were asked key questions about their life history including their training. This process provided an opportunity to construct their life stories, but also added rich data, which assisted in interpreting the responses and developing the information into a meaningful narrative. The life histories are limited specifically to reviewing the following periods in the presidents? lives, (1) Graduate School, (2) Professional Experience after Graduate School, and (3) the Presidency. The life histories address the presidents? backgrounds, their career experiences, their interpretation of their experience, the understanding of the environment around them, and the degree to which their programs prepared them for the presidency. 9 The researcher used multiple data sources to confirm the data results (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003). Using multiple sources enhanced the study by allowing for structural corroboration. Eisner (1998) describes structural corroboration as ?the confluence of multiple sources of evidence or the recurrence of instances that support a conclusion? (p. 55). The sources the researcher used were field notes taken during participant interviews, memoing (Corbin, 1990) ideas developed during the research process, pertinent literature, the presidents? curriculum vitae and biographical sketches, and audiotaping and videotaping the interviews. The researcher also used Multi-Grounded Theory (MGT). MGT is a qualitative research method aimed at generating theory that is grounded both in data and in established theory (Cronholm, 2004; Goldkuhl & Cronholm, 2003). By establishing MGT as a theoretical framework, this study combined both inductivism and deductivism in theory development (Cronholm, 2005). The MGT approach was built on the Grounded Theory method. Grounded Theory is a method that is advocated and was developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998). Although the initial Grounded Theory approach was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), Goldkuhl and Cronholm (2003) added three grounding approaches to extend this method. These approaches allow researchers to use both inductive analysis of data and some deductive use of other theories. Significance of the Study This study sought to examine the relationship between higher education administration programs and preparation towards executive leadership in higher education and the competencies needed for this role. The participants shared their opinions on the curriculum for higher education programs and the role that their programs played in their leadership development. The results should help administrators, curriculum developers, and faculty in higher education 10 administration programs better understand higher education students? needs and to help enhance their programs. This information could also serve as a framework for enriching the knowledge of college instructors and curriculum developers. In addition, it should provide information about how professional development, mentoring, coaching activities might be helpful in preparing individuals for executive leadership positions and ensuring their success. Limitations of the Study There are some limitations associated with this study. As noted in the description of the sample, this study was limited to the university presidents that have earned doctoral degrees with a concentration in Higher Education. This study included only presidents who served academic institutions with the suffix ?university.? Therefore, the findings are derived from only sitting university presidents. The research instrument used to collect data was face-to-face qualitative interviews, which allowed the researcher to assess opinions and feelings of the participants in-depth. This approach, however, allowed for the researcher to exhibit personal bias in questioning. Although the researcher used standard processes to overcome any bias, this is still a limitation in this type of research. Assumptions of the Study This study was based on the following assumptions: ? The participants answer the questions truthfully. ? The administration of the test (quantitative phase-ACE study) was consistent for all individuals. 11 ? Presidents know and can articulate perceptions of their doctoral programs and the influence on their current skill set, and can also provide recommendations on how program curriculum can be strengthened. ? University presidents who attended the 2010 American Council of Education (ACE) annual meeting were representative of other presidents who have a doctoral degree in higher education administration. Definitions Academic advisor ? the person assigned to serve as primary mentor to a student (Ivankova, 2004). Academic program of studies ? the designed sequence of formal and informal coursework, including research activities, internships, and directed study, prepared for each doctoral student and approved by the respecting Doctoral Supervisory Committee and Graduate School Dean (Ivankova, 2004). Adaptive competence ? the ability to anticipate and accommodate changes (for example, technological changes) important to the profession (Haynes, 1991). Basic knowledge and competency needs ? references common information and skills that key constituents of Higher Education programs perceive to be fundamentally important to the adequate basic preparation of students aspiring to be academic administrators (Haynes, 1991). Conceptual competence ? understanding the theoretical foundations of the profession (Haynes, 1991). Contextual competence ? understanding the societal context (environment) in which the profession is practiced (Haynes, 1991). 12 Curriculum planning ? the formal courses and learning experiences planned for doctoral students, leading to a doctoral degree (Mason, 1998). Curriculum ? the knowledge and skills component or the content to be taught and learned (subject content) (Haynes, 1991). Curriculum (program) content needs assessment ? the evaluative-research process of determining the knowledge and competences generally perceived by administrators and scholars to be fundamentally important to the adequate basic preparation of students aspiring to be academic administrators (Haynes, 1991). Department ? an academic section or division in a university, which as a rule forms part of a faculty (Uzoigwe, 1982). Doctoral degree ? the highest academic credential a student can earn for graduate study. The doctoral degree classification has numerous distinctions, such as Doctor of Education, Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor of Public Health, Doctor of Philosophy, etc. For this study, the consideration is on just the Doctor of Philosophy (Common Data Set of U.S. Higher Education Terminology, 2002). Ed.D. ? the Doctor of Education degree, a broadly focused research credential, designed to prepare scholars of application (Mason, 1998). Expectations ? the perceptions of appropriate behavior for the doctoral students or graduate?s own role and position or the perceptions of the role of others within a program or institution (Mason, 1998). Functional utility ? the programmatic or practical quality of a factor (Stevenson, 1982). Higher Education Administration Program ? an academic program that prepares students with the practical skills, knowledge, and experience to become professionals and leaders 13 in higher education institutions, national/international associations and organizations, government agencies, and corporations (Haynes, 1991). Integrative competence ? the ability to meld theory and technical skills in actual practice (Haynes, 1991). Interpersonal communication competence ? the ability to use written and oral communication effectively (Haynes, 1991). Major Professor ? the students? primary advisor and mentor (Poock, 1997). Motivation ? the stimulus that led doctoral students to make the choices they made and behave the way they did (Mason, 1998). Ph.D. ? the Doctor of Philosophy degree, a narrowly focused research credential designed to prepare research scholars (Mason, 1998). Potential program utility ? the perceived capacity of a Higher Education program to meet the authentic knowledge and competency needs of students of higher education administration (Hunkins, 1980; Zais, 1976). Presidential Competencies ? skills associated with the role of the University President (Haynes, 1991). Professional experience ? defined and measured in terms of faculty experience in postsecondary education, administrative experience outside of postsecondary education, and academic administrator experience in postsecondary education (Stevenson, 1982). Program value ? the graduate?s perceived value of the doctoral program attended by the graduate of that program (Mason, 1998). Self-efficacy ? people?s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives (Haynes, 1991). 14 Technical competence ? the ability to perform tasks required of the professional (Haynes, 1991). University ? the whole body of an institution of higher learning, which has the privilege of granting degrees (Barnard & Lauwerys, 1963). University President ? the highest-ranking administrative officer serving at a university (Haynes, 1991). Summary This chapter (Chapter 1) presented an overview of the study, its purposes, research questions, significance, and theoretical basis. The next chapter (Chapter 2) provides an overview of related literature. Chapter 3 details the methods used to conduct the study. This chapter is followed by manuscripts, which capture the essence of the study including findings, implications, and recommendations for further research. 15 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE This study is an examination of the curriculum of doctoral degree programs in higher education administration as it pertains to preparation for the university presidency. It focuses on preparation for the presidency and the implications for graduate curriculum in higher education administration programs. This chapter provides a review of the literature related to preparation for the university presidency and graduate curriculum in higher education administration programs. It serves as a foundation for the development and implementation of the study. The chapter includes a review of higher education as a field of study; graduate program development; doctoral student development; graduate student expectations; the American university presidency; the knowledge, and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education; the graying of the academy; and the academic pathways towards the presidency. Higher Education as a Field of Study Lester Goodchild (2002) defined higher education as a field of study that included ?sophisticated knowledge about and research on colleges, universities, and related postsecondary institutions, as well as the professional skills used by those persons who work in them? (p. 303). He describes the purpose of higher education programs as to ?educate and train professionals for administrative, faculty, student life, and policy analyst positions in the country's approximately 4,000 postsecondary institutions? (p. 303). 16 The field of higher education has developed over the last 100 years. Higher education programs have been studied extensively by scholars in the field of education over the last 40 years (Altbach, Bozeman, & Janashia, 2007; Barnett, 2007; Dressel & Mayhew, 1974; Fife & Goodchild, 1991; Kienle & Loyd, 2005; Wright & Miller, 2007). Barnett (2007) describes the major reasons that the field developed as: (1) the emergence of institutional history and the development of institutional research, (2) the counseling, testing, and guidance movements, (3) the emergence of national, regional, and local commissions, and (4) the presence of an emerging group of individuals who considered themselves students and scholars of higher education (p. 19). The confluence of these factors along with the strong interest of G. Stanley Hall in the late 1800s prepared the way for higher education to emerge as a field of study. Hall, the president of Clark University at the time, developed the first course in higher education studies in 1893. Later, he developed a 16-course specialization that became a part of the Ph.D. program in education at Clark University (Barnett, 2007). This focus on higher education as a means of preparing leaders for positions in administering institutions of higher learning inspired other larger institutions such as Ohio State University, Columbia University's Teachers College, the University of Chicago, the University of Pittsburg, the University of California, Berkeley, and the University of Michigan to develop graduate programs in the field of higher education during the 1920s (Wright, 2007). Wright (2007) suggests that any sector of the economy that is as large as the United States? higher education system should be studied, analyzed, and evaluated. She goes on to state, ?The responsibility for operating colleges and universities is greater than ever. No longer can its leadership roles be filled by amateurs? (p. 22). These graduate programs have sought to prepare 17 students with the knowledge skills and competencies for leadership in areas such as higher education institutions and policy institutes. Although higher education programs prepare potential higher education administrators, faculty, and policy makers there are no common requirements or core course requirements for these doctoral students (Haynes, 1991). In 2006, The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) adopted a set of student affairs master's level preparation standards. CAS general standards include areas that address their mission, curriculum concerns, leadership, human resources, ethics, legal responsibilities, equity and access, diversity, organization and management, campus and external relations, financial resources, technology, facilities and equipment, and assessment and evaluation of academic programs in student affairs. In addition, in 2010, the Association for the Study of Higher Education?s Council for the Advancement of Higher Education Programs (CAHEP) adopted a set of guidelines for Higher Education Administration and Leadership Preparation Programs at the Masters Degree Level. CAHEP?s guidelines address broad principles that can be applied to these programs. The standards are addressed by suggesting a purpose and scope for programs, and then providing guidelines for these programs using three distinct criteria, which were labeled as program, content, and outcome domains. However, there are no guidelines or standards that address higher education leadership doctoral programs. Community College Presidents Although this review will deal with the studies dedicated to the training of presidents through higher education programs, there is a lack of literature that addresses the way in which higher education doctoral programs effect the preparation of university presidents. However, there are some studies about this subject related to the Community College President. Since they 18 may provide insights into the issues addressed in this study, it seems appropriate to review the role higher education programs play in the training of community college leaders. Drs. James O. Hammons and Michael T. Miller (2006) addressed the perceptions that community college presidents? programs had about the quality of their graduate training and that of their administrative colleagues. The authors write ?Community colleges are facing a growing need for well-trained leaders. These colleges have often looked to university-based preparation programs for their labor pools, yet few attempts at evaluating their effectiveness in leadership preparation have been undertaken? (p. 373). Hammons and Miller (2006) investigated community college presidents? perceptions of their preparation program and sought suggestions. The instrument used in this study was based on previous research of Keim (2000), and a needs assessment conducted by the Higher Education Program at the University of Arkansas. Findings indicated that preparation programs were well perceived of by their graduates, but these programs needed to do a better job of interacting with the practitioner community and using real-world cases in their instruction. Hammons and Miller (2006) shared ?there is a need for the academic community to reflect critically on what community colleges need in terms of training, and to develop a response that is both professionally responsive and academically responsible? (p. 374). Hammons and Miller (2006) shared that Part of the issue surrounding the ability of graduate-preparation programs to effectively meet the needs of future community college administrators is the apparent competing notions of what should be included in a graduate preparation program curriculum and the types of experiences that can build administrative ability. (p. 374) 19 This issue is a reoccurring theme within the higher education graduate program literature. The field of study has not accepted general standards of what needs to be taught in the field. Scholars continue to explore the balance instructors have when teaching their courses. How much theoretical and historical information must be taught versus the practical application students need to have before graduation. One president in the study stated, ?They offer few tangible skill-enhancing academically-grounded experiences, and a reliance on academic precedence in determining programmatic activities? (p. 374). The authors claim that the repeated themes in these comments were the need for integration of real world experiences to classes. Some of the comments offered by participating presidents included, ?a curriculum needed to look beyond local or regional issues, and cohort scheduling? (p. 52). Hammons and Miller (2006) also discovered several weaknesses as described by community college presidents, which included an ?overemphasis on research and not enough on application, the program?s refusal to meet the needs of working adults, and curricular deficiencies in budgeting, law, and collective bargaining? (p. 376). There is also a growing conversation related to alternative forms of training such as earning graduate certificates in community college leadership. Haworth and Wilkin (2004) write ?and as for those programs that have been able to articulate clear programs with tangible benefits, some have done so through certificate?rather than degree?programs? (p. 51). Part of the reason for this may have a relationship to this perceived need to expand the practical aspects of preparation for this type of presidency. The authors also asked presidents what characteristics made good programs. The answers included items such as offering hybrid delivery of courses (meaning a combination of traditional in-class experiences supported with technologically mediated components), faculty 20 experience, the scope, relevance, and currency of the curriculum, and the program?s consistency over time. The presidents identified two categories in which the academic programs of study needed to be changed. The two categories were structural changes and content changes. Structurally, the presidents indicated that higher education graduate programs needed to be flexible; should target current community college professionals; must include a more practical, real-world, case- study-focused approach to the entire program; and needed to involve current and former community college leaders? (p. 379). The presidents? ?content-based comments included that programs should provide greater training in the areas of leadership, marketing, budgeting, and fund raising, and a greater awareness of current issues like diversity, retention, public relations, and politics? (p. 379). Presidents seemed to have an interest in what is taught, and were willing to share their insights with those in the university setting about what should be taught and included in the curriculum. The study found that, although they had some suggestions for improvement, community college presidents were generally satisfied with the types of educational programs available. Student Affairs Practitioners In addition to the studies that address the role higher education programs play in the development of community college presidents, there is an emerging literature that addresses the development of higher education student affairs practitioners. Research related to the efficacy of graduate programs in student affairs has been an area of importance to student affairs scholars in the field since the initial academic preparation began at Teachers College, Columbia University in 1913. During the past 30 years, there has been debate related to which particular course work 21 was most effective in transferring knowledge, developing skills, and defining characteristics essential to successful practice. This an issue that is germane not only to student affairs, but also to higher education administration programs in general and such areas community college, enrollment management, sports management, and to the university presidency. In 1982, Sandeen completed a national survey of 219 chief student affairs officers to assess, review, and update perceptions of graduate preparation programs. The results of this study found senior student affairs officers thought some programs were too oriented toward counseling and suggested a need for more internship opportunities and courses in legal issues, budgeting, and management. In another study dealing with student affairs program curriculum, Dr. Marybelle Keim (1983) a premier scholar in the area of higher education program development conducted a longitudinal study of 47 doctoral, specialist, and master?s programs. She found that many programs had fewer faculty and students than their counterparts within the same department, fewer programs requiring the master?s thesis, and lack of courses in student personnel. Richmond and Sherman (1991) also provided research on curricula including a longitudinal study of graduate students? and new professionals? experiences. They discovered that students within student affairs gained most of their knowledge and professional socialization through internships and practicum. The study that most closely aligns with the objectives of this study is Richard J. Herdlein III?s (2004) ?Survey of Chief Student Affairs Officers Regarding Relevance of Graduate Preparation of New Professionals.? The study examined the perceptions of chief student affairs officers at 50 colleges/universities providing insights into the extent preparation programs effectively prepared new professionals for the field. In the beginning of his essay, Herdlein stated, ?graduate preparation programs in college student personnel need to be continuously 22 evaluated in order to ascertain the efficacy of curricula as it relates to practice in the field? (p. 51). As in general higher education administration programs, it is unclear whether graduate programs in student affairs have been satisfactory in preparing student affairs administrators for the rapidly changing environment of higher education. Herdlein focused his study on three primary categories in higher education curriculum, which include foundational studies, professional studies, and supervised practice. He also asserted that ?Over a period of 36 years, a variety of studies have addressed issues important to changing conditions in the academy including suggestions to move preparation programs from a counseling emphasis to include a more administrative and management focus? (p. 56). This has been a function of the perceived need for higher education programs to develop leaders that master fundamental areas of management such budgeting, leadership, and fundraising in an era of increased accountability. At the time of Herdlein?s study there were several studies in progress that focused on competencies needed for successful practice. His study was intended to delineate subject areas in order to relate the survey results to specific course work in graduate preparation programs. It is important to delineate subject and topical areas that may be needed to fulfill the mission of student affairs. He felt that chief student affairs officers are an important group to survey, in particular, those serving for many years as program faculty. He provided the following as what he felt were implications for the student affairs profession: 1. There is a need for research carefully delineating competencies needed for successful practice. Integrating these competencies with learning outcomes in graduate preparation course work would encourage a broader understanding of the mission and goals of these programs. 23 2. Demonstrating competencies and evaluating learning outcomes may call for additional methodologies including the use of portfolios and competency-based practicum and graduate assistantships. 3. All of the various knowledge and skill sets perceived to be lacking in new professionals need to be addressed in curricular offerings, teaching subject matter across the curriculum, and developing ways to encourage professional development and life-long learning as an integral part of the student affairs profession. Our graduate preparation programs, professional associations, and organizations developing standards can play a major role in this regard. (Herdlein, 2004, p. 69) The author developed the following questions to shape his survey of chief student officers: 1. What were the perceived learning outcomes of new professionals entering the field who are recent graduates of college student personnel programs? 2. Is there a delineation of specific course work that should be included in current core requirements? 3. What specific areas of skill development, knowledge, and person al traits are important for advancement in the field? (Herdlein, 2004, p. 52) The results of Herdlein?s study found that participating chief student affairs officers were a generally satisfied with the learning outcomes of graduates of student affairs preparation programs. The chief student affairs officers expressed that student affairs program curriculum needed to incorporate critical thinking and quantitative reasoning. The participants felt comfortable with the preparation level of new student affairs program graduates in the areas of 24 counseling, student development theory, leadership, technology, understanding human differences, and overall knowledge of higher education. Herdlein?s analysis uncovered that the chief student affairs officers believed that new student affairs program graduates were underprepared in the areas of legal knowledge, strategic planning, finance and budgeting, campus politics, assessment and research, and proficient writing skills (2004). The chief student affairs officers stated that they were attracted to hiring new student affairs practitioners who displayed a solid knowledge base in the areas of college student personnel; interpersonal skills including a broad understanding of diverse populations; and exceptional personal traits such as creativity, confidence and maturity, ethics and good judgment, and integrity. The participants also shared that the next generation of student affairs leaders will need to display higher knowledge and competence in areas of higher education administration and research as well as greater knowledge, awareness, and commitment to supporting the academic mission of the institutions and students they serve (Herdlein, 2004). Although there have been a number of studies that have addressed the issue of student affairs leadership development, Herdlein (2004) concluded that the challenge with these studies is that none have been able to reach a consensus on two critical issues for the student affairs profession: (1) a clear definition of the skills, knowledge, and characteristics needed by new professionals entering the field; and (2) the course work provided by graduate preparation programs necessary to fulfill the mission of student affairs in the changing environment of higher education. (p. 54) The implications described by Herdlein help to inform the work of this study as the researcher attempts to identify the skills, knowledge and competencies that university presidents 25 need to be effective. There is also conversation about whether a particular program could prepare a student for a specific role, i.e. the presidency, chief student affairs officer, and chief advancement officer. In addition, conversations address what skills, knowledge or competencies can only learned on the job and to what extent can formal education supplement and enhance that experience. More recently, Kuk, Cobb, and Forrest (2007) in their work on competencies of entry- level practitioners, evaluated the views of leadership development at the masters degree level. The authors felt that their work could help in establishing a common understanding of expectations related to the professional contextual and conceptual competencies of entry-level practitioners. Their hope was that their research could aid both preparation programs and student affairs supervisors by assuring that new practitioners are capable of meeting the demands and expectations related to their new roles in working with students as part of an administrative unit. Kuk, Cobb, and Forrest (2007) found that there is no stated connection or clear link between students? pedagogical experiences and the actual development of professional competencies within masters? level programs. They also propose that there needs to be more intentionality by instructors to integrate theory and practice. One of the key challenges they addressed was that masters level programs have not developed an agreement regarding which competencies should be developed within the preparation program of study and which competencies should be gained through employer-supported professional development and mentoring during the first professional position. The literature suggests that it is becoming increasingly important to investigate what knowledge, skills, and competencies will not only be essential for entry-level practitioners to possess, but for mid-level and senior level administrators from both the administrator and faculty 26 perspectives (Kuk, Cobb, & Forrest, 2007). As Burkard, Cole, Ott, and Stoflet (2004) suggested in their study, in addition to indentifying skills, knowledge and competencies for instructional use, it may be important to understand how well prepared graduate students are to perform such activities. Graduate Program Development All of these studies indicate the need to examine graduate programs more closely and engage in program redesign or development. When a university department embarks on developing a new educational program, or redesigning one already in place, several considerations must be addressed. These include such things as: defining the program; identifying faculty expertise; determining needed departmental resources; and considering student diversity, expectations, needs, and learning styles. This section will address the aforementioned and other variables by using the Western Michigan University?s 2008?09 framework for Institutional Effectiveness and Academic Program Planning. Defining the Program Those who take their role to educate higher education professionals seriously understand that developing high quality educational programs is central to the work that they do (Hendricks, 2001). Although research on education curriculum planning seems to steer towards either technical or political issues, educational planning is much broader (Mason, 1998; McLean, 2000). When attempting to ensure that an educational program is effective and successful, an educator must first define the program. When higher education educators begin to define their program, they first must identify the needs of their future students by conducting a curriculum (program) needs assessment (Haynes, 1991). It is important not only to meet the needs of future students, but to also be 27 prepared to communicate the mission, value, and expertise to internal and external constituencies. In addition, the higher education doctoral program should equip students with the knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to do well in any career in higher education, whether it is in a faculty, administrator, or policy role (Wright, 2007). Wright (2007) suggests that three general areas higher education programs prepare students to gain expertise in are (1) general college administration or leadership, (2) student services administration, and/or (3) college teaching. Wright (2004) also asserts that curriculum developers may have a challenge in trying to make sure such expertise is gained through formal coursework and practical field experiences. She suggests that hard facts are needed in terms of how well higher education preparation programs prepare leaders for work in the field. Traditional course formats have not changed very much in American higher education. Generally, colleges and universities schedule courses one to several times per week for 12 to 16 weeks. There is little evidence to support their use over other alternatives; traditional course formats dominate in higher education. This is due to the long-standing bureaucratic traditionalism of the academy (Olds, 2008). When concluding the defining stage of educational program development, a planner must understand that local politics will influence the way in which the program is developed and administered. However, though planners must be politically sensitive to things that may effect the planning of an higher education practice program, this must not prevent them from including adult learners in the process of creating programs they will be engaged in. Students can provide insights into what their needs are and can help assure program relevancy (McLean, 2000). 28 Program Faculty Expertise After defining what the program should do, higher education program planners should ensure that they have or able to attract faculty who will enhance the program. As the composition of students change, classroom dynamics change, making it important for educators of adult learners to assess and modify their andragogical approach (Olds, 2008). This is why it is important to ensure that the faculty assigned to the program has developed expertise on pertinent topics and also has a thorough grasp of various instructional techniques. Knowles? (1984) theory of andragogy was developed specifically to address adult learning. Knowles believes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for their own decisions. Adult learning programs should allow students to assist in crafting their own learning experiences. Faculty in these programs need to have expertise in all the vital areas associated with the programs needs. Faculties need to have sensitivity to various learning styles and be committed to the goals of the educational program. The program should hire a diverse core of full-time faculty that are trained in the theoretical foundations of higher education with the use of practitioners augmenting the full-time faculty?s expertise. This approach provides students with not only exposure to new knowledge, but also to the practical aspects of higher education (Wright, 2007). Additionally, the faculty needs to be able to work together. This is important because it is their responsibility to develop a coherent curriculum, teach, and assess student learning (National Panel Report, 2002). It is also important that the program philosophy is clear and faculty understand that they do not need to be at the center of a curriculum. Instead, they should see themselves as being facilitators of learning. Ivankova and Stick (2005) describe learning facilitators as ?presenting comprehensive topics for 29 discussion and helping students integrate ideas from multiple sources and encourage interactions without giving ?facts? or making demeaning statements.? (p.123) Departmental Resources It is the responsibility of educational planners to view the program planning process from a holistic prospective. This will allow them to view all components of the program planning process as inseparable from one another (Rothwell & Cookson, 1997). It is therefore important for the leader to have a thorough understanding of the resource commitment that will be provided by the host department (Uzoigwe, 1982). One of the first actions a planner should do is to develop a relationship with the departmental chair or other appropriate administrators (Kochan, 2010). They should be able to give an honest account of what resources will be allocated to start the new program. Student Needs When considering integrating student expectations, higher education program planners should review the needs of the higher education student (Mason, 1998). Most higher education faculty believe that students pursuing a Ph.D. degree in higher education should be strongly versed in research methodology and be able to demonstrate mastery of creating scholarship (Ivankova & Stick, 2005). However, higher education program planners need to design education programs that are flexible and accessible to their busy adult learners. Faculty should incorporate students? outside work, family, and community experiences. Since adults bring life experience to the program, as previously noted, faculty should see themselves as not only a disseminator of knowledge, but a facilitator of knowledge. Higher education students should be challenged to learn and think critically about what they have learned throughout their lives. Planners should develop education programs that integrate current social, economic, legal, and 30 technological demands. Planners also should take into account the community that the adult learners will impact. In recent years, a debate has ensued about what might constitute a signature andragogical approach for education management programs. Lee Shulman, President of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, first introduced this idea. He was charged with examining how the various professions look at the ?challenge of teaching people to understand, to act, and to be integrated into a complex way of knowing, doing, and being.? He used examples such as the clinical ward round, the law school case conference, the engineering project, and the priestly apprenticeship to see if these processes could be replicated in a education leadership program (Schulman, 2005). Although Bray (2007) suggests a possible common core of courses in higher education to include such things as, (1) history, (2) organization and administration, (3) student development/affairs, and (4) multiculturalism/foundations and (5) philosophy, when planning educational programs, educators must not think of the discipline as inflexible and being unable to effect change. Programs are not only using knowledge, they are creating, testing and critically analyzing it. As a result they are a composite of professionally argumentative communities, with their performance and reputations in the hands of a diverse range of groups and individuals (Bamber, Trowler, Saunders, & Knight, 2009). Students? needs should be in the forefront of any educational planning endeavors. Considering this, Wright (2007) suggests that programs should also ?seek to provide a ?mentoring community?.? This type of environment will require both students and faculty to feel a sense of responsibility for and commitment to one another. Witte and Wolf (2003) share that instructors along with their students must be committed and to subscribe to the mentoring process. Even if the program is primarily a distance education 31 program resources from the department can assist in facilitating a successful learning environment. Adult student needs range based on their knowledge, skills, technological experience, and transactional distance (Witte & Wolf, 2003). Assessing Student Learning Outcomes In addition to incorporating various learning style techniques into instruction, it is important for planners to make sure that their program faculties have a comprehensive and effective means to assess student-learning outcomes. Poda (2007) shares ?assessing student learning is a central element in the overall quality of teaching and learning in higher education graduate programs.? Good student assessment metrics are not always easy for higher education educators to develop. Standards measured need to be objective, reliable and fair. Assessment is influenced not only by faculty, but also by outside entities such as departmental standards, Boards of Trustees, and external mandates from state and national legislatures and accrediting agencies. Professional or accreditation bodies dictate professional requirements for particular learning outcomes (Olds, 2008). Some of the most popular assessment tools used in assessing higher education graduate programs are written and oral assessments, open book, group assessment, self, peer, and co-assessment, assessment by projects, investigations, and realistic problem-solving tasks (Poda, 2007). Poda (2007) suggests that higher education graduate programs conduct assessment of student learning for two reasons. First, she posits that it ?motivates, guides, and reinforces student learning, thus promoting learning.? She believes that students tend to adjust their learning style to assessment requirements and their performance is therefore measured by the grades awarded based on achievement of mastery of the stated learning outcomes. The second reason she shares is that assessment of student learning helps to validate that the doctoral 32 program maintains strong academic standards which then helps to verify student achievement (Poda, 2007). Teaching, Learning and the Curriculum The question of how curriculum should be designed for higher education is the essence of what the planners of the higher education doctoral program do for their students. Curriculum for students consists of the essential content that is included in the educational program. The curriculum should include strategies to prepare students to become reflective practitioners and, as previously stated, higher education educators should incorporate andragogical approaches that facilitate the development of their skills (Wright, 2007). One of the first things that a planner should do is focus on what they are going to teach and how it can be taught in chronological order. Teaching in chronological order is key, especially when teaching a skill. Teaching in chronological order assists in organizing information in a time sequence (Beebe, Mottet, & Roach, 2003). Program planners should encourage faculty to learn how to conclude the class in such a way that adult learners leave remembering the key points addressed in that course. Beebe, Mottet, and Roach (2003) suggest two ways that can be accomplished, they are: summarize what has been discussed; and restate the key points that were covered. Instructors should provide a psychological conclusion to what has been learned. Poda (2007) suggest that ?higher education doctoral programs promote learning by coaching students in continuously asking themselves questions including what they learn, what more they need to know, and how they can approach specific problems they encounter in the future.? (p.111) Finally, instructors should give the lesson closure by pointing the student to the next phase of the learning. 33 Student Diversity There are different types of students who enter doctoral programs in higher education. Ivankova and Stick (2005) found there to be three broad groups of students attracted to these programs: those who are mature and talented and truly want to work to earn their credential; those who are talented and eager, but lack the maturity to handle the pressure of a rigorous program of doctoral study; and those who seek to gain while expending minimal effort. For the most part (particularly at the doctoral level), students in higher education programs already work in higher education settings. Many have entered their current positions with little or no formal leadership training (Wright, 2004). In general, even if these students have a background in higher education or working in the field they are not invited to assist in crafting their learning experience. Along with retaining adequate resources from the department that address the andragogical needs of adult learners; planners also must be sensitive to the issues of student diversity and multiculturalism. Schick, Guarino, and Witte (2001) posit that Colleges of Education have become increasingly aware of the need to provide their teachers with information and strategies which allows educators to address the needs of various diverse groups of students. Dr. James Banks (1994), a noted scholar and writer on multicultural education, has outlined five dimensions of multicultural education: (1) content integration, (2) the knowledge construction process, (3) prejudice reduction, (4) an equity pedagogy, and (5) an empowering institutional culture. The epistemologies of these dimensions are important for instructors to understand. Schick, Guarino, and Witte (2001) believe that it is important to integrate the aforementioned dimensions into the curriculum in all areas so that adult learners will be adequately prepared to meet the challenges of diversity inside and the outside classroom. 34 Along with the diversity of student backgrounds comes diverse student expectations. Graduate student expectations are a critical area to examine when evaluating whether an institution is meeting students? needs. Students arrive at their graduate programs with a goal to reach a desired end. When students arrive in a higher education administration program, they have often served in a professional setting for several years or more and are looking to advance in their career, make a career change, or enhance their current portfolio for marketability (Wright, 2007). These factors help shape what programs students decide to study in. Malaney (1987) cites the common reasons students pursue graduate education as the desire to learn more about a specialty; personal satisfaction; improved job prospects; and an advanced degree needed for advancement within a chosen field. The successful entry and completion of a doctoral degree program has been directly linked to the motivation and expectations of the students involved (Hawley, 1993; Rossman, 1995; Wlodkowki, 1995). This highlights the need for graduate degree programs to investigate how they can become more student-centered. Baird (1993) noted, ?although graduate education enjoys enormous prestige, it is relatively unexamined? (p. 81). There is generally little linkage between graduate student expectations and program review. Issues related to graduate studies are usually addressed at the departmental level, rather than at the college or university level. Even if survival is not a issue at either level, because of a sufficient number of students, there may be other recruitment issues related to maintaining a large number of high quality graduate students, or attracting minorities and women (Malaney, 1985). This is why it is important that graduate programs pay close attention to addressing student concerns. 35 Student Expectations Along with the diversity of student backgrounds comes diverse student expectations. So how should student expectations be integrated into the curriculum? Groccia (1997) suggests that students should expect their teachers to develop a learning environment in which their ideas are challenged. Faculty should not be in the business of trying to purposely fail students and cause mental harm. Adult learners should be challenged just far enough beyond their grasp that they must work hard to learn. Faculty should create environments in which the adult learners actively participate in the learning process. Students should be challenged to take on more responsibility for their own learning as the course progresses. It is important for programs to use integrated processes to facilitate the learning experience of their students, based on these students? needs and expectations. This starts with the recruitment and orientation process. The successful orientation will not be a one-time, beginning-of-the program experience but it will introduce students to support mechanisms that will be ongoing (Robinson, 1999). Young and Brooks (2008) found that several studies present that graduate education has a large and significant effect on college quality of graduates? earnings, the majority of this line of research suggests a mild economic impact on college quality. The next section of this review will address diversity in the context of student learning styles. Student Learning Styles Along with identifying student needs, educational planners need to be cognizant of the various learning styles adults bring into the classroom. Merriam and Caffarella (1991) presented a summary of adult learning theories and divided them into three categories: characteristics of adult learners, the life situations of adults, and changes in consciousness with the learner. Each 36 category addresses an important aspect that adult learners bring into the learning environment. Kolb (1984) identified four learning styles: Convergers, Divergers, Assimilators, and Accomodators. Convergers, rely on abstract thinking and active experimentation; they like to find definite answers and move quickly to find solutions to issues; they are effective at defining problems and making sound decisions. Divergers use actual experience and reflective observation to develop a range of concepts; they successful at brainstorming and discovering alternatives. Assimilators rely on abstract thinking and reflective observation; they like to assimilate a diverse range of information and reconstruct it and place it into a logical form; they are excellent planners, developing theories, and creating models. Accommodators are best at using actual experiences and active experimentation; they often use trial-and-error or intuitive strategies to figure out solutions; they do not mind taking risks and at tacking issues. The role of an adult educator is not just to disseminate knowledge, but also to challenge student?s assumptions. Asking the right question can be just as important as telling students the facts. This allows students to draw their own conclusions. Typically the most common discussion starter is the question. McKeachie, Svincki, and Hofer (2006) assert that the most common error in questioning is not allowing students enough time to come to their own conclusions. They suggest that one of the best ways of starting a discussion is to refer to a common experience through presentation of a demonstration, film, role-play, short skit, or brief reading. Common experience of all students or an issue on campus or in the media can be sources of discussion starters (McKeachie, Svincki, & Hofer, 2006). There are also other types of questions that can address various learning styles. They include Connective and Causal effect questions, which involve linking material or concepts that otherwise, might not seem related. Another question type is Comparative questions, which ask 37 for comparisons between one theory and another one. Adult educators could also use evaluative questions, which ask for comparisons and judgment on the value of the points being compared (McKeachie, Svincki, & Hofer, 2006). Program planners should emphasize to program faculty that their objectives need to be reasonably obtainable. Objectives should also be specific. Beebe, Mottet, and Roach (2003) share that verbs such as to ?know,? ?feel,? ?appreciate,? and ?understand? are not measurable, nor observable. These types of verbs also offer no explicit behavior for the trainee to perform. It is important that faculty add specificity to an objective by developing criteria for successfully mastering the behavior they specify. Criteria in that case would be standards for an acceptable outcome. Identify Costs In addition to identifying a market, which includes students and supporting agencies, planners need to identify the costs that will be incurred in starting and maintaining a new program. Planners must be conscious of costs, such as developing a program library and assessing what equipment will be required. The program design must include both short and long term costs. The measure of total annual program costs (faculty compensation, graduate, staff or technical support salaries, equipment, supplies, and travel) describes cost of educating students in a given program. Some educational programs will have different budget allocations due to varied equipment and supply costs essential to their program (e.g., laboratory equipment, clinical supplies, field placements or doctoral associates). Planners need to assess whether additional course fees will be included along with their relationship to program quality for students (Western Michigan University, 2008?2009). 38 Accreditation (Regional/Discipline Specific) It is important for program designers to incorporate the accrediting standards of regional and field specific agencies within their program design. Conducting an assessment of the required accreditation guidelines, program reviews, and student learning outcomes are being incorporated into the program is essential. The requirements of regional and field specific accreditation agencies and their related metrics for program assessment and student learning will be an important starting point for the development of a academic program plan (Western Michigan University, 2008?2009). New programs will benefit from the cumulative, continuous, and relatively objective analysis these accreditation standards and requirements provide. The new program?s standing will grow amongst peer programs (Western Michigan University, 2008?2009). Relationship to the Hosting Academic Unit It is important that designers of education programs for adults not only take into consideration the role that accreditation plays in their program success, they also must have a strong relationship with their host department. Generally, one academic department will host a new educational program. It is important for new programs to show themselves to be good departmental citizens. McKeachie, Svincki, and Hofer (2006) share that an academic program cannot be divorced from the total department, college or university culture. Regardless of the unit involved, it is vital for new programs to contribute to all teaching, research, and outreach dimensions expected by the host department (2008?2009, Western Michigan University). Admission Policy/Application Rates It is a part of the program planners job to discuss with the department what the program admissions standards will be. Usually there are minimal guidelines set by the college or 39 university, but the program can require additional requirements. Planners can be as specific as they would like as they develop their policies, but they must be sure to take into consideration whether those polices will be viewed as a roadblock to their prospective adult learners. Assessing Student Learning Outcomes In addition to establishing good admissions policies, it is important for planners to make sure that their program faculties have a good way to assess student-learning outcomes. Good student assessment metrics are not always easy for adult educators to develop. Assessment is influenced not only by faculty, but also by outside entities such as, departmental standards. Decades ago, Taylor (1998), a leader in this field, asserted that assessment in education programs are an outcome of power sharing between higher education and professional entities. Higher education generally determines the need for standards, which attempt to be objective, reliable and fair. Professional or accreditation bodies dictate professional requirements for particular learning outcomes (Olds, 2008). One of the most popular assessment tools used to assess adult learners is the ?rubric.? Stevens and Levi (2005) share that the rubric is a scoring utensil that lays out the specific requirements for an assignment. They are so popular because educators believe they save time, provide timely, meaningful feedback for adult students, and have effective impact on the teaching and learning process (Stevens, & Levi, 2005). Rubrics enable students to think critically about their own learning process. They can also inspire precisely the pattern of ?self-assessment and self-improvement? needed to facilitate motivated and creative adult learners. When used properly in combination with good academic advising, rubrics can facilitate the development of a greater scholarly form of critical thinking, that is the ability to think, reason, and make judgments based on an independent, accurate 40 accumulation of data and an open-minded approach to each new topic (Huba & Freed, 2000). This is particularly important in graduate studies. Rubrics not only assist in enhancing cognitive ability, they also help adult educators identify problems in communication and address them until they are solved. The adult learners will be given the opportunity to see exactly where they are falling short. Faculties are then able to communicate expectations in ways that go beyond merely telling the class or student something. Since, in the best practice, adult learners participate in developing the rubric, students will probably see the tool as fair and understand its scoring better (Stevens, & Levi, 2005). Although rubrics are a popular assessment tool, there are many other types of measurement tools. Among the most common are the one-minute paper, the application paper, the muddiest point assessment, one-sentence summary paper, and mind mapping assessment. The most important issues when deciding what type of assessment to use are the goals of the learning, the needs of the students, and the ultimate outcomes to be achieved. Student Class Size In addition to reviewing course credit hours, planners need to consider how large they would like their program to become. Program planners should develop information for all courses taught both on and off campus including the average class size by course. The other elements previously discussed (i.e. costs, resources, departmental involvement) must all be considered in this decision-making process (Western Michigan University, 2008?2009). Faculty Rewards System When thinking about attracting high quality faculty, educational planners need to determine how they will reward their faculty. They first need to find out what internal awards 41 are traditionally offered such as raises, promotions, and titles. Planners should find a way to reward faculty for excellent teaching as well as research (Western Michigan University, 2008? 2009). Planners must also recognize that there may be generally accepted norms that they may not be able to move around. When developing a program process at a research university, the reward system institutionally may be skewed to valuing publishing over teaching. Faculty will then generally be rewarded based on completed publication projects. Publications are often narrowly defined as scholarly books, edited scholarly volumes, book chapters in edited scholarly volumes, and articles published in refereed journals at most universities. Additionally, individual departments may add, as part of their requirements, an interpretation of publication quality. In that case, every publication will be judged based on department standards (Western Michigan University, 2008?2009). Doctoral programs in higher education may require mentoring and internship experiences for their students. These are time-intensive elements for faculty. In addition, these programs need to blend theory and practice, which may require a diverse faculty, with some who focus on research and some who focus on practice. These issues must be considered when dealing with a faculty reward system. Doctoral Student Development Many researchers have investigated the role of doctoral education in preparing students for the academy (Austin, 2002; Bragg, 1976; Ellis, 2001; Gardner, 2010, Gonzalez, 2006; Soto Antony, 2002; Walker, Golde, Jones, Bueschel & Hutchings, 2008; Weidman, Twale, & Stein, 2001). In particular, recent studies have focused on preparing students for specialized fields such as in the areas of science, technology, engineering and math (Gardner, 2007; Herzig 2004a, 2004b). Others have focused on issues related to socialization of ethnic minorities and women in 42 doctoral programs (Ellis, 2001; Gonzalez, 2006; Herzig, 2004b; Maher, Ford, & Thompson, 2004). Gardner (2010) posits that many studies address doctoral education through a monolithic lens, assuming that graduates experiences are the same across disciplines. The literature is scant as it relates to ways in which higher education doctoral programs socialize students for administration in higher education (Haynes, 1991). There have been several studies that have proposed models of doctoral socialization (Bragg, 1976; Gardner, 2007, 2008, 2010; Tinto, 1993; Weidman, Twale, & Stein, 2001). One of the most cited studies is Tinto?s (1993) three-stage model of doctoral persistence. Tinto (1993) identified the three stages as: (1) the first year of study, the transitional stage, (2) the period leading to candidacy, and (3) the completion of the dissertation. During the first stage, students seek to establish membership in the academic and social communities of the university. When students move to the second stage, navigating interactions within the classroom and department or program context are very important. In this stage, issues of adaptive competence are central to students? persistence (Haynes, 1991). In both the first and second stages, students? experiences are dependent on interactions with varying faculty members. In the third stage, the emphasis shifts to the relationship with the student?s academic advisor and the dissertation committee members. At this stage, persistence could be totally determined by the behavior of a specific faculty member. As some students complete their program, they begin to investigate their long-term professional goals. Those who are a part of a higher education program have the choice of using their degree in many fields, but many decide to go into careers as administrators, faculty, and policy makers (Altbach, 2010). There are perhaps some students that aspire to the presidency, which is seen by many to be the pinnacle of success within academia (Davis & Davis, 1999). 43 The next section of this review will examine some of the relevant literature surrounding the presidency. University Presidency The study of the university presidency has long garnered the attention of higher education scholars and researchers (Brodie & Banner, 2005; Burton, 2003). The University president is a position that is extremely complex and important. Luxton (2005) said, By being the chief spokesperson for institutional strategy, the chief executive officer gives credibility to agreed plans. Although other individuals may lead out at key points in the development and implementation of the process, the chief executive officer is understood to speak for the whole institution. (p. 12) The role of the president is both substantive and symbolic. David Riesman, former Harvard sociologist cited in McLaughlin (1996) has put it succinctly?presidents serve as the ?living logo? of their institution. They speak and represent multiple constituencies associated with the university. As the individual who speaks on behalf of the institution to the Board of Trustees, the university president is also in charge of making sure those trustees are involved in the planning processes, ensuring their ownership of the plan, and providing them with regular feedback on progress (Luxton, 2005). Although presidents are ultimately accountable to the board, they generally like to chart their own course. Dubois (2006) said, ?College presidents are an extraordinary group of professionals. They are highly competent and competitive, and basically they want to be left alone.? (p. 96) The university presidency has evolved over time. In the past presidents were seen as the ultimate leader of an academic community. This has changed in recent years. Dennison (2001) explains, ?Modern university presidents lack the stature and standing their predecessors enjoyed, 44 or so it appears. Critics and defenders alike?even presidents and former presidents?seem to agree with this proposition, albeit for different reasons.? (p. 269) Presidents do not wield the same influence over the academic community as they had in the past. Many who serve as a part of university faculty do not aspire to serve as a president. Dennison (2001) refers to the presidents of the late 1800s and early 20th Century as giants. He goes on to say that, The giants of today, however, spurn the job of college or university president precisely because it involves so little of consequence and provides such a small return on the investment of time and energy. Rather they choose other professions that promise rewards commensurate with the energy, effort, and talent required to succeed. (p. 273) In line with using management terminology to describe the role of the presidency, many boards of trustees are seeing their president?s position more as leader of a large corporation than an academic leader. Roach (2000) cites Dr. Michael Lomax, president of the United Negro College Fund, who commented, ?I think that college boards are viewing the job of president more as a CEO than as a pure education position? (p. 24). In the same article Roach (2000) cites Dr. George Ayers, president of Ayers & Associates, a northern Virginia-based higher education management consulting and executive search firm, saying ?boards are also seeking candidates who have demonstrated that they have fund-raising skills and can win assistance for their school from corporations and foundations? (p. 24). This is consistent with the emerging thought around the academy that institutions of higher education need to be run by leaders that have a corporate or political background. Higher education researcher Dr. Velmer Burton, in his 2003 study entitled, Structured Pathways to the Presidency: Becoming a Research University President, found that among research doctoral granting universities, non-higher education employees are not general sought 45 for presidencies. The only way they become president at a research university is through extraordinary accomplishments or notoriety (e.g., scholarly reputations). She found generally that becoming president at a research university, especially at a more prestigious institution, is a highly structured process from the earning of the doctorate degree to where academic and administrative experience is obtained (Burton, 2003). Burtons research finding coincide with Goodall?s (2009) assertion that presidents at research universities should be academics. She goes even further to describe four reasons she has found in her research to defend this position. 1. The academic community sees scholars as credible and legitimate leaders. 2. It will be assumed by the academic community that a successful scholar can provide deep understanding and expertise about the primary function of the institution, knowledge dissemination, and generation. 3. A top scholar can set expectations for academic quality with legitimacy because they have done so themselves. 4. A president who is an active scholar demonstrates that he shares the values of the academic community. (Goodall, 2009) This section reinforces the notion there is an active discussion of what background produces the best presidents (de Vise, 2010; Farrington, 2008; Goodall, 2009; Jaschik, 2007; June, 2008; Keller, 2010; Lum, 2008). The next section of this literature review addresses the knowledge and competencies needed for the presidency. Knowledge and Competencies In prior years, it was most common that higher education program graduates were offered lower- and middle-level management positions in colleges and universities, as well as 46 careers in government agencies dealing with higher education, think tanks, and related jobs. In recent years, higher education graduates have earned upper management positions including presidencies more frequently upon graduation (Altbach & Enberg, 2001, p. 15). When attempting to examine the university presidency, one must inquire about what knowledge and competencies it takes to be successful in that role. Simon (1997) argues that ?preparation for administration must go beyond general administrative knowledge to knowledge of the content and the context of the organization in which the general understanding is to be applied? (p. 327). Knowledge of the context is gained through practical experiences inside higher education. Walton (1962) suggests that the complexity of social organizations such as higher education institutions, the urgent demand for administration, and the modern faith in formal study as a means of improving practice are responsible for earnest efforts to transform this intuitive and common sense activity into a science or learned art. (p. 89) Dr. James T. Minor in his (2001) dissertation entitled Making Sense of Success: Leadership Attributes and Practices of Successful University Presidents found that particular leadership attributes and practices contributed to successful presidential leadership. The leadership attributes he identified include: vision, institutional understanding, effective communication, institutional commitment, intellectual capital, and political savvy. The leadership practices are: employing an effective leadership team, employing multi-level engagement, and practicing process flexibility. Based on these results he advanced a theory entitled, ?competency-context theory?, which posited that competency in the aforementioned attributes and practices is context bound. Which meant that effectiveness in any one of these areas where measured based on the contact they evolved from (Minor, 2001). 47 Martin and Bloom (2003) identified four areas they advised higher education administrators should master. They suggested in addition to having supervisory experiences, presidents need to be (1) literate on the basics of financial and budgeting matters. Hathaway (Martin & Bloom, 2003), former president of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock agrees. He stated, ?If you do not control the budget you do not control the university. You must know how to interpret the budget and not rely solely on the budget people? (p. 19). Administrators must be able to read a financial statement well enough to ask intelligent questions. Knowledge of the financial operations of the university is also very important. Martin and Bloom (2003) also recommended that leaders be exposed to alumni relations. Alumni experience offers opportunities to learn the history of a university, hone speaking and relationship-building skills, develop story-telling capabilities, and increase self-confidence. The cousin to having an operational knowledge of alumni relations is understanding the role that advancement and development plays in the health of an institution. Major gift cultivation, solicitation, and closing skills are imperative to acquire, not only to meet the needs of the institution, but also to test communication skills and improve a person?s ability to convey the important work being conducted within the development unit. Having a strong working knowledge of the role that faculty play in the institution was the third area these researchers identified as important. Serving on faculty committees teaches future presidents the nuances of governance and culture that shape higher education institutions. It gives them the opportunity to learn the language of the academy, because without this vocabulary and the ability to engage in the committee process, it is difficult to thrive or to be considered a leader within the organization (Martin & Bloom, 2003). 48 The fourth and last learning area that Martin and Bloom (2003) suggest future administrators? master is having an understanding of how to network. A president?s network should be vast, diverse and not solely centered on work. Not only should a person build a network of key people on your campus, but also seek to build relationships through community service organizations, church, your neighborhood, or your child?s school. In addition there is a study that identified presidential competencies in particular, the American Council of Education?s Pathway to the Presidency study. ACE: Pathway to the Presidency Study Although little research has been done on university presidents? perceptions of the important competencies of their job in relationship with the role of their graduate program in preparing them for their job, the American Council of Education (ACE) recently conducted a study that has relevancy to this issue. The study used a 50-question instrument, The College President?s Survey, to gather information about these issues. The study gathered data from 2,148 presidents to identify the degree to which they perceived their university preparation as effective in preparing them for the position of the president. The study gathered data pertaining to education, career paths, and length of service, as well as personal characteristics such as age, marital status, and religious affiliation. ACE?s American College President Study is the only comprehensive source of demographic data on college and university presidents from all sectors of American higher education (ACE, 2007). This survey was first administered in 1986 to describe the backgrounds, career paths and experiences of college and university presidents (ACE, 2007). Questions have been adapted and refined throughout that 20-year period. It was conducted again and the results published as The American College President: 2007 Edition. 49 This survey has indentified 17 competency areas which include (1) Academic issues (e.g., curriculum changes) (2) Accountability/assessment of student learning, (3) Athletics, (4) Budget/financial management, (5) Capital improvement projects, (6) Community relations, (7) Crisis management, (8) Enrollment management, (9) Entrepreneurial ventures, (10) Faculty issues, (11) Fund raising, (12) Governing board relations, (13) Government relations, (14) Media/public relations, (15) Personnel issues (excluding faculty), (16) Risk management/legal issues, and (17) Strategic planning. These competencies have been identified, developed, and refined over 20 years through interviews and feedback from college and university presidents (ACE, 2008; J. King, personal communication, September 4, 2010). Some of the important findings from this study include: ? The percentage of presidents who were women more than doubled, from 10 percent in 1986 to 23 percent of the total in 2006, but women?s progress has slowed in recent years. ? The proportion of presidents who were racial or ethnic minorities showed a much smaller increase, from 8 percent in 1986 to 14 percent in 2006. When minority- serving institutions are excluded, only 10 percent of presidents are from racial/ethnic minority groups. ? The average age of presidents increased from 52 years in 1986 to 60 years in 2006. More telling, the proportion of presidents who were aged 61 or older grew from 14 percent in 1986 to 49 percent in 2006, suggesting that many institutions will lose their presidents to retirement in coming years. ? Only 63 percent of women presidents are currently married, compared with 89 percent of their male colleagues. Twenty-four percent of women presidents are 50 either divorced or were never married (excluding members of religious orders). Only 7 percent of male presidents fall into these categories. ? Presidents had served an average of 8.5 years in office at the time of the 2006 survey. Length of service has increased since 1986, when the average time in office was 6.3 years. ? Between 1995 and 2001, average tenure in office declined from 7.3 years to 6.6 years. However, the trend shifted in 2006, when average tenure for presidents increased to 8.5 years, the highest recorded average tenure in the study?s history. ? Just over one in five (21 percent) presidents in 2006 had served in a presidency in their immediate prior position, compared with 17 percent in 1986. The current figure is a decrease from the 25 percent of presidents who had served in a presidency in their immediate prior position in 1998. ? Serving as chief academic officer (CAO) has become a more typical route to the presidency. Thirty-one percent of presidents served as provost or CAO prior to becoming president, up from 23 percent in 1986. (ACE, 2010, para. 4) Based upon the data in this study, it appears that in the next decade, there will be huge numbers of individuals retiring from the university presidency. This makes it paramount to assure that those who replace them will receive a high quality education that will prepare them for this role. The next section of this literature review addresses this emerging issue as reflected in the ACE study. Graying of the Presidency Presently half of the sitting university presidents in United States are over the age of 60 (ACE, 2007). Many are nearing the age of retirement, which poses a problem. Higher education 51 researchers predict a surge of openings for university presidencies across the country. In the past 10 years, many searches turned to sitting college presidents as the primary pool of applicants. That pool may not be as convenient an option as in the future (Farrington, 2008). The next most common pool to draw presidential talent is from the senior cabinet level officers within higher education. Table 2 Age Groups of College Presidents Age 1996 2006 31?50 41.6% 8.1% 51?60 44.4% 42.6% 61 and older 13.9% 49.3% When selecting potential presidents traditionally boards have looked at those in the position of Provost/Chief Academic Officer. In the past the role of Provost had been seen as the second in command to the president and managed a wide portfolio that included representing the faculty and managing academic issues within the university. Provosts generally enjoy working with faculty and students, teaching classes and managing the academic affairs of the university. In a 2010 study by the Council of Independent Colleges entitled ?A Study of Chief Academic Officers of Independent Colleges and Universities? it was found that in comparison Provosts were less drawn to the responsibilities that presidents are responsible for, such as fundraising, managing a budget, worrying about the endowment, etc. In addition, the Council of Independent College study (2010) found less than one-quarter of chief academic officers aspire to be 52 university presidents. Harold V. Hartley, who co-wrote the study with Eric E. Godin, shared, ?What we find is that they?re either going back to the faculty or they?re going on to another CAO position? (de Vise, 2010, para. 10). Another position which universities look to for potential presidents is the Chief Financial Officer. Those who serve in this position manage the overall finances of the university. The data on those who seek a presidency from this position are startling. According to a new survey of nearly 1,000 officials released by the National Association of College and University Business Officers, they are more than four times as likely to plan to retire than to seek a college presidency (Keller, 2010). This is troubling as the Chief Financial Officers may be the best equipped to deal with managing budgets and reassuring the campus constituencies that the fiscal house of the university is in order. Their backgrounds may also be reassuring to potential donors and supporters of the university, which could signal that their donations would be wisely used. One of the reasons they may wish to not seek these positions is that they may not have the academic credentials such as a terminal degree that is generally a prerequisite for a presidency. In any case, only 8 percent of the respondents to the study said they planned to seek a college presidency (Keller, 2010). Other groups that boards look to when filling a university presidency are Chief Student Affairs Officer, Chief Advancement/Development Officer, and Chief Diversity Officer. Although the typical pool of applicants for a university president has included members at the cabinet level, many are not as attracted to the position as their predecessors. Research has found that many of these individuals are unattracted to various aspects of the presidency, specifically fundraising and alumni relations, which has expanded in recent years, much to the displeasure of some leaders who may otherwise have obtained a presidency as a career goal (de Vise, 2010). 53 Next, as the United States tries to thwart the issue of the graying of the presidency comes the issue diversity. Although higher education researchers predicted that boards would begin selecting presidents from diverse backgrounds, the rate of diversification in the presidency has only slightly increased, particularly since the late 1990s (June, 2008). Although higher education researchers have predicted that boards would begin selecting presidents from diverse backgrounds (June, 2008). The rate of diversification in the presidency has only slightly increased, particularly since the late 1990s (June, 2008). According to the American Council of Education (2007) presidential study, 86 percent of all presidents were White and 77 percent of them were male in 2006. These statistics are very important because in 1986, when the study was first conducted, 92 percent were White and 91 percent were male (June, 2008). The profile of the university presidency in the United States has not changed over the last 20 years (June, 2008). The study typical university president is a married, graying White man with a doctoral degree. To these statistics, James C. Renick, the former senior vice president for programs and research at the council stated that ?We haven?t seen the kind of progress that we expected. This tells us is that higher education, collectively, is going to have to spend more time on expanding opportunities for women and people of color? (June, 2008, para. 3). Adding to the conversation Andy Brantley, CEO of CUPA-HR, said he viewed the data as ?a call to action? for higher education. Without diversifying the people in these senior jobs, he said, pools for presidential picks will be too homogeneous. Brantley also stated that it is important for universities to implement succession planning for presidents. Historically many university boards assume their potential president would need to be an outside candidate. With succession planning, he said, 54 ?presidents and institutions can reach out to those with potential for senior positions and groom them to take over later? (Jaschik, 2008, para. 8). In speaking of diversity, this essay speaks of potential candidates that are not non-White males. Dr. Pogue, president of Grambling State University said I think we could move much faster in preparing and assisting underrepresented people to become president if we had a large number of people in the pipeline who were currently serving in senior-level positions where the next step could be the presidency. (June, 2008, p. 33) So in many ways, many non-White potential candidates are not considered because they have not been able to gain the requisite experience to pursue a university presidency. Jacqueline King, co-author of the ACE 2007 Presidential study in (Jaschik, 2007), said that one of the negative impacts of the increased longevity of presidential tenures and the interest of boards in hiring current presidents is that they have led to ?a slower rate of change in terms of diversity of presidents? (para. 13). ?Younger faculty and administrators are more diverse than their senior counterparts, but they are generally not going to be a part of presidential candidate pools?, she said (Jaschik, 2007). Dr. Donna Burns Phillips, director of the ACE?s Office of Women in Higher Education, predicts that the number of university presidential openings and the limited number of available sitting presidents will mean search committees will need to become open to new types of candidates. ?Presidential hiring bodies are going to find it difficult to stick with traditional selection methods and pools? (Farrington, 2008, para. 11) said Phillips. More openings, coupled with fewer opportunities to rely on current presidents, should mean better chances for those women and people of color waiting in the wings?if, of 55 course, there are more women and people of color waiting in the wings. (Farrington, 2008, para. 1) In Table 3 the percentage of presidencies held by women by sector is described. The sectors include doctoral, masters, and baccalaureate granting institutions. These percentages compared below where gathered from 1986-2006. Table 3 Percentage of Presidencies Held by Women, by Sector Sector 1986 1998 2001 2006 Doctoral 3.8% 13.2% 13.3% 13.8% Master?s 10.0% 18.7% 20.3% 21.5% Baccalaureate 16.1% 20.4% 18.7% 23.2% As it relates to women in particular excluding two-year colleges, women represent 20 percent of college and university presidents. But there is still a challenge getting boards of doctorate-granting institutions to appoint female presidents as they are the least likely to do so (June, 2008). Women who earn a presidency often do with personal trade-offs. Whereas male presidents, 89 percent, were married less than two-thirds of female presidents in 2006 were married. This number has increased though from one-third in 1986. In addition to the fact that 68 percent of female presidents in 2006 had children, 91 percent of male presidents had children. Whereas 15 percent of female presidents had altered their careers to take care of children or a spouse, only 5 percent of men had done so (ACE, 2007; June, 2008). 56 Table 4 Marital Status of Presidents, 2006 Status Men Women Married 89.3% 62.6% Never married (not in religious order) 2.6% 9.9% Never married (clergy barred from marriage) 2.6% 5.8% Widowed 0.9% 5.2% Divorced or separated 4.1% 13.8% Domestic partner 0.6% 2.7% When looking at non-White women as group, they have gained presidencies faster than men of color. In 2008, 11.7% of recently hired presidents were African American females. But during this same period non-White females were outnumbered by males of color?by a margin of close to 2? to 1 (Farrington, 2008). Although women have made great strides towards gender parity within the academy in the United States, they still have a long way to go. Phillips suggests ?while the U.S. population is 51% women, we have nowhere near that number in the upper ranks of leadership on college campuses? (para. 3). So in that case she suggest something she calls ?A 51% Solution? (Farrington, 2008, para. 3). She explains it this way: ?When I see 51% of academia?s presidents, provosts, deans, department chairs, and full professors are women, that?s what will make me happy,? she said, noting that 38% of that 51% in America are women of color. ?So when I see 20% of academia?s presidents, provosts, deans, department chairs, and full professors are women 57 of color, that?s what will make me overjoyed. That?s also what will make my work, my office, my programs obsolete? (Farrington, 2008, para. 3). Another potential pool of candidates that the literature says seems to be overlooked within the academy is Asian Americans. Lum (2008) reports that nationally, Asian Americans composed only 0.9 percent of all presidents running four-year public, private and two-year community colleges in 2006. Dr. Leslie Wong, president of Northern Michigan, posits that many Asian American academics are pessimistic about the presidential role within the United States. Wong was one of only five Asian Americans heading U.S. public universities in 2005, according to ACE (Lum, 2008). A more even distribution of presidential appointments are seen when other non-White groups are considered: 5.8 percent of presidents that year were Black and 4.6 percent were Hispanic. When searching for a potential diverse pipeline by ethnicity and looking at the number of tenured faculty, there were more than 283,000 tenured faculty in 2006. Of the 283,000 tenured faculty, 4.5 percent were Black and 3.1 percent were Hispanic. But amazingly, 6 percent were of Asian descent. Lum (2009) suggests that a viable pool of university presidents can be developed if a pipeline is made for Asian Americans. 58 Table 5 Distribution of Presidents by Race/Ethnicity Race/Ethnicity 1986 1995 2001 2006 White 91.9% 89.3% 87.2% 86.4% Black 5.0% 5.9% 6.3% 5.9% Asian American 0.4% 0.8% 1.2% 0.9% Hispanic 2.2% 2.9% 3.7% 4.5% American Indian 0.5% 0.8% 1.1% 0.7% Other n/a n/a 0.5% 1.5% Total minority 8.1% 10.7% 12.8% 13.5% Dr. Ding-Jo Currie, President Coastline Community College and interim chancellor of the Coast Community College District, shared Although Asian Americans have been stereotyped as modest, reserved and non- confrontational does not mean we are not leadership material. These same characteristics can be used to a universities benefit because, when an institution achieves a president with such characteristics will be anxious to give credit to others. No one singularly achieves. (Lum, 2009, para. 10) In the end it is up to the board to make the decision of who will serve as a university president. Renick (as cited in Jaschik, 2007, para. 7) said, ?Boards are working very hard to keep presidents in office because they perceive there to be a limited pool of people qualified to lead colleges.? The role of the president has expanded considerably over the past 30 years. Jaschik (2007) says, ?With presidents spending so much of their time with ?external constituents? 59 ? potential donors, lawmakers and others ? boards worry about giving the job to academic administrators ?who have spent most of their careers dealing with internal constituents? (para. 3). He suggests that there needs to be a new effort to educate trustees and search committee members on ways ?to be inclusive? so that pools include people from a variety of backgrounds (Jaschik, 2008, para. 10). Jacqueline King shares (June, 2008) that more diversity in the university presidency will happen when boards of trustees, often anxious to go with proven leaders, break away from a cautious approach to hiring that has for the most part shut out those who don?t fit the traditional profile of university president and become willing to take more risks and look at candidates whose r?sum?s do not have the traditional background (June, 2008). Other issues related to diversity and higher education are the various academic backgrounds, experiences, and consideration that lead people to the presidency. These will be addressed in the next and final section of the literature review. Presidential Pathways Academic Backgrounds University presidents come from a variety of academic backgrounds. It is important to note that there is no degree that places a person on a linear track to the presidency. What is generally recognized is that graduate education in particular plays a vital role in developing academic leaders. Brown (2007) wrote, ?Graduate school is powerful force in structuring your mind, what facts you legitimize, and how you interpret things. Academic credentialing is very important for a potential president to have? (p. 13). Selingo (2003) agrees with this premise and writes, ?Frankly, academic credentials are important in this business? (p. A40). 60 Several executive higher education doctoral programs focused upon preparing individuals for executive leadership have sprouted up in established institutions during the early 2000s; among them are the University of Pennsylvania, University of Alabama, University of Georgia, and Jackson State University. Most of these programs are arranged in the cohort model and students must demonstrate that they have performed substantial leadership throughout their careers. Their programs usually take two to three years for students to complete. Jackson State University is the only such program that offers a PhD. The other programs offer an Ed.D. Doug Toma was the founder of the first program of its kind at the University of Pennsylvania. Selingo (2003) cites Toma, who found there were few programs catering to top college officials who wanted to earn a doctorate quickly without taking time off from their jobs. So they developed the program option. ?In admitting a class, faculty members seek applicants who are one step away from becoming presidents? Mr. Toma says (p. A40). Judith McLaughlin (1996) states, ?There is no one generic community college, college, or university in the United States. Likewise, the training for the presidency is varied? (p. 6). Because the economy continues to fluctuate, boards of trustees will likely look for potential presidential candidates that can solve complex problems and raise substantial dollars for their institutions. Experience Just as the academic backgrounds of presidents are interdisciplinary, presidential experiences leading up to their appointments are just as varied. Forlund (1970) said ?despite its formidable responsibilities, the college or university presidency is not the kind of position that lends itself to self-selection? (p. 195). Other literature states that regardless of previous roles, no one is completely ready for the position. A successful presidency is based on the institutional 61 needs in conjunction with the knowledge and competency the president brings. Basically, it is a function of good fit (Career Consultants, 1998). ?No matter how accomplished one has been in other positions, the presidency is a completely different experience? suggests Sanaghan, Goldstein, Jurow, and Rashford (2005, p. 34). Strengthening the pipeline of future university presidents is paramount to maintaining American global competitiveness and dominance in the higher education sector. Presidents set the tone and vision for their prospective institution. Therefore they effect the direction of the academe. It has been suggested that institutions do not have to necessarily look outside of their institutions for future top leadership. Some scholars have suggested that institutions grow their own leadership. Moore (1998) posits that ?A person enters the presidency through the inside door when he or she is an employee of the college upon selection or enters through the outside door when he or she is not employed by the college at the time of selection? (p. 55). Patton (2007) shares the concern that institutions of higher education must be strategic about recruiting and developing top talent for leadership. She states, But as schools look toward the future, staffing becomes a big question mark. More and more baby boomers are exiting the workforce, which is fueling the skilled labor shortage. Some institutional leaders are concerned that they won?t be ready, that they will be unable to recruit the talent they desperately need. (p. 25) The reluctance of many in higher education leadership to adjust some of their recruiting practices may hamper their ability to recruit many top emerging Generation X and millennial leaders. Patton (2007) also alludes to the idea that the hiring process can be cumbersome. Specifically, she states that ?the vetting process is very long and detailed. Selection is often 62 conducted by broad committees, which require a great deal of documentation of academic and management success before anyone is hired? (p. 26). In the end it is important for institutions to develop their own talent. Some ways that institutions could develop their talent is nominating their potential top leadership to programs such as the American Council of Education?s fellows program and Harvard?s Institute for Educational Management. Another possible option a program could take is to invest in sponsoring them to go back to school to earn a terminal degree, preferably in higher education administration. If schools do not make the proper investments they leave themselves venerable to brain drain. Patton (2007) wrote, If you don?t protect your own leadership pool with some planning and thinking, somebody else will be there to borrow from that pool If you don?t have a plan that develops people, moves them forward, somebody else will sing that siren song to them and they?ll go in that direction. (p. 25) Considerations in Moving to the Presidency There are several steps to the presidency that Moore (1998) suggests. They include: the person deciding to apply, interviewing with the prospective institution, waiting through the selection process, and after being selected going through a period of self and institutional discovery. When thinking about applying for a presidency, experts suggest that potential applicants take very judicial steps, because the first presidency is the one that will set the course for the rest of their career, and it should be sought with care. Selecting a presidency is like selecting a spouse. A person cannot go in thinking that he or she can change the nature and character of an institution any more than they can change the nature and character of a mate. A person must also consider the issue of ?sector crossing? ? that is, if someone starts at an HBCU, 63 can they make the transition to a traditionally White institution, or vice versa? This can occur, but it is very rare. The same issue can arise when moving from a private institution to a public institution. Therefore, where a person starts may have a definite impact on their ability to move between sectors (Career Consultants, 1998). A potential president also must consider their temperament and their strength of character. They must be clear about their underlying principles during periods of conflict and when forced to make difficult decisions. The person must be committed to their underlying principles under threat. If their commitment is strong, then they can proceed to act with purpose and conviction, even in the face of opposition. Even though the president must have strong convictions, they must be able to always remain under control. Dr. Rajib Sanya, dean of Northern Michigan University's College of Business (as cited in Lum, 2008), suggests, ?A president has to appear positive in public and can?t get angry? (para. 1). It is also is important to remember that to be chosen for leadership is a privilege. Presidential leadership is a privilege that comes with the responsibility?to protect the integrity and reputation of the institution, to produce high quality results, and to safeguard the members of the institution who depend on it for their livelihood. ?Except when one is faced with challenges to moral and ethical standards, those imperatives of leadership supersede personal agendas and biases, political beliefs and affiliations, and philosophical orientations? (Alexander, 2008, p.30). It is also important for persons considering a presidency to think about how they would like to compose their executive leadership team. Alexander (2008) suggest that in building a leadership team, appoint supremely competent persons who clearly understand that their role is to implement the institutional vision and plan. Complete the 64 requisite background reviews and face-to-face interviews to confirm that potential team members will be loyal and trustworthy. (p.30) Fisher and Koch (1996) said that ?loyalty on one?s staff is as important as competence and that to tolerate even the slightest disloyalty from an administrative subordinate is to set a shorter time limit on an effective presidency? (p. 110). In higher education, relationships are the ?coin of the realm? (McLaughlin, 1996, p. 11). Conclusion These topics in this literature review have provided the foundation for this study as it seeks discover the perceptions of university presidents about the knowledge and competencies needed for their roles and the degree to which their graduate programs have prepared them for that job. The next chapter presents the methods used to complete the study?s purposes. 65 Chapter References Altbach, P. G. (2010). Leadership for world-class universities: Challenges for developing countries. New York and London: Routledge. Altbach, P., & Engberg, D. (2001). Higher education: A worldwide inventory of centers and programs. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Austin, A. 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Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Young, M. D., & Brooks, J. S. (2008). Supporting graduate students of color in educational administration preparation programs: Faculty perspectives on best practices, possibilities, and problems. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(3), 391?442. 75 CHAPTER 3. METHODS This chapter presents the methods used in the research study. The chapter includes the purposes and significance of the study, research questions, population and sample participants, research design, a description of the methodology, and data collection and analysis processes. This chapter addresses concerns related to internal and external validity and reliability and generalizability of results. The chapter concludes with a discussion of assumptions, and the limitations of the study. Purposes of the Study The first purpose of the study was to investigate the core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by the study participants. The second purpose was to gather information on university presidents? perceptions of their training related to their preparation for the university presidency. The final purpose was to propose a theoretical model of program development in higher education leadership. Research Questions This study investigated the following questions: 1. What are the core knowledge, and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by university presidents? 2. What are the perceptions of college and university presidents of the adequacy of their doctoral training in preparing them for their role in executive leadership at the university level? 76 3. What theoretical model should be used in developing an academic preparation program to prepare university presidents? Significance of the Study This study sought to examine the perceived relevance of the relationship between higher education administration programs and preparation towards executive leadership in higher education. The results should help administrators, curriculum developers and faculty in higher education administration programs to better understand which things they teach and experiences they design for students that may be more useful to them in their future career. This information could serve as a framework for enriching the knowledge of college instructors and curriculum developers. It should also provide information about how professional development and mentoring and coaching activities might be helpful in preparing individuals for the executive leadership and ensuring their success. Research Design and Rationale The research used a mixed-methods approach involving both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase one used quantitative methods to identify the sample population and to examine presidents? beliefs about the importance of identified skills and competencies for presidential leadership and the degree to which their programs prepared them for the presidency. This information was used to develop interview questions for the study. Phase two of the study involved the use of qualitative methods to gather data needed to address the research questions posed. Phase One: Quantitative Analysis and Population and Sample Selection The initial research phase involved analyzing quantitative data from a 50 question survey on the presidency, provided by the American Council of Education?s (ACE) study published as 77 ?The American College President: 2007 Edition (ACE, 2007).? The study also gathered data from 2,148 presidents to identify the degree to which these presidents perceived they were prepared for the position of the president. The study gathered data pertaining to education, career paths, and length of service, as well as personal characteristics such as age, marital status, and religious affiliation. ACE?s American College President Study is ?the only comprehensive source of demographic data on college and university presidents from all sectors of American higher education? (ACE, 2007, para 2). This survey was first administered in 1986 to describe the backgrounds, career paths and experiences of college and university presidents. Questions have been adapted and refined throughout that 20-year period (ACE, 2008; J. King, personal communication, September 4, 2010). In the ACE study, the population included presidents with terminal degrees in a variety of fields, both from within and outside of education. There were 2,148 presidents who participated in this study. Of these, 891 identified themselves as having earned a terminal degree in education or higher education. Close to half of the total participants in the ACE?s surveys identified themselves as earning a doctorate in education or higher education, but the study did not differentiate between those who had earned doctorates in education with specialization?s other than higher education in the data analysis. Therefore, there was no way to distinguish between the responses of those who were graduates of higher education programs and those who were not. The ACE study included the question, ?In which of the following areas did you feel insufficiently prepared for your first presidency? The question included 17 variables: (1) Academic issues (e.g., curriculum changes) (2) Accountability/assessment of student learning, (3) Athletics, (4) Budget/financial management, (5) Capital improvement projects, (6) 78 Community relations, (7) Crisis management, (8) Enrollment management, (9) Entrepreneurial ventures, (10) Faculty issues, (11) Fund raising, (12) Governing board relations, (13) Government relations, (14) Media/public relations, (15) Personnel issues (excluding faculty), (16) Risk management/legal issues, and (17) Strategic planning. These competencies have been identified, developed, and refined over 20 years through interviews and feedback from college and university presidents (ACE, 2008; J. King, personal communication, September 4, 2010). The presidents were able to check all that applied. Access to the data source was requested from the 2007 ACE study from the American Council of Education and consent was received to use the data results for this study (see Appendix 2). After receiving the data, the researcher used a t-test to determine the extent to which there were or were not statistically significant differences in the responses of presidents with degrees in education and those with other degrees regarding their level of preparedness for their first presidency. Chi-square analysis indicated that presidents with a terminal degree in education/higher education felt statistically significantly less prepared for fundraising (ACPS Question 35K) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (X2(1, N = 891) = 9.274, p = .002). Findings also indicated that presidents with a terminal degree in education/higher education indicated that they were statistically significantly more prepared for enrollment management duties (Question 35H) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (X2(1, N = 891) = 14.704, p < .001). 79 Table 6 Chi-square Analysis of Presidential Preparedness Question df X2 p 35H. Prepared for Enrollment Management 1 14.704 < .001 35K. Prepared for Fundraising 1 9.274 0.002 While not statistically significant, presidents with a terminal degree in education/higher education felt more prepared to assess student-learning duties (Question 35B) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (no chi-square results). This information was used to assist in creating the interview script. Population and Sample The overall population of this study was derived from the 1,647 college and university presidents affiliated with the American Council of Education, as identified on their organizational website (American Council of Education, 2010, para. 1). The researcher retrieved from the population those CEOs who had declared their degree ?field of study? as Education or Higher Education. A secondary analysis from Question 15 of the ACE Survey was undertaken. Question 15 asked presidents to indicate the major field of study for their highest degree earned. Options for response to question 15 included, (1) Agriculture/Natural Resources, (2) Biological Sciences, (3) Business, (4) Education or Higher Education, (5) Engineering, (6) Health Professions, (7) Humanities/Fine Arts, (8) Law, (9) Mathematics, (10) Medicine, (11) Physical/Natural Sciences, (12) Religion/Theology, and (13) Social Sciences. Next, the researcher chose to include from the sample that had marked response (4) above. 80 The secondary analysis identified 891 college and university presidents who identified themselves as having either earned a doctoral degree in education or higher education. The results of identifying a sub-population allowed the researcher to further identify the appropriate sample. These 891 presidents were located in four-year colleges and universities that represented all regions of the United States, including urban, suburban, and rural settings. The following university types were represented in the study: Master?s Universities (smaller, medium, and larger programs); Research Universities (high and very high research activity); and Doctoral /Research Universities. Identification of institutional type was based on the 2009 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching standard listing. The sample was culled further by identifying only presidents who served institutions whose name included the word ?University? differentiating them from those whose name contained the word ?College? and included only presidents who received a degree in an educational field. This selection process was conducted to bring consistency to the study sample, as universities are usually larger, contain several colleges and represent a different executive leadership challenge. This sample selection resulted in a population of 150 presidents. These 150 university presidents were solicited via email or phone to participate in this study. Of these 150, thirteen presidents agreed to participate. There were several reasons many of the presidents were unable to participate, which included lack of time and they were not university presidents. Creswell (2002) advocates that data saturation can be met by including 3?5 participants in case study projects and 15?20 in grounded theory projects, and Maxwell?s (1998) dictum that a small sample size is acceptable in qualitative research because it?s a rigorous and systematic methodology. It was determined that 13 would be an adequate sample for the study. 81 Phase 2: Qualitative Methodological Framework Phase 2 and the primary focus of this study involved qualitative methodology. This approach was used to investigate research questions and an in-depth exploration of the phenomenon being investigated (Creswell, 2004). Both Life History Study Method (LHCS) (Campbell, 1999) and Multi-Grounded Theory (MGT) (Goldkuhl & Cronholm, 2003) methods were used in Phase 2. Life History Case Study The first part of this phase used the Life History Case study method. Using Life History Case Study methods allowed the researcher to explore each participant?s ascension to presidency specifically reviewing the following periods in their life, (1) Graduate School, (2) Professional Experience after Graduate School, and (3) the Presidency. This tool allowed an exploration of the participants? perceptions of their own graduate training in higher education administration and its role in preparation for their current position. This approach was also used to explore what knowledge and competencies they perceived as having learned on the job. Two guided interviews were conducted and university presidents were asked key questions about their training. This process provided rich data, which assisted in interpreting the responses and developing the information into a meaningful narrative. The researcher used the Life History Case study approach to collect personal narratives. This qualitative approach is specifically designed to help researchers understand the in-depth and comprehensive meanings in people?s lives (Campbell, 1999). Thirteen university presidents participated in this study, all representing distinct Carnegie institutional classifications. The case studies address the presidents? interpretation of their experiences and the understanding of the 82 environment around them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Questions 1?10 comprise the interview questions dealing utilizing the Life History Case study approach. Multi-Grounded Theory Multi-Grounded Theory (MGT) was also used in this study. Multi-Grounded Theory (MGT) allowed the researcher to investigate the knowledge, skills, and competencies participants identified as essential for effective leadership in higher education administration. MGT is a qualitative research methodology aiming at generating theory that is grounded both in data and in established theory (Cronholm, 2004; Goldkuhl & Cronholm, 2003). By establishing MGT as a theoretical framework, this study combined both inductivism and deductivism in theory development (Cronholm, 2005). Figure 1 displays the process. Figure 1. Empirical data (ACE Presidential Study), Research Interest (Higher Education Programs) and Existing Conceptual Frameworks based on Goldkuhl and Cronholm, (2003). Theory Development ACE Presidential Study Interviewer?s Questions Graduate Student?s Expectations Curriculum Development Higher Education Graduate Programs Presidential Perceptions Multi-Grounded Theory 83 The MGT approach was built on the Grounded Theory method advocated and developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998). Although the initial Grounded Theory approach was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), Goldkuhl and Cronholm (2003) added three grounding approaches to extend this method. This approach allowed for both inductive analysis of data and some deductive use of other theories. In the MGT approach, theory is grounded in: 1. Empirical data (preferably collected in mainly an inductive way) empirical grounding. 2. Pre-existing theories or concepts (well selected for the theorized phenomena) theoretical grounding. 3. An explicit congruence within the theory itself (between elements in the theory) internal grounding (Axelsson & Goldkuhl, 2004, p. 2). Figure 2. Conceptual framework for study based on multi-grounded theory developed by Goldkuhl and Cronholm (2003, p. 2). 84 In this research, the inductive approach was represented by the empirical ACE study data that was analyzed. Conceptual frameworks represented the deductive approach from the literature review. The conceptual frameworks included in this study derived from Stuver?s (2006) student expectations, Fink?s (2005) curriculum design, Hammon and Miller?s (2006) presidential perceptions, and Herdlein?s (2004) graduate preparation of new professionals. The purpose of using MGT in this study was to work toward the development of a theory of higher education leadership program development. The theory of higher education leadership program development identifies the knowledge and competencies needed to effectively serve in executive leadership in a university. This theory will help to inform the work of those associated with curriculum development in higher education programs. This is accomplished by providing detailed insights into the knowledge base and competency domains that students should master prior to the completion of their doctorate. In this study, presidents not only identified those domains which need to be mastered, but also provided suggestions related to andragogical methods that instructors can use to convey these concepts and measure the mastery of those domains by their students. Questions 11?15 of the interviews were used to help gather data related to the grounded theory approach. Data Collection Processes The primary data source of this study was interviews. The researcher was able to gather the curriculum vitas and biographical sketches to confirm that the interviewer?s description of their backgrounds corroborated with the other data sources. The researcher collected the following demographic information from participants: gender, ethnicity, institutional type, and home institution?s geographic region. The same interview protocol was used during all the initial interviews. 85 Seven university presidents were interviewed at the 2010 ACE Annual Meeting in Phoenix, AZ on March 6?10, 2010. Interviews took place between the hours of 10:00 a.m. through 5:00 p.m. in the afternoon. Participants met the researcher in a meeting boardroom, for the interview. The six other interviews were conducted on-site at the participants? home institutions presidents? offices. Again, these open-ended interviews lasted for 1 hour. Audio and video equipment was used for data collection purposes. The researcher used a video camera and secured an audio recording device from the digital resource lab at Auburn University. Audiotaping and videotaping the interviews enabled the researcher to concentrate on the questions asked. An interview script was utilized throughout the interview process. Before each interview began, permission was gained using the Auburn University Institutional Preview Board approved informed consent form to audio and video record (see Appendix 4). To capture the responses of participants, the researcher placed the digital audio and video recorders directly in front of the participants. Following the initial interview, the researcher reviewed the transcript and tape and constructed follow-up interview questions tailored to the individual president. These questions sought to clarify statements and assertions made by presidents in the initial interview. Follow- up interviews were conducted via email. Both rounds of interviews took place over a 5-month period. The interview questions were phrased in the following format: 1. Why did you decide to earn the degree in higher education administration? 2. Once you decided that you wanted to earn a degree in higher education administration, what were your long-term goals? 3. Please share with me some of the skills and competencies you learned in your program and that you use today? 86 4. It was also found in the ACE study that those that earn doctoral degrees in education felt more prepared to manage issues of accountability and assessment of student learning than presidents who did not have that background. Did you feel the same way in your first presidency? 5. The ACE study also noted that those who earned a doctoral degree in Higher Education felt better prepared in addressing issues relating to enrollment management. Did your doctoral program address issues related to enrollment management? 6. Did your program have an internship or an assistantship? 7. So, what would you say, and you can say it still, is the role of professional conferences and memberships and professional societies here for your personal and professional development? 8. How have the skills and the confidences introduced back in your doctoral program shaped the way you perform your duties today? And what would those areas be? 9. Can you give me some examples of skills and knowledge that you have learned on the job as president? 10. How has professional development training programs such as the Harvard Institute for Educational Management, the ACE Presidential Roundtable or catalogs, leadership/fellowship program assisted you in your skill development? Are there any skills or competencies that you developed through those programs? 11. How would you describe an effective higher education administration doctoral program? 87 12. Please provide examples of skills or competencies you would advise students to develop while in their higher education program. 13. What would you suggest is the best way to teach those skills or competencies? 14. As it relates to the ACE study, when asked whether they were significantly prepared or sufficiently prepared for fund raising activities, presidents with doctoral degrees in education felt less prepared than those from other disciplines. What is your reaction to that? 15. What should I have asked that I didn?t ask? To allow the presidents to explore their own ideas and areas of personal importance, all of the interviews were concluded with a short open-ended discussion that centered on the president?s interests and concerns (Gasman, 2003; Patton, 1980). Copious and detailed notes were taken along with a video and audio recording of each interview. The quotes contained in this study are all from these interviews. Summary notes were recorded in the journal directly following each interview. The presidents? reactions, comments, and preliminary thoughts on the emerging themes were recorded in the log as subscribed to by Miles and Huberman (1984) and Gasman (2003). Both what the presidents said (i.e., their words and language) and what was unsaid (i.e., body language and long pauses) were considered when logging notes. Recognizing that dependability, transferability, credibility, and confirmability are important criteria for trustworthiness in qualitative research, multiple methods of data collection were used. The interviews and review of the participant?s curriculum vitas and biographical sketches were focused on in the study, a process supported by Gasman (2003). 88 Data Analysis The researcher used multiple data sources to confirm the data results (Yin, 2003). Using multiple sources enhanced the study by allowing for structural corroboration. Eisner (1998) describes structural corroboration as ?the confluence of multiple sources of evidence or the recurrence of instances that support a conclusion? (p. 55). The sources the researcher used were field notes taken during participant interviews, memoing (Corbin, 1990) ideas developed during the research process, audiotaping and videotaping the interviews. Trochim (2006) defined memoing as A process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher as they evolve throughout the study. You might think of memoing as extensive marginal notes and comments. Again, early in the process these memos tend to be very open while later on they tend to increasingly focus in on the core concept. (p. 2) Several steps were taken to conduct the data analysis, which included unitizing and coding. The following explains the steps the researcher took in the analysis process. Tables 7? 13 display the initial priori codes and their literature source. These codes were used throughout the data analysis process. 89 Table 7 Priori Codes Priori Codes Source Program Faculty Qualifications Hammons, J. O., & Miller, M. T. (2006 ). Presidential perceptions about graduate-preparation programs for community colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 30, 373?381. Cohort Model Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Mentoring Faculty Expertise Faculty Competence Unitizing The data from the interviews and journals were placed in units that were coded in TamsAnalyzer based on their importance in addressing the research questions. The basic unit of analysis in the present study was the University President Information Unit (UPIU). The UPIU is a single idea that can stand on its own and gives information about the experiences of university presidents. A unit that derived from the data could be a single word, a short phrase, a sentence, or an entire paragraph of data (Mayer, 2010). The criterion for judging each unit was determining ?the mind of the speaker? or what the participant intended in the UPIU. UPIUs can also be complete sentences or entire sections of data that may be one or more paragraphs. In addition, some of the longer units, such as sentences and paragraphs of data, were assigned more than one code. 90 Table 8 Prior Codes 2 Priori Codes Source Creativity Herdlein, R. J. (2004). Survey of chief student affairs officers regarding relevance of graduate preparation of new professionals. NASPA Journal, 42(1). Friendly Personality Curiosity Open-mindedness Good Judgment Courage Values Work Ethic Collaborative Leadership Ability Integrate Complex Ideas Planning and Implementation Taking Initiative Caring Firmness Working with Diverse Populations Student Development Theory Technology (table continues) 91 Table 8 (continued) Priori Codes Source Counseling Time Management Overall Knowledge of Higher Education Administrative Skills Legal Knowledge Research/Assessment Coding Researchers generally approach data collection through two distinct qualitative epistemologies Kvale and Brinkmann (2009). Researchers either approach their research as travelers or miners. Those described as travelers approach the interview process from the mental position that they know exactly what they are looking for. In this project the researcher decided to approach it through a miner?s approach. In the miner?s approach, the researcher searches through data in order to uncover bits of essential meaning or facts. These particles are waiting in the subject?s interior to be uncovered, and it is the miner?s job to uncover them without contaminating them in any way. In the miner metaphor, data are approached in a manner consistent with social science models where knowledge exists ?a priori? or is ?a given? and therefore must simply be uncovered by researchers (Mayer, 2010). 92 Table 9 Priori Codes 3 Priori Codes Source Strategic Planning Herdlein, R. J. (2004). Survey of chief student affairs officers regarding relevance of graduate preparation of new professionals. NASPA Journal, 42(1). Civic Responsibility Competence Reflective Thought Managing One?s Life Knowledge Application The priori codes have been developed based on the coding categories advocated by Bogdan and Biklen (2003). The coding categories used in this study include: setting/context codes, definition of the situation codes, perspectives held by the participants, ways of thinking about people and subjects, process codes, event codes, strategy codes, and relationship and social structure codes. Table 10 Priori Codes 4 Priori Codes Source Feelings of Inclusion Stuver, A.L. (2006). A graduate student?s expectation of graduate education. Retrieved June 8, 2008, from www.aps.org/programs/ education/upload/StuverCalTec.pdf Committee Participation Membership in Professional Societies 93 Coding Process All data from the participants? interviews, the researcher?s journal entries, and relevant literature were used as priori codes. These were combined into a single Rich text document and then imported into TamsAnalyzer. The researcher labeled this file ?my official dissertation.? The data were labeled with the participants? pseudonyms from the pilot study. From the literature review, the researcher compiled a start list of codes to look for in the data. There were a total of 80 ?a priori? codes that were found to be applicable to the study. These issues were identified in the literature as important to curriculum development and presidential leadership. These were numbered according to Miles and Huberman (1994) and all instances were coded in the data. The start list included: skills, knowledge, competency, program characteristics, development, curriculum, and professional development. As data were coded, the start list began to emerge. Recurring themes not included on the start list or in the relevant literature were coded as emerging codes as well. 94 Table 11 Priori Codes 5 Priori Codes Source Budgeting Skills Herdlein, R. J. (2004). Survey of chief student affairs officers regarding relevance of graduate preparation of new professionals. NASPA Journal, 42(1). Knowledge of Politics Effective Writing Vision Casting Conflict Management Flexibility Critical Thinking Maturity Emotional Intelligence Public Speaking Telling the Story Problem Solving Personal Values Fairness Sense of Humor Passion Honesty Integrity Character Ethics Self-Confidence 95 In addition to using the start list, the ?coding incident to incident? approach advocated by Charmaz (2006) was implemented. This process allowed the researcher to compare like incidents experienced by different participants. This procedure helps to further corroborate ideas developed earlier in the coding process. These ?axial? codes, which are codes that emerge out of the data, help to solidify the identity of emergent properties. Emergent codes were compared to one another to further narrow down the amount of redundant codes and therefore create substantive codes. The results of this process allowed for theoretical coding, which Charmaz (2006) describes as substantive codes being integrated together creating a theory. Table 12 Priori Codes 6 Priori Codes Source Learning Assessment Skills American Council for Education (2008). The American college president: 2007 edition (6th ed.). Washington, DC. Presidential Characteristics Professional Development at Conferences Doctoral Program Characteristics Doctoral Program Expectations Practicum Experience Preparation Inside the classroom Preparation Outside of the Classroom Practicum Experience Learning Fundraising Skills Learning Enrollment Management Background Characteristics 96 Journaling Using a reflexive approach throughout qualitative data analysis process is accepted across the qualitative research community (Ortlipp, 2008). One preferred reflexive approach is journaling. In this study the researcher journaled from the beginning of the pilot study process to the end of the study?s analysis. In this approach, the researcher was admonished to write down notes throughout the analysis process. These notes were written particularly for the use of the researcher himself. During this process the researcher wrote about himself, and included his presuppositions, choices, experiences, and actions during the research process (Mruck & Breuer, 2003). Journaling allows the researcher to present the reader with a transparent account of how the study was constructed. The self-reflective journals entries helped the researcher reflect on his decisions. Throughout the study the researcher reviewed his journal entries to examine his personal assumptions and goals. That allowed him to be able to honestly present his belief system and subjectivities to the reader (Ortlipp, 2008). 97 Table 13 Priori Codes 7 Priori Codes Source Learning Goals Fink, L. D. (2005). Integrated course design. Idea Paper #42, University of Oklahoma. Teaching/Learning Activities Feedback and Assessment Lecture Case Study Internship Role Play Gaming/Simulations Concerns for Internal/External Validity There are several ways to determine if research data or instrumentation is valid. As Kvale has stated, ?Validation is not some final verification or product control, verification is built into the entire process with continual checks on credibility, plausibility, and trustworthiness of the findings? (2009, p. 250). Validity is demonstrated through assurances that the research results accurately demonstrate the phenomena to which they refer, that they are backed by evidence, and that there are either no grounds for doubting the research or there is strong evidence in favor of the findings, which becomes a testament to the fallibility of the research (Schwandt, 2007). In the first phase of this study the researcher used the ACE survey, which has been pilot tested and administered for more than 20 years, so no tests for validity or reliability were required. In the second phase the researcher enlisted the expertise of three senior academic 98 administrators and faculty to review pilot questions for evidence of content validity (Ross & Shannon, 2008). After making revisions based on the expert panels? responses, the researcher conducted field interviews with six academic administrators. The researcher also conducted two focus group interviews, which included both higher and adult education faculty and higher education administration students who were considered at ?ABD? status. Concerns for Reliability and Generalizability of Results The generalizability of a grounded theory is partly achieved through abstraction. Abstraction is a process used by the researcher where they separate key themes throughout the data. The abstraction process is conducted throughout the entire course of the research. The more abstract the concepts, the wider the theory?s applicability. Grounded theory outlines the conditions through which a phenomenon has been found in this particular data. A series of the situations to which it applies or references is identified and then specified in this study. In using the developed theory, future practitioners or others may encounter somewhat different or not- quite-the-same situations. Future practitioners or others still may wish to incorporate the theory to inform and guide the development of their own epistemological approaches. They will discover on their own the extent to which the theory applies to their particular setting. A grounded theory is reproducible in the limited sense that it is verifiable (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Corbin and Strauss (1990) suggested that, One can take the propositions that are made explicit or left implicit, whatever the case may be, and test them. However, no theory that deals with social psychological phenomena is actually reproducible in the sense that new situations can be found whose conditions exactly match those of the original study, although major conditions may be similar. (p. 15) 99 In this study, the researcher decided to use a themed argument approach (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The themed argument approach allows the researcher to share the theory that emerged from the data. Evidence of the data was illustrated by presenting several examples addressing each identified theme. This study has developed a substantive-applied theory, which is a grounded theory that addresses a specific area of social science research (Charmaz, 2006). However, the researcher has also stressed that the actual findings from those interviewed may not be generalizable in the traditional sense of the word. This researcher addressed the social construction and constructivist criteria by first acknowledging his bias. The researcher is passionate about developing stronger higher education programs. This passion is grounded in a belief that higher education programs should encourage and develop in their students (present and future), faculty, and administrators a ?student first? mentality. This has come about as a result of the researcher interacting with faculty, staff, and administrators that did not serve students? needs with competence and care. The researcher?s ultimate desire is to combine expanding knowledge in the area of curriculum development and higher education administration and advocate for the integration of student- friendly principles in the training of students in higher education. It was the researcher?s desire to remain neutral throughout the study development process. Therefore, an attempt was made to use what Patton (2002) calls empathetic neutrality. This investigative technique enables the researcher to be viewed by the participants as caring about them and their interest, while still remaining neutral about what the data would show. The researcher attempted to remain impartial and not simply objective during interviews. For the sake of this study the researcher chose to use two triangulation methods to assist in validating the study. The methods were analyst triangulation and theory/perspective 100 triangulation. Patton (2002) describes analyst triangulation as using multiple (two or more) outside analysts to evaluate the study findings. This was conducted by inviting two expert researchers from the Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership and Technology at Auburn University to review the results of the analysis. Theory/perspective triangulation is described by Patton (2002) as using multiple lenses or theories to interpret the data. This process was completed during the data collection stage when the researcher used several conceptual frameworks to inform the data collection process, which included Stuver?s (2006) student expectations, Fink?s (2005) curriculum design, Hammon and Miller?s (2006) presidential perceptions, and Herdlein?s (2004) graduate preparation of new professionals. Those frameworks were then used to provide priori codes to inform the analysis process. As it relates to the credibility of the researcher, he has studied qualitative methodology for over two years. Three expert qualitative researchers, including a grounded theory expert, have trained him. In addition, follow-up email interviews were conducted for purposes of member checking and data validation. Wolfe (2010) defines member checking as, ?a term used to determine the trustworthiness of the data analysis.? By conducting a member check, the presidents had the ability to review the researcher?s observations to ensure that it correctly reflected the presidents? feelings and responses (Creswell, 1998; Wolfe, 2010). The second interview allowed the researcher to ask additional questions based on the responses from the initial interview. 101 Approval and Endorsement The researcher sought the permission and assistance from the Auburn University Office of Institutional Research (IRB) to identify potential participants (see Appendix 1). Once participants were identified, a Request for Participation form was sent via email requesting their assistance, stating the information needed, and how it would be used. Once a participant agreed to participate in the study via email, the researcher met with the participant face-to-face and read to them an IRB interview guide/script. Once the participant verbally agreed, they were presented with an Informed Consent form, which each participant completed. The Informed Consent form was used to acquire final approval and to confirm their participation acceptance for this study as prescribed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). All appropriate guidelines as required for the protection of human subjects by the IRB were followed. Before seeking participation from potential participants, the study was approved for implementation with human subjects by the Auburn University Institutional Review Board (see Appendix 1). This study was supported and endorsed by Auburn University?s office of the Dean of the College of Education. To gain access to the ACE data, the Dean?s office provided a letter of support along with the researcher?s request to access the study?s results. The ACE agreed to allow the researcher access to the data for the purposes of this study. After analyzing the data, the researcher contacted ACE and requested access to interview the participants at their 2010 meeting and was granted this request. Thereafter, via email and phone, the researcher made personal arrangements to interview each participant. The following offices provided financial assistance for this study: Auburn University?s Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership & Technology; the College of Education; the Graduate School; the Office of the Vice President of Outreach; and the Office of Diversity and Multicultural Affairs. 102 Pilot Testing Prior to conducting the study, the researcher enlisted the expertise of three senior academic administrators and faculty to review pilot questions. After making revisions to the interview process and questions, based on the expert panel responses, the researcher conducted field interviews with six academic administrators. Each administrator was interviewed in a one- on-one, face-to-face format. In addition to interviews with the six academic administrators, the researcher conducted two focus group interviews. The focus group interviews included both higher and adult education faculty and higher education administration students who were considered at ?ABD? (All-But-Dissertation) status. The pilot study allowed the researcher to practice and refine his qualitative methodological skills and to further validate the survey instrument. The pilot study used the same questions as the present study, although minor improvements were made. Data collected during the pilot study were not used in the present study because the pilot sample characteristics were not identical, i.e. they had not served as university presidents. The pilot project began in October of 2009 and concluded in November of that same year. There was one unique difference between the pilot study and the present study. The researcher used a focus group format in two of the pilot interviews whereas in the official interviews, no focus group interviews were conducted. The researcher learned several lessons from the pilot study. From the interviews the researcher learned that participants could be apprehensive in sharing their true feelings. One administrator was unsure that their responses would be kept confidential even though the researcher guaranteed anonymity. The researcher also experienced how a participant may try to begin controlling the interview by asking the researcher questions. The researcher addressed the 103 situation by answering the questions asked by the participant and then quickly moved back into questioning the participants. Figure 3. Model used as a dialectical synthesis between inductivism and deductivism. The last unique experience that influenced the pilot study was a spontaneous question asked to the student panel. The participants asked if they had any bias, pro or con, to hiring a senior level executive to their cabinets who had earned a doctorate in higher education versus an applicant who had not. The reactions from the participants were swift. They felt that the question was inappropriate because they interpreted the question to insinuate that the doctorate in higher education was not of equal quality to degrees from other fields of study. So in reaction to that response, the researcher did not add that question to the official interviews. After reviewing the experiences of the pilot study, the researcher refined the interview questions and techniques. The interviews generally lasted around one hour each. The researcher made a minimal use of the 104 qualitative software TamsAnalyzer 3.16 to analyze the results of the pilot study. The official interviews were analyzed by hand. Limitations of the Methodology Due to the nature of qualitative research, there are certain limits to generalizability. Although the researcher was able to collect ?thick? and ?rich? descriptive narrative data, the limited sample size restricted the application of results to populations outside of university presidents who have earned doctoral degrees in higher education administration. The study addressed the following research epistemological perspectives. They include the traditional scientific research criteria, and the social construction and constructivist criteria. The traditional scientific research criteria approach generally emphasizes rigorous and systematic data collection procedures, using multiple coders and calculating intercoder consistency to demonstrate the validity and reliability of theme analysis (Patton, 2002). Multi-grounded theory addressed each of these concerns by using a thoroughly outlined process that includes unitizing and coding. The other approach that this study addressed is the social construction and constructivist criteria. This approach required the researcher to provide information acknowledging bias, establishing trustworthiness, and showing that at least one of four triangulation methods were conducted. Conclusion This chapter discussed the methods used to conduct this study as well as the research questions that were used to guide the study. This is a two-phase, sequential mixed method study which used quantitative data from American Council of Education?s (ACE) The American College President: 2007 Study and is guided by both life history case study and multi-grounded theory methods. Findings from this study are intended to inform the work of higher education 105 faculty and administrators, in particular curriculum developers. The chapters which follow describe the findings, implications, and recommendations for future research through three manuscripts, each of which focuses upon one of the research questions. 106 CHAPTER 4. MANUSCRIPT 1: UNIVERSITY PRESIDENTS? PERSPECTIVES OF THE KNOWLEDGE AND COMPETENCIES NEEDED FOR EXECUTIVE HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP Introduction Higher education programs prepare potential higher education administrators, faculty, and policy makers (Wright, 2007). There have been attempts to develop and adopt common requirements or core course requirements for the master?s level within these programs (CAS, 2006; ASHE, 2010). In 2006, The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) adopted a set of student affairs master's level preparation standards. In addition, in 2010, the Association for the Study of Higher Education?s Council for the Advancement of Higher Education Programs adopted a set of guidelines for Higher Education Administration and Leadership Preparation Programs at the Masters Degree Level. However, there are no guidelines or standards that address higher education leadership doctoral programs (ASHE, 2010). Presently half of the sitting university presidents in United States are over the age of 60 (ACE, 2007). Many are nearing the age of retirement and higher education researchers predict a surge of openings for university presidencies across the country. In the past 10 years, many searches turned to sitting college presidents as the primary pool of applicants. That pool may not be as convenient an option in the future (Farrington, 2008). The next most common pool to draw presidential talent is from the senior cabinet level officers within higher education. 107 Presidents come from a variety of backgrounds. Some are from the corporate world, some from public service and some from the academic realm. However, when it comes to the university presidency, academic credentials appear to hold a great deal of importance. This appears to be particularly true of research universities. Examining this issue, Dr. Velmer Burton (2003) found that among research doctoral granting universities, non-higher education employees are not general sought for presidencies. The only way they become president at a research university is that they bring extraordinary accomplishments or notoriety (e.g., scholarly reputations) to the university. She found generally that becoming president at a research university, especially at a more prestigious institution, is a highly structured process from the earning of the doctorate degree to where academic and administrative experience is obtained (Burton, 2003). The combination of the pending retirements of presidents and the fact that it appears that most university presidencies require some form of a terminal degree, it is important to gain the perspective of those already in the job about the knowledge and competencies needed for success so that programs preparing future higher education leaders are well grounded and meet the needs of presidents of this century. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to identify the core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by university presidents. University presidents involved were those who had earned a doctoral degree with a specialization in higher education administration and who were leading four-year institutions. The research question addressed was ?What are the core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by university 108 presidents?? It is hoped that findings will inform the work of executive higher education program faculty and curriculum developers as they seek to prepare students for executive leadership positions in higher education. The results also should help administrators, curriculum developers, and faculty associated with higher education administrations programs and educational leadership institutes to better understand higher education students? needs and enhance their programs. The University Presidency Since the election of the first American college president in 1640?Henry Dunster of Harvard College?the position of president has been one of extreme responsibility and high visibility. The University president is a position that is extremely complex and important. Luxton (2005) said, By being the chief spokesperson for institutional strategy, the chief executive officer gives credibility to agreed plans. Although other individuals may lead out at key points in development and implementation of the process, the chief executive officer is understood to speak for the whole institution. (p. 12) The role of the president is both substantive and symbolic. David Riesman (as cited in McLaughlin, 1996), former Harvard sociologist, has put it succinctly?presidents serve as the ?living logo? of their institution. They speak and represent multiple constituencies associated with the university. Although presidents are ultimately accountable to the board, they generally like to chart their own course. Dubois (2006) said, ?College presidents are an extraordinary group of professionals. They are highly competent and competitive, and basically they want to be left alone.? 109 In line with using management terminology to describe the role of the presidency, many boards of trustees are viewing their presidents? position more as leader of a large corporation than an academic leader. Roach (2000) cites Dr. Michael Lomax, president of the United Negro College Fund, who commented, ?I think that college boards are viewing the job of president more as a CEO than as a pure education position? (p. 24). In the same article Roach (2000) cites Dr. George Ayers, president of Ayers & Associates, a northern Virginia-based higher education management consulting and executive search firm, saying ?Boards are also seeking candidates who have demonstrated that they have fund-raising skills and can win assistance for their school from corporations and foundations? (p. 24). This is consistent with the emerging thought around the academy that institutions of higher education need to be run by leaders that have a corporate or political background. Community College Presidents Although there have been several studies dedicated to the training of leaders through higher education programs (Altach, 2010; Altbach, Bozeman, & Janashia, 2007; Barnett, 2007; Dressel & Mayhew, 1974; Fife & Goodchild, 1991; Kienle & Loyd, 2005; Wang, 2010; Wright & Miller, 2007). There is a lack of literature that addresses the value of higher education doctoral programs in preparing university presidents. However, a study by Hammons and Miller (2006) investigated community college presidents? perceptions of their preparation program and sought suggestions for improvement. Findings indicated that preparation programs were well perceived of by their graduates, but that they needed to do a better job of interacting with the practitioner community and using real-world cases in their instruction. In addition to the studies that address the role higher education programs play in the development of community college presidents, there is a long history that addresses the 110 development of higher education student affairs practitioners, which informed this study. Research related to the efficacy of graduate programs in student affairs has been an area of importance to student affairs scholars in the field since the initial academic preparation began at Teachers College, Columbia University in 1913. During the past 30 years, there has been debate related to which particular course work was most effective in transferring knowledge, developing skills, and defining characteristics essential to successful practice. One of the most pertinent to this study was conducted by Sandeen in 1982. The researcher completed a national survey of 219 chief student affairs officers to assess, review, and update perceptions of graduate preparation programs. The results of this study found senior student affairs officers thought many programs were too oriented toward counseling and suggested a need for more internship opportunities and courses in legal issues, budgeting, and management. Another important study dealing with student affairs program curriculum was conducted by Dr. Marybelle Kiem (1991). In a longitudinal study of 47 doctoral, specialist, and master?s programs, Dr. Kiem found that many programs had fewer faculty and students than their counterparts within the same department, fewer programs requiring the master?s thesis, and a lack of courses in student personnel. The study that most closely aligns with the objectives of this study was conducted by Herdlein (2004). The study examined the perceptions of chief student affairs officers at 50 colleges/universities providing insights into the extent to which preparation programs effectively prepared new professionals for the field. Herdlein concluded that it is unclear whether graduate programs in student affairs have been satisfactory in preparing student affairs administrators in the rapidly changing environment of higher education. 111 Herdlein focused his study on three primary categories in higher education curriculum, which include foundational studies, professional studies, and supervised practice. He also asserted that ?Over a period of 36 years, a variety of studies have addressed issues important to changing conditions in the academy including suggestions to move preparation programs from a counseling emphasis to include a more administrative and management focus? (p. 56). This has been a function of the perceived need for higher education programs to develop leaders that master fundamental areas of management such as budgeting, leadership, and fundraising in an era of increased accountability. He provided the following as what he felt were implications for the student affairs profession: (1) There is a need for research carefully delineating competencies needed for successful practice; (2) Demonstrating competencies and evaluating learning outcomes may call for additional methodologies including the use of portfolios and competency-based practicum and graduate assistantships; and (3) All of the various knowledge and skill sets perceived to be lacking in new professionals need to be addressed in curricular offerings, teaching subject matter across the curriculum, and developing ways to encourage professional development and life-long learning as an integral part of the student affairs profession (Herdlein, 2004, p. 69). The implications described by Herdlein help to inform the work of this study as the researcher attempts to identify the skills, knowledge and competencies that university presidents need to be effective. There is also conversation about whether a particular program could prepare a student for a specific role, i.e. the presidency, chief student affairs officer, and chief advancement officer. In addition, conversations address what skills, knowledge or competencies can only be learned on the job and to what extent can formal education supplement and enhance that experience. 112 The literature suggests that it is becoming increasingly important to investigate what knowledge and competencies will not only essential for entry-level practitioners to possess, but for mid-level and senior level administrators from both the administrator and faculty perspectives (Kuk, Cobb, & Forrest, 2007). As Burkard, Cole, Ott, and Stoflet (2004) suggested in their study that in addition to identifying knowledge and competencies for instructional use, it may be important to understand how well prepared graduate students are to perform such activities. Methods Phase Population and Sample Selection The population group for this study was presidents of four-year institutions. The overall population of this study was derived from the 1,647 college and university presidents, affiliated with the American Council of Education, as identified on their organizational website (American Council of Education, 2010, para. 1). The sample was culled by identifying only presidents who served institutions whose name included the word ?University? differentiating them from those whose name contained the word ?College? and included only presidents who received a degree in an educational field. This selection process was conducted to bring consistency to the study sample, as universities are usually larger, contain several colleges and represent a different executive leadership challenge. This sample selection resulted in a population of 150 presidents. These 150 university presidents were solicited via email or phone to participate in this study. Of these 150, thirteen presidents agreed to participate. There were several reasons many of the presidents were unable to participate which included lack of time and that they were not university presidents. Table 14 Study Participants President (Pseudonym) University (Pseudonym) Gender Ethnicity Region Historical Designation Control Carnegie Classification Enrollment Size 1 Peter Johns Ethansville Male White Southeast PWI Private/Religious Master?s /M Less than 5,000 2 Lucas Jacob Landon State Male White Southeast PWI Public Bac/Diverse Less than 3,000 3 Gavin Benjamin Connor State Male White Southeast PWI Public Master?s/L Less than 10,000 4 Elijah Alexander Owen A&M Male Black Southeast HBCU Public Master?s/L Less than 7,000 5 Nolan Cooper Maddox Central Male Black Southeast HBCU Public Master?s/L Less than 8,000 6 Emelia Lily Ava-Asher Female White Northwest PWI Public Bac/AS Less than 5,000 7 William James St. Nathan Male White Northeast PWI Private/Religious Master?s/L Less than 8,000 8 Jessica Elliott Madison Female White Northeast PWI Private/Religious Master?s L Less than 4,000 9 Joshua Dillan Grayson Male White Southeast PWI Private/Religious Bac/AS Less than 2,000 10 Levi Carter Xavierville Male White Northeast PWI Private Bac/Diverse Less than 3,000 11 Ian Fynn Dominic State Male White Mid-West PWI Public RU/VH Less than 51,000 12 Evelyn Aurora Alexis Female Black Northeast HBCU Public Master?s/M Less than 2,000 13 Ryan Wyatt Micah-Henry Male White Midwest PWI Private/Religious Bac/AS Less than 2,000 Historical Designation: PWI? Predominately White Institution; HBCU? Historically Black College or University Carnegie Classification: DRU? Doctoral Research University; Bac/Diverse? Baccalaureate College? Diverse Fields; Master?s/L? Master?s College and University (Larger Programs); Bac/AS? Baccalaureate College-Arts & Sciences; RU/VH? Research University (very high research activity); Master?s/M? Master?s College and University (medium programs) 113 114 Thirteen university presidents participated in this study. Three females and ten male presidents shared their perspectives during the interviews. Three African American presidents who also happened to serve as the head of Historically Black Universities participated in the study. All ten of the other presidents that where Caucasian, and served a Predominantly White Universities. Five presidents served private religious institutions and the eight other presidents led public serving institutions. The enrollment size of institutions that the presidents served ranged from less than 2,000 to more than 50,000 students. For purposes of this study, presidents? names were replaced with the names of pseudonyms to keep their responses anonymous. Data Collection Processes The second phase of this process involved interviewing university presidents to explore their perceptions of the knowledge and competencies they perceived as being essential in the presidency. The primary data source of this study was interviews. The literature review provided additional information in developing the interview questions. There were ten questions (Appendix 4). Guided interviews were conducted and university presidents were asked key questions about their doctoral training. This process provided rich data, which assisted in interpreting the responses and developing the information into a meaningful narrative. The researcher used the Life History Case Studies (LHCS) approach to gather the data. LHCS is a qualitative approach specifically designed to help researchers understand the in-depth and comprehensive meanings in people?s lives to gather background information about the study participants (Campbell, 1999). The researcher initiated the process by gathering the curriculum vitas and biographical sketches of interviewees prior to the interviews to confirm that the interviewers? description of their backgrounds corroborated with the other data sources. The researcher collected the 115 following demographic information from participants: gender, ethnicity, institutional type, and home institution?s geographic region. The same interview protocol was used during all the initial interviews. Seven university presidents were interviewed at the 2010 ACE Annual Meeting in Phoenix, AZ on March 6?10, 2010. Interviews took place between the hours of 10:00 a.m. through 5:00 p.m. in the afternoon. Participants met the researcher in a meeting boardroom for the interview. The six other interviews were conducted on-site at the participants? home institutions presidents? offices. Again, these open-ended interviews lasted for one (1) hour. Audio and video equipment was used for data collection purposes. The researcher used a video camera and secured an audio recording device from the digital resource lab at Auburn University. Audiotaping and videotaping the interviews enabled the researcher to concentrate on questions asked. An interview script was utilized throughout the interview process. Following the initial interview, the researcher reviewed the transcript and tape and constructed follow-up interview questions tailored to the individual president. These questions sought to clarify statements and assertions made by presidents in the initial interview. Follow-up interviews were conducted via email. Both rounds of interviews took place over a 5-month period. Copious and detailed notes were taken along with a video and audio recording of each interview. The quotes contained in this study are all from these interviews. Summary notes were recorded in the journal directly following each interview. The presidents? reactions and comments and his preliminary thoughts on the emerging themes were recorded in the log as subscribed to by Miles and Huberman (1984) and Gasman (2003). 116 Both what the presidents said (i.e., their words and language) and what was unsaid (i.e., body language and long pauses) were considered when logging notes. Recognizing that dependability, transferability, credibility, and confirmability are important criteria for trustworthiness in qualitative research, multiple methods of data collection were used. The interviews and review of the participant?s curriculum vitas and biographical sketches were focused on in the study, a process supported by Gasman (2003). Data Analysis The researcher used multiple data sources to confirm the data results (Yin, 2003). Using multiple sources enhanced the study by allowing for structural corroboration. Eisner (1998) describes structural corroboration as ?the confluence of multiple sources of evidence or the recurrence of instances that support a conclusion? (p. 55). The sources the researcher used were field notes taken during participant interviews, memoing (Corbin, 1990) ideas developed during the research process, audiotaping and videotaping the interviews. Trochim (2006) defined memoing as a process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher as they evolve throughout the study. You might think of memoing as extensive marginal notes and comments. Again, early in the process these memos tend to be very open while later on they tend to increasingly focus in on the core concept. (p. 2) Concerns for Internal/External Validity The researcher enlisted the expertise of three senior academic administrators and faculty to review pilot questions for evidence of content validity (Ross & Shannon, 2008). After making revisions based on the expert panel?s responses the researcher conducted field interviews with six academic administrators. The researcher also conducted two focus group interviews, which 117 included both higher and adult education faculty and higher education administration students who were considered at ?ABD? status. After concluding with the actual interviews with the presidential participants, follow-up email interviews were conducted for purposes of member checking and data validation. Wolfe (2010) defines member checking as, ?a term used to determine the trustworthiness of the data analysis.? By utilizing member checking, the presidents were able to review the notation from the previous interview to ensure that they correctly reflected the presidents? feelings and responses (Creswell, 1998; Wolfe, 2010). The second interview allowed the researcher to conduct additional questioning related to the responses from the initial interview. Concerns for Reliability and Generalizability of Results Theory/perspective triangulation is described by Patton (2002) as using multiple lenses or theories to interpret the data. This process was completed during the data collection stage when the researcher used several conceptual frameworks to inform the data collection process, which included Stuver?s (2006) student expectations, Fink?s (2005) curriculum design, Hammon and Miller?s (2006) presidential perceptions, and Herdlein?s (2004) graduate preparation of new professionals. Those frameworks were then used to provide priori codes to inform the analysis process. Limitations of the Methodology Due to the nature of qualitative research, there are certain limits to generalizability. Although the researcher was able to collect ?thick? and ?rich? descriptive narrative data, the limited sample size restricted the application of results to the population of university presidents who have earned doctoral degrees in higher education administration. 118 Findings Coding Process From the literature review, the researcher compiled a start list of codes to look for in the data. There were a total of 80 ?a priori? codes that were found to be applicable to the study. These issues were identified in the literature as important to curriculum development and presidential leadership. These were numbered using recommendations of Miles and Huberman (1994) and all instances were coded in the data. The start list included: skills, knowledge, competency, program characteristics, development, curriculum, and professional development. As data were coded, the start list began to emerge. Recurring themes not included on the start list or in the relevant literature were coded as emerging codes. In addition to using the start list, the ?coding incident to incident? approach advocated by Charmaz (2006) was implemented. This process allowed the researcher to compare like incidents experienced by different participants. This procedure helps to further corroborate ideas developed earlier in the coding process. These ?axial? codes, which are codes that emerge out of the data, help to solidify the identity of emergent properties. Emergent codes were compared to one another to further narrow down the amount of redundant codes and therefore create substantive codes. The results of this process allowed for theoretical coding, which Charmaz (2006) describes as substantive codes being integrated together creating a theory. When asked to describe the core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration, university presidents identified three primary knowledge areas and three competency foci. These are described in the sections that follow. 119 Essential Knowledge In this study knowledge is defined as (1) higher education expertise acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical and or practical understanding of a subject in higher education; (2) what is known in a particular field or in total; (3) facts and information needed for executive leadership in higher education administration (Oxford, 2011). Core knowledge areas that presidents identified as part essential for the presidency were: Foundational Knowledge (History of Higher Education and Finance), Knowledge Acquisition of Context and Complex Cognitive Knowledge. These are displayed in Table 15. Table 15 Knowledge Areas Knowledge Foundational Knowledge ? History of Higher Education ? Finance in Higher Education Knowledge Acquisition of Context ? Understanding Public Image ? Complex Cognitive Knowledge Foundational Knowledge The first knowledge area that presidents described as being a part of the core knowledge needed for executive leadership is foundational knowledge. Foundational knowledge is defined in this study as information learned by higher education leaders that enable them to have a basic understanding of higher education as a field. The foundational knowledge area was comprised of diverse elements, which included the knowledge of (1) History of Higher Education, (2) and Budgeting/Finance. 120 History of Higher Education More than half of Presidents? felt that those who aspire to senior leadership should have a strong grasp of the History of Higher Education. Emelia Lily, a president of a small public university in the Northeast region of the United States shared that it is important for those seeking to move into senior leadership to be able to understand the history of higher education. She and other presidents believed that understanding the history of higher education will help senior leaders understand how higher education institutions operate and how they can be improved. She shared: The history of higher education, understanding how higher education is organized, how it works, sometimes how it doesn?t work, and also understanding that you don?t work in isolation in particular when you work in a system. President Levi Carter seconds her sentiments, as he reflects on how his doctoral program helped him gain this knowledge. He shared: I have more of a sense of the history of higher education because of my study, more of a sense of the people who have come before me in the industry in the history of higher education and the contributions that we could all make, but I don?t think I would have that perspective without the study of higher education. Finance in Higher Education In addition to being in agreement on the value of gaining knowledge on the history for leaders within higher education, eleven of the respondents mentioned that being exposed to information on budgeting and finance is extremely important. President Peter Johns of Ethanville University expressed it best when he shared: 121 Certainly there is I think a greater requirement for understanding fiscal management. If a person coming into a presidency truly does not understand accounting or how to read a balance sheet or understand cash flow they better figure it out pretty fast. Because there is extraordinary pressure to be able to understand and monitor that and you know it?s, I mean we?ve got great people here in finance but my name is on the line on making sure that the financial house is in order. It?s not enough just to be able to say well, I know how to hire great people; you?ve got to understand it yourself. President Johns said it well. It is very important that higher education executives, especially presidents, need to have a working knowledge of budgeting and finance in higher education. If presidents do not understand finance in higher education they may find themselves in unwanted situations. President Elijah Alexander adds that among the areas a president needs to master, finance and budgeting are very important. Knowledge of finance and budgeting, I didn?t say the skills, but now just the knowledge of finance and budgeting. Those would be skills that I would put high on the list. Lucus Jacob, president of Landon State University remarked that presidents who show that they have a good understanding of financial matter within the university demonstrate and signal to their administrative colleagues that they are competent leaders. He shared, You?ve got to have a basic understanding of budgeting and finance so that you can have conversations with your business people to make sure that you are in control of your resources. 122 Knowledge Acquisition The second knowledge area derived from this study is knowledge acquisition to operate properly in the culture of higher education. Knowledge acquisition involves two aspects, the context and public image. Knowledge Acquisition of Context Knowledge acquisition of context is defined in this study as higher education leaders gaining information that enables them to have a basic understanding of the historical and modern context of the field of higher education. President Lucus Jacob provides a great example of knowledge acquisition when he describes how presidents need to have a sharp grasp of the politics that affect higher education. He noted, You?ve got to have a basic understanding of the academy and what it?s about and how it functions. And you?ve got to have an understanding of politics, because all politics are local, and you don?t get away no matter where you go, there?s going to be politics. Data from this study suggest that aspiring presidents should have the capacity to acquire knowledge of a particular context and address the contexts issues appropriately. President Ryan Wyatt, in particular shares his perspective on acquiring foundational knowledge in the context of higher education. He explains: If you are going to be a successful administrator, you need to understand the issues of accountability and transparency, how to help people understand the objectives and whether or not the objectives have been met and how the objectives are measured and I think one would need to have pretty good understanding of that. 123 Understanding Public Image Another area in which presidents felt that future higher education leaders should gain knowledge is the role that the presidency will play in their professional identity. Presidents shared that the presidency is a unique position. The president is seen by many as the primary spokesperson and symbol of the university. For some presidents this is a blessing and curse. If a president takes this expectation too far they run the risk of believing that they are their position. President Nolan Cooper expressed it this way: My job, this is my job, this is not who I am. And when you get presidents who forget who they are and assume that they are their job or they are the university, they are in trouble. Ian Flynn adds to this notion that those in a presidency must take themselves seriously, but not too seriously because a leaders flaws are obvious to many, and can be blind to the leaders. President Flynn used this analogy to make this point. I think (you need to have) the ability to be able to say the emperor has no clothes. And presidents such as Ryan Wyatt expressed that there is a marked difference between serving as a vice president and serving in a presidency. Although he had served over fourteen years in three diverse vice presidencies he found that being a president regulated him to be viewed as a president at all times in public. He expressed it this way: I suppose that it is also a very public life and I knew that, and I have lived a public life at another time in life, but this is one where particularly in my setting where I am at a small school in a relatively small town, I am never not the president of the university and it is always the case. I talked about that with people, but I don?t think I really understood it until I had experienced it. 124 Complex Cognitive Thinking The third knowledge area derived from this study is complex cognitive thinking. Complex cognitive thinking is defined in this study as the ability of leaders in higher education to find the interconnection between divergent ideas and the ability to reflect and synthesize that information as well as being open to emergent ideas. President Lily along with seven other presidents emphasized the importance of senior leaders in higher education to develop the ability to reflect after completing a project. This honing of knowledge enables presidents to learn from mistakes and integrate their successes in future endeavors. Lily shares this insight. It is really a skill and ability at wrapping up the knowledge that you have, ok. Taking the time to reflect on what it is that you really have accomplished, somebody setting the goal, how you implemented the goal or how you achieved the goal, and being able to talk about how you did that. Why do I say that, well I think it demonstrates leadership, you have to be able to demonstrate that, it demonstrates perseverance. President William James shared that making cognitive connections are important because it helps presidents solve complex problems. One thing I learned though is the leader has to look at a problem from multiple lenses and if you don?t understand the problem, you?re going to apply perhaps the wrong solution to the problem and so that?s what I found most helpful is to be able to develop a skill set to analyze critically and effectively what the problem is and then define, through consultation with others, the right solution for the right problem. Competencies In this study, competencies are defined as special non-generic skills that apply to a particular sector, job or field. Areas the presidents identified as needed for success in the 125 university presidency are displayed in Table 16. The primary core competencies areas that presidents identified as important parts of presidential competence included: Interpersonal Development (Personal Attributes), Management (Assessment and Accountability, Enrollment Management, Fundraising, and Strategic Planning), and Communications (Writing to diverse audiences and Speaking to diverse audiences). Table 16 Competency Areas Competencies Interpersonal Development ? Personal Attributes Management ? Assessment/Accountability ? Enrollment Management ? Fundraising ? Strategic Planning Communications ? Writing to diverse audiences ? Speaking to diverse audiences Interpersonal Development The first competency area derived from this study is interpersonal development. Interpersonal development is defined in this study as the ability for leaders of higher education to relate and work with diverse individuals. Eleven presidents expressed the belief that interpersonal development is an important part of being successful as a leader within the academy. Some presidents such as President Evelyn Aurora believed that participation within 126 professional meeting could assist with development of this competency. President Aurora expressed her experience this way: I remember going to these big conferences and you think you would develop these skills at parties, but it is almost like a party skill. You come in the room and everybody is in a little circle talking and you have to figure out how to get in the circle so you can talk with the people, and also how to move from circle to circle and that is an absolute essential skill if you go into higher education administration, because when you go to chamber meetings, or when you are going to these big business meetings, you have to figure out how to get in the circle, because people tend to talk in circles. Elijah Alexander adds to this conversation by sharing how in practice, presidents need to be able to interact with diverse constituencies, because their success and legacy in dependency is dependent on it. I do think in interacting, one of the things that a president has to do is to be able to interact, you?ve gotta be a person who?s almost on the verge of ministering, you?ve got to be persuasive, you?ve got to convince people, you?ve gotta, you know engage and be able to convince them and this is the direction that we need to go. Personal Attributes President Ryan Wyatt, along with ten other presidents shared that it is vitally important that aspiring presidents have a strong sense of who they are. In addition Wyatt expressed that one must understand their own ?gifts and graces? before going into a presidency. There are several attributes that presidents in this study identified as important. They included (1) developing their own sense of vision, (2) humility, (3) empathy, (4) the ability to understand and 127 connect with people, (5) team building, (6) the ability to express concepts in everyday language, and (7) work hard. Wyatt expresses the importance of these attributes below. I think a president has to have the capacity to be a (1) visionary leader and to develop a vision that grows organically out of the institution that is a shared vision in which all of the constituents feel that they have a stake. It needs to be seen as the university?s vision, not as the president?s vision, but the president has to be the person who leads the charge in the development of the vision and then in the implementation of the vision. I think a successful president has to have certain; sort of personality traits, (2) humility, (3) and empathy, (4) the ability to understand and connect with people is critical. Every president brings a unique set of attributes to a presidency. It is therefore important for aspiring presidents to strengthen their most positive attributes, including the attributes just mentioned. In addition presidents like Gavin Benjamin believe that personal attributes such as teamwork are imperative in the 21st century university presidency. No one person can be successful by himself. A university president doesn?t do it by himself (5) you have to build the team. So, working with others to put it in the (6) colloquial frame is extremely important. Be able to realize that (7) it?s going to take hard work, it?s not just a 9 to 5 job and that?s important. Management This study included a diverse cadre of management areas. Presidents identified the areas assessment and accountability of student learning, enrollment management, fundraising, and strategic planning as areas that aspiring senior leaders should master. Presidents who were a part of this study shared that the mastery of these management competencies would enable aspiring presidents to be prepared for the university presidency. 128 Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning The ACE 2007 study listed assessment and accountability of student learning as a key area that presidents should understand. The responses of presidents in this study seem to corroborate with ACE results as close to half of presidents felt aspiring presidents need to be prepared in the area of student assessment. Dr. Ryan Wyatt expressed it this way. If you are going to be a successful administrator, you need to understand the issues of accountability and transparency, how to help people understand the objectives and whether or not the objectives have been met and how the objectives are measured and I think one would need to have pretty good understanding of that. Many of the presidents shared that the understanding of assessment and accountability need not be just relegated to student learning. They shared that the 21st century university president will be responsible for making sure that assessment and accountability is a part of the culture of every unit within an institution. President Joshua Dillan explained it the best when he said: I think it is critical to assess everything that you are doing?I think it will be a part of a president?s job more than it used to be. And (it is important that) we (presidents) compare this to assessing the effectiveness of administrative and operational and business things. Faculty are very much not used to doing this on their side and struggling to do it and having this requirement mandated all of a sudden does not necessarily make it very effective. Enrollment Management More than half of the presidents responded that aspiring presidents needed to have a strong understanding of issues related to enrollment management. Many such as President 129 Joshua Dillan mentioned that senior leaders who are learning about enrollment management must first understand the relationship between ?mission and market.? The biggest piece is understanding I think how connected missions in market are and how you have to have a mission that is both rooted in tradition, but also understand its role in a tentative market. And so enrollment management systems science has developed out of that, you know once you are sort of clear about who you are and how your brand is and what you are selling as a whole. So presidents need to have a strong understanding of how to tie the mission of their university to their particular market (i.e. students). If presidents don?t have a strong understanding of the role that enrollment plays in managing the university they may place themselves in a bad position. President Lucus Jacob explains: At so many places, your prosperity as an institution is depending on your student population, particularly in your private institutions, where you don?t have state funding. I think it?s a very important thing that a president has to put his arms around pretty quickly. President Levi Carter said most succinctly when he shared: ?I would say you have to have knowledge of enrollment.? Fundraising More than half of the presidents shared that an aspiring president needed to be competent in the area of fundraising. This corresponds with the 2007 ACE study which listed fundraising as one of the most important competency areas. President Gavin Benjamin of Connor State discussed this by saying, 130 I think anyone that along the line that knows that they?re going to be in a vice presidential or top executive position in a college or university, they are also going to have to raise money, even the deans and others. Presidents such as Jessica Elliott expressed the importance of presidents retaining a strong fundraising staff to assist with cultivating fundraising opportunities: It is a specialty (fundraising). I think if you have a very good staff in the fundraising area that really can help you. If you have the structure set up, you?re brought in at a unique time, when you have to, you know do ?the ask.? The data suggested that it is important that the president be the person to ask for the larger sums of money from major donors. Several presidents suggested that the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education?s (CASE) fundraising and philanthropy workshops do a great job in exposing presidents to various techniques used to attract financial donations from a diverse set of donors. Strategic Planning Six of the presidents expressed the belief that aspiring university presidents needed to be prepared in the area of strategic planning. In this study strategic planning is defined as the process in which a higher education institution engages to define their course of action to prepare for the future of the institution. Dr. William James sums up the general response of those respondents, that presidents most understand strategic planning because they will be expected to lead out in strategizing the future of their institution when he said the president needs to be the lead visionary and strategist. President Ryan Wyatt further shared that a president needs to know how to put the strategic plan into action. This is important because presidents are expected to produce results. 131 As Wyatt noted: ?You really ought to have an understanding of how to approach strategic planning in a college or university setting and how to convert a strategic plan into action.? Communications Communications was one of the most talked about competency areas discussed by presidents within this study. Communication as a competency in this study was defined as the effective execution of written or oral communication by a university president. Presidents such as Elijah Alexander remarked that ?communication ? skills that I would put high on the list? of competencies a president must master. In addition, President Cooper emphasized that communicating is central to the work that university presidents do: ?I think writing and communicating are skills?all those come back to, a c entral thing, communication. They all come back to the ability to communicate effectively.? Writing to Diverse Audiences One of the areas of general consensus between all participants was the role that writing plays in the career of a president. Presidents shared that aspiring presidents need to be prepared to write to multiple audiences, such as to an academic audience and to the general public. In particular several presidents such as Lucus Jacob felt that presidents should have a grasp of the rudiments of good writing. President Jacob expresses it this way. In writing, you?ve got to have the ability to be clear, to be concise, to make your point, and to do so in a way that engages the person that?s receiving the communication. Presidents such as Presidents Nolan Cooper noted that strong writing skills were important because a president?s competence would be judged based on the way that they communicate and writing is one of those primary vehicles. 132 Speaking to Diverse Audiences In addition to learning how to write to diverse audiences, six presidents talked about the need for aspiring presidents to hone their speaking ability. Dr. Lucus Jacob, president of Landon State University talked about in addition to speaking at diverse venues, a president needs to be able to give an impromptu speech. If you are going to be an upper level executive administrator, then public speaking is going to be a part of what you do on a regular basis. Whether it?s to the rotary club or the Kiwanis, I?ve done sermons, you know, I?ve spoken at faculty meetings, you end up doing impromptu things from time to time and school presentations. I mean it just becomes, it has to become a second nature to what you do. President Jessica Elliott shared that this competency is not learned overnight. She improved her speaking skills over time. I think I had developed that to a certain degree because I had leadership responsibilities, but uh I think because of the responsibilities on this level and I improved in that area because sometimes you have to go from one group to the next. You have to go through faculty to administrators to a social group and you have to adjust your message and I think that?s a technique that I have learned and I have improved in over the years. A quote by President Evelyn Aurora added that aspiring presidents not must not only be prepared to give positive, inspiring speeches. They need to be prepared to give tough ones as well. She stated, You are going to give a lot of speeches, persuasive speeches and informational speeches, speeches where you are telling people you are getting ready to cut their budgets, and there are so many different ways. 133 Discussion and Implications Due to the nature of qualitative research, there are certain limits to generalizability of these findings. Although the researcher was able to collect ?thick? and ?rich? descriptive narrative data, the limited sample size restricted the application of results to populations outside of university presidents who have earned doctoral degrees in higher education administration. However, the findings do provide some important insights, which may provide guidance in a number of areas. The findings suggest that it is important to those aspiring to a university presidency to have foundational knowledge in higher education and in particular have a mastery of information related to the history and finance in higher education. This is an important finding. Although most higher education doctoral programs offer courses on topics related to the history of higher education and finance in higher education the results of this study validate their importance, especially as it relates to the preparation for presidential leadership. Foundational knowledge is a unique aspect of knowledge development as it is the only knowledge or competency that is not a part of the leadership or management category. President as Leader and Manager Results of this study indicate that the presidents viewed themselves as both leaders and managers. Management skills (assessment/accountability, enrollment management, fundraising, strategic planning) were quite clearly identified. Examining the findings as a whole, the leadership skills are also present. They appear inherent in the language used to describe them. Among these skills and competencies are Knowledge Acquisition, Complex Cognitive Knowledge Interpersonal Development, and Communications. McLaughlin (2004) shares, 134 In a university presidency, leadership is characterized by a focus on the values, purposes, and meaning of the institution, both as an affirmation of its raison d?etre and as a mandate for change. Presidents are expected to connect individuals to the mission of the enterprise, to raise sights, and to encourage hopefulness in the future. Although leadership and management in the context of a university are closely related they are not interchangeable. McLaughlin (2004) shares, In their leadership role, college and university presidents are called on to attend to the ideas, ideals, and individuals of their institutions. As managers, presidents serve as their institution?s chief executive officer?working to align institutional resources ?money, technology, and personnel?to solve problems or forge new institutional directions. As verified in the literature above, both leadership and management are important to the role of presidents. The results also suggest that aspiring presidents should be able to integrate information, especially complex concepts. In addition, prospective presidents should be able to acquire knowledge and understand that serving as a university president places them as a public figure in the eyes of the academic and larger community. So management is not juxtaposed to the concept of leadership in this study. Management, Interpersonal Development, and Communications are all elements and components of the Leadership competency a person must have to become a strong university president. Data from this study also suggests that presidents should develop strong interpersonal competencies. This suggests that these potential presidents should be able to speak to diverse constituencies such as to local and national media and also to students. The study also alludes to the notion that presidents should enhance their personal attributes such as humility, empathy, etc. 135 Presidents of the future need to understand management competencies such as assessment and accountability of student learning, enrollment management, fundraising, and strategic planning. Participating presidents believed the identified management areas would be important for future presidents to master. And overwhelmingly presidents mentioned that potential presidents need to be able to develop competence in communication. This study suggests potential presidents should develop both competencies in oral and written communication formats to ensure that they are prepared to communicate with diverse audiences. Presidents discussed in detail the need for the 21st century president to be able to speak and write to diverse audiences/constituencies, such as speaking to boards of trustees, alumni, faculty, and students. There was little to no mention of speaking to ethnically diverse constituencies. With the increased growth of an ethnically diverse student and alumni base at predominantly White and minority serving institutions it may be advantageous for higher education researchers to research the impact that cultural competence has on the effectiveness of presidents (Gasman, 2011). This study also provides important for insights for those in academic senior leadership roles who aspire to the presidency, such as provost, and other vice presidents, and special assistants. Not only can those in senior academic leadership who aspire to the presidency use these insights, politicians and business leaders thinking of a career in higher education may find the results useful. Those aspiring to the presidency can use the results of this study to identify the areas that they need to hone to strengthen a future bid for a university presidential position. These knowledge and competencies can also used by boards of trustees as a list of areas that they can use to rank the fitness of a presidential candidate for their institution. 136 The results of this study provide executive higher education programs and standard higher education doctoral programs with a list of knowledge and competency areas that they can incorporate into their curriculum. In particular, program curriculum developers may use the results of this study in enhancing their admissions policies. Suggestions by the presidents such as those going into the presidency need to demonstrate a passion about the field of higher education can be an important part of the entrance criteria for a higher education doctoral program. One constituency this study may provide particular insights for are non-degree granting higher education training agencies. These agencies include organizations such as the American Council of Education, Harvard Institute for Educational Management, and Kellogg Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) Leadership Fellows Program. The suggestions by these presidents can provide insight into what knowledge and competency mastery areas that programs can cover during their leadership development sessions. As suggested for executive and standard higher education doctoral programs, non-degree granting higher education training agencies should incorporate the knowledge and competencies identified in this study into their conference and workshop curriculum for senior leadership in higher education. Suggestions for the Future Research Although this study included only university presidents, it would be relevant in the future to explore the perspectives of presidents of for-profit institutions, community colleges, and liberal arts institutions. It might also be meaningful to conduct research with university presidents who had earned their doctorate in a discipline other than education. These presidents could confirm or disconfirm whether they perceive the knowledge and competencies identified in 137 this study were the most important knowledge and competency areas needed for a presidency. This would provide the public with data that could be compared with the results of this study. Another suggestion for future research includes surveying the perspectives of other graduates of higher education administration doctoral programs such as chief academic, student affairs, diversity, and higher education faculty. A study that explores such a topic would enable these populations an opportunity to provide their perspectives on the quality of the preparation of their programs and suggestions for curricular change. This could provide higher education faculty and curriculum developers with the data that could assist them in enhancing the quality of higher education administration doctoral programs. Conclusion The expectations for university presidents by internal and external constituencies are increasing across the United States. These constituencies expect their president to ensure that issues such as student learning and fundraising are managed. Many presidents could see these issues as daunting and overwhelming if not trained and prepared. It is vital that potential or aspiring university presidents in higher education develop as many of the knowledge and competencies that are needed for the university prior to assuming a university presidency. Clearly, more research is needed to find out whether the knowledge and competencies identified in this study will adequately prepare presidents from other institutional types, but this study provides a useful starting point for future research. 138 Chapter References Altbach, P. G. (2010). Leadership for world-class universities: Challenges for developing countries. New York and London: Routledge Altbach, P. G., Bozeman, L. A., Janashia, N., & Rumbley, L. E. (2006). Higher education: A worldwide inventory of centers and programs. (Revised Edition). Rotterdam, the Netherlands: SensePublishers. Altbach, P., & Engberg, D. (2001). Higher education: A worldwide inventory of centers and programs. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Barnett, N. (2007). Higher education as a field of study at Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University, Indiana. Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: A&I. (Publication No. AAT 3288300) Burkard, A. W., Cole, D. 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Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: A&I. (Publication No. AAT 3446190). Wright, D., & Miller, M. (Eds.). Training higher education policymakers and leaders: A graduate perspective. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Wright, D. (2007). Progress in the development of higher education as a specialized field of study. In D. Wright & M. Miller (Eds.), Training higher education policymakers and leaders: A graduate perspective. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research, design and methods (3rd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage Publications. 142 CHAPTER 5. MANUSCRIPT 2: ACADEMIC PATHWAYS TO UNIVERSITY LEADERSHIP: PRESIDENTS DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR DOCTORAL EDUCATION Introduction Individuals come to the presidency from a variety of environments. Some come from corporations, some from governmental settings, and others come through traditional academic venues, having received doctoral degrees in a field of study. Recent data from the American Council of Education (2008) report that over 40% of college and university presidents have earned a doctoral degree in either education or higher education. Many institutions of higher education include doctoral programs of study in higher education, which include doctoral programs to prepare individuals for roles as administrators in academic units. Graduate school is seen as a powerful force that not only structures the mind, but also helps to shape the facts one legitimizes and how one interprets ideas (Brown, 2008). This study sought to determine the extent to which higher education doctoral programs prepared individuals for executive leadership in higher education as perceived by program graduates. Dressel and Mayhew conducted the seminal work on this topic. Their 1974 book entitled, Higher Education as a Field of Study, provided a critical assessment of the quality of higher education programs up to that time. They were pioneers in the study of higher education as a specialized field. Their text provided insights into the historical background, problems and issues, prospects and needs of this new emerging specialized field of study. In that study, 143 Dressel and Mayhew found no empirical evidence to support the notion that higher education programs prepared college and university administrators better than other disciplines. Purpose and Research Question The purpose of this study was to examine university presidents? perceptions of their academic doctoral preparation program as it related to their preparation for the university presidency. When writing about academic programs, Crosson and Glenn (1984) asked, ?What makes a distinguished program? What type of program responds best to students? aspirations and needs?? These are critical questions in an era of increased accountability and in times when higher education administration programs are being merged or even eliminated in light of budget shortages (Katsinas, 2007). Yet, little research has been conducted to address this issue and answer these questions. Although graduate student expectations and preparation for executive leadership in higher education have been studied as separate research topics, there is a lack of research that has addressed these topics collectively (AGBUC, 2006; Stuver, 2006). This study extends and enhances the existing research by investigating the question: ?What are the perceptions of college and university presidents of the adequacy of their doctoral training in preparing them for their role at the university level?? Significance The results of this study should help administrators, curriculum developers, and faculty in higher education administration programs to better understand higher education students? needs and enhance their programs. This information could also serve as a framework for enriching the knowledge of college instructors and curriculum developers. In addition, it should provide information about whether and how professional development and mentoring and coaching 144 activities within these programs might be helpful in preparing individuals for the executive leadership and ensuring their success. Doctoral Student Development Many researchers have investigated the role of doctoral education in preparing students for the academy (Austin, 2002; Ellis, 2001; Gardner, 2010, Gonzalez, 2006; Soto Antony, 2002; Weidman, Twale, & Stein, 2001). Gardner (2010) posits that many studies address doctoral education through a monolithic lens, assuming that graduates experiences are the same across disciplines. Tinto (1993) identified three stages of doctoral persistence: (1) the first year of study, the transitional stage, (2) the period leading to candidacy, and (3) the completion of the dissertation. During the first stage, students seek to establish membership in the academic and social communities of the university. When students move to the second stage, navigating interactions within the classroom and department or program context are very important. In this stage, issues of academic competence are central to students? persistence. In both the first and second stages, students? experiences are dependent on interactions with varying faculty members. In the third stage, the emphasis shifts to the relationship with the student?s advisor and the dissertation committee members. At this stage, persistence could be totally determined by the behavior of a specific faculty member. Historical Overview of the University Presidency The role of the president is both substantive and symbolic. These individuals speak and represent multiple constituencies associated with the university. As the individual who speaks on behalf of the institution to the Board of Trustees, the university president is also in charge of making sure those trustees are involved in the planning processes, ensuring their ownership of the plan, and providing them with regular feedback on progress (Luxton, 2005). 145 Research on Academic Preparation for the Presidency University presidents come from a variety of academic backgrounds. It is important to note that there is no degree that places a person on a linear track to the presidency. What is generally recognized is that graduate education in particular plays a vital role in developing academic leaders. Graduate degrees signals to potential employers that candidate understand the values of academia. Selingo (2003) said, ?Frankly, academic credentials are important in this business? (p. A40). Several executive higher education doctoral programs have sprouted up during the early 2000s, which includes the University of Pennsylvania, University of Alabama, University of Georgia, and Jackson State University. Most of these programs are arranged in the cohort model and students must demonstrate that they have performed substantial leadership throughout their careers. Their programs usually take two to three years for students to complete. Jackson State University is the only such program that offers a PhD. The other programs offer an Ed.D. Doug Toma was the founder of the first program of its kind at the University of Pennsylvania. In an interview with Selingo (2003) Toma said he found there were few programs catering to top college officials who wanted to earn a doctorate quickly and without taking time off from their jobs. Therefore, he and his institution developed this program option. Toma went on to say, ?In admitting a class, faculty members seek applicants who are one step away from becoming presidents? (p. A40). Higher Education Doctoral Programs Lester Goodchild (2002) defined higher education as a field of study that included ?sophisticated knowledge about and research on colleges, universities, and related postsecondary institutions, as well as the professional skills used by those persons who work in them? (p. 303). 146 He describes the purpose of higher education programs as to "educate and train professionals for administrative, faculty, student life, and policy analyst positions in the country?s approximately 4,000 postsecondary institutions? (p. 303). The field of higher education has developed over the last 100 years. Barnett (2007) describes the major reasons that the field developed as: (1) the emergence of institutional history and the development of institutional research, (2) the counseling, testing, and guidance movements, (3) the emergence of national, regional, and local commissions, and (4) the presence of an emerging group of individuals who considered themselves student and scholars of higher education. The confluence of these factors along with the strong interest of G. Stanley Hall in the late 1800s prepared the way for higher education to emerge as a field of study. Hall, the president of Clark University at the time, developed the first course in higher education studies in 1893. Later, he developed a 16-course specialization that became a part of the Ph.D. program in education at Clark University (Barnett, 2007). This continual focus on higher education as a means of preparing leaders for positions in administering institutions of higher learning inspired other larger institutions such as Ohio State University, Columbia University?s Teachers College, the University of Chicago, the University of Pittsburg, the University of California, Berkeley, and the University of Michigan to develop graduate programs in the field of higher education during the early 1900s (Wright, 2004). Wright (2004) suggests that any sector of the economy that is as large as the US higher education system should be studied, analyzed, and evaluated. She goes on to state, ?The responsibility for operating colleges and universities is greater than ever. No longer can its leadership roles be filled by amateurs? (p. 22). These graduate programs have sought to prepare 147 students with the knowledge skills and competencies for leadership in areas such as higher education institutions and policy institutes. Higher education programs have been studied extensively by scholars in the field of education over the last 40 years (Altbach, Bozeman, & Janashia, 2007; Barnett, 2007; Dressel & Mayhew, 1974; Fife & Goodchild, 1991; Kienle & Loyd, 2005; Wright & Miller, 2007). There are many studies that address the role that higher education programs play in the development of community college leaders (Hammons & Miller, 2006; Herdlien, 2004; Keim, 1991) and student affair practitioners (Keim, 1991; Sandeen 1982; Young, 1985). However there is still little research on their value in terms of preparing individuals for the field and almost nothing has been done in terms of preparing them for the university presidency. In prior years, it was most common that higher education graduates were offered lower- and middle-level management positions in colleges and universities, as well as careers in government agencies dealing with higher education, think tanks, and related jobs. In recent years, higher education graduates have earned upper management positions including presidencies more frequently upon graduation (Altbach & Enberg, 2001, p. 15). Although higher education programs prepare potential higher education administrators, faculty, and policy makers there are no common requirements or core course requirements for these doctoral students. Historically, the curriculums of these programs have been centered on the expertise of the faculty and anecdotal evidence provided by administrators and faculty (Bray, 2007). It is essential that higher education doctoral programs begin to develop standards and curriculum that reflect the needs of a growing higher education workforce based upon the perceptions of graduates of those programs (Wright, 2007). 148 In 2006, The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) adopted a set of student affairs master?s level preparation standards. In addition, in 2010, the Association for the Study of Higher Education?s Council for the Advancement of Higher Education Programs adopted set of guidelines for Higher Education Administration and Leadership Preparation Programs at the master?s degree level. However, there are no guidelines or standards that address higher education leadership doctoral programs. This study helps to fill that void by examining perceptions of the value of these programs in order to determine the standards and curricular aspects that make these programs strong. Methods The research used a mixed-methods approach involving both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase one used quantitative methods to identify the sample population and to examine the degree to which their programs were perceived as preparing them for the presidency. This information was used to develop interview questions for the study. Phase two of the study involved the use of qualitative methods to gather data needed to address the research questions posed. Phase One?Quantitative Analysis and Population and Sample Selection The initial research phase involved analyzing quantitative data from a 50 question survey on the presidency, provided by the American Council of Education?s (ACE) study published as The American College President: 2007 Edition (ACE, 2007). The study gathered data from 2,148 presidents to identify the degree to which these presidents perceived they were prepared for the role prior to assuming the position of the president. In the ACE, study the population included presidents with terminal degrees in a variety of fields, both from within and outside of education. There were 2,148 presidents who participated 149 in this study. Of these, 891 identified themselves as having earned a terminal degree in education or higher education. The study did not differentiate between those who had earned doctorates in education with specializations other than higher education in the data analysis. Therefore, there was no way to distinguish between the responses of those who were graduates of higher education programs and those who were not. The ACE study included the question, ?In which of the following areas did you feel insufficiently prepared for your first presidency?? The question included 17 variables: (1) Academic issues (e.g., curriculum changes), (2) Accountability/assessment of student learning, (3) Athletics, (4) Budget/financial management, (5) Capital improvement projects, (6) Community relations, (7) Crisis management, (8) Enrollment management, (9) Entrepreneurial ventures, (10) Faculty issues, (11) Fund raising, (12) Governing board relations, (13) Government relations, (14) Media/public relations, (15) Personnel issues (excluding faculty), (16) Risk management/legal issues, and (17) Strategic planning. These competencies have been identified, developed, and refined over 20 years through interviews and feedback from college and university presidents (ACE, 2008; J. King, personal communication, September 4, 2010). The presidents were able to check all that applied. Access to the data source was requested from the 2007 ACE study from the American Council of Education and consent was received to use the data results for this study (see Appendix 2). Chi-square analysis indicated that presidents with a terminal degree in education/higher education felt statistically significantly less prepared for fundraising (ACPS Question 35K) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (X2(1, N = 891) = 9.274, p = .002). Findings also indicated that presidents with a terminal degree in education/higher education felt statistically significantly more prepared for enrollment 150 management duties (Question 35H) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (X2(1, N = 891) = 14.704, p < .001). Table 17 Chi-square Analysis of Presidential Preparedness Question df X2 p 35H. Prepared for Enrollment Management 1 14.704 < .001 35K. Prepared for Fundraising 1 9.274 0.002 *35B. Prepared to Assess Student Learning 1 3.572 0.059 *Not significant but used for interview development While not statistically significant, presidents with a terminal degree in education/ higher education felt more prepared to assess student-learning duties (Question 35B) versus presidents who held a terminal degree outside of education (no chi-square results). This information was used to assist in creating the interview script. A one-sample t-test was used to determine the mean difference between the sample (presidents with a doctorate in education or higher education) and the known value of the population mean (presidents with a doctorate other than education or higher education). The number of items measuring the dependent variable was 17. Presidents with doctorates in education or higher education felt more prepared than presidents with doctoral backgrounds in other disciplines in the areas of accountability/assessment of student learning and enrollment management. Presidents with 151 doctorates in education or higher education felt less prepared than presidents with doctoral backgrounds in other disciplines in the area of fund raising. The findings are depicted in Table 18. Cronbach?s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of each dependent variable for the independent variable, categorized as College Presidents with the major field of study in education or higher education. The reliability results for the 17 dependent variables were .82. All the variables met the predetermined Cronbach alpha (.50) criterion for internal consistency. Table 18 Means and Standard Deviations for the College or University Presidents (N = 891) Dependent Variables College Presidents M SD Academic Issues 0.08 0.28 Accountability/Assessment of Student Learning 0.09 0.29 Athletics 0.11 0.32 Budget/Financial Management 0.14 0.35 Capital Improvement Projects 0.16 0.37 Community Relations 0.06 0.24 Crisis Management 0.12 0.33 Enrollment Management 0.08 0.27 Entrepreneurial Ventures 0.16 0.36 Faculty Issues 0.09 0.29 Fund Raising 0.25 0.44 Governing Board Relations 0.13 0.34 (table continues) 152 Table 18 (continued) Dependent Variables College Presidents M SD Government Relations 0.10 0.30 Media/Public Relations 0.08 0.27 Personnel Issues (excluding faculty) 0.07 0.25 Risk Management/Legal Issues 0.18 0.39 Strategic Planning 0.10 0.30 Case Study The second phase of the study involved the use of multiple interviews of university presidents. The researcher incorporated the Life History Case Studies (LHCS) approach to collect the data. LHCS is a qualitative methodology specifically designed to assist researchers in understanding the in-depth and comprehensive meanings in people?s lives and helps them to gather background information about the study participants (Campbell, 1999). This method allowed an exploration of the participants? perceptions of their graduate training in higher education administration and its role in preparing them for their current position. This approach was also used to explore what knowledge and competencies they perceived as having learned while in their doctoral program. Two guided interviews were conducted with each president and university presidents were asked key questions about their doctoral training. This process provided rich data, which assisted in interpreting the responses and developing the information into a meaningful narrative. 153 Data Collection Processes The population was derived from the 1,647 college and university presidents who are members of the American Council of Education, as identified on their organizational website (American Council of Education, 2010, para. 1). Of this group, 150 presidents who had earned a degree with a specialization in higher education administration were leading institutions using the term ?university? in their nomenclature. After being solicited via email or phone to participate in this study, thirteen of the 150 presidents agreed to participate. These presidents included three females and ten males. Three African American presidents participated in the study that also happened to serve as leaders of Historically Black Universities. The ten other presidents where Caucasian, and led Predominantly White Universities. Five presidents led private religious institutions. The eight remaining presidents served public universities. The presidents led institutions whose student enrollment ranged from less than 2,000 to more than 50,000 students. Pseudonyms are used in this manuscript instead of the presidents? names to keep their responses anonymous. The primary data source of this study was interviews. Before each interview began, permission was gained using the Auburn University Institutional Review Board approved informed consent form to audio and video record the interviews (see Appendix 4). Both what the presidents said (i.e., their words and language) and what was unsaid (i.e., body language and long pauses) were considered when logging notes. The study incorporated a process that included conducting interviews and reviewing of the presidents? curriculum vitas and biographical sketches, a process advocated by Gasman (2003). 154 Coding and Data Analysis Process Multiple data sources were used to confirm the study?s results (Yin, 2003). Field notes written during participant interviews, ideas developed during the research process, audiotaping and videotaping the interviews served as the sources for analysis. A start list of 80 ?a priori? codes from the literature review was used in this study. The codes derived from literature related higher education programs and presidential leadership. Themes that did not derive from the start list were coded as emerging codes. The ?coding incident to incident? approach advocated by Charmaz (2006) was used throughout the analysis process. This enabled the opportunity to compare similar incidents experienced by various participants. Similar emergent codes were combined with one another to limit the amount of redundant codes. Concerns for Internal/External Validity, Reliability and Generalizability of Results In the first phase of this study the researcher used the ACE survey, which has been pilot tested and administered for more than 20 years, so no tests for validity or reliability were required. In the qualitative phase of the study, three senior academic administrators and faculty reviewed pilot questions for evidence of content validity (Ross & Shannon, 2008). Revisions were made based on the expert panel?s feedback. Pilot field interviews were conducted with six academic administrators. In addition, two focus group interviews were conducted they included both higher and adult education faculty and higher education administration doctoral candidates. After concluding with the actual interviews with the presidential participants, follow-up email interviews were incorporated for purposes of member checking and data validation. Wolfe (2010) defines member checking as, ?a term used to determine the trustworthiness of the data analysis.? By incorporating member checking, the presidents were able to review the 155 information from the previous interview to ensure that they accurately reflected the presidents? feelings and responses (Creswell, 1998; Wolfe, 2010). The second interview enabled the researcher to conduct additional questioning related to the responses from the initial interview. Limitations of the Methodology There are limits to generalizability of the results of this study. The limited sample size disallows for the application of results to populations other than university presidents who have earned doctoral degrees in higher education administration. It also may not be generalizable to the perceptions of all presidents in all types of institutions classified as universities. Presidents Descriptions of their Doctoral Education When asked to describe their perceptions of the degree to which their doctoral programs prepared them for the presidency, the respondents indicated that their programs had equipped them with abilities in two major areas: knowledge and competencies. These are described in detail in the sections that follow. Knowledge In this study knowledge is defined as (1) higher education expertise acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical and or practical understanding of a subject in higher education; (2) what is known in a particular field or in total; (3) facts and information needed for executive leadership in higher education administration (Oxford, 2011). Core knowledge areas that presidents identified as part of their doctoral programs, which prepared them for the presidency, were: Foundational Knowledge (History of Higher Education and Finance), Knowledge Acquisition (Subject Matter Mastery, Knowledge Application) and Complex Cognitive Knowledge (Integrate Complex Ideas, Intellectual Flexibility). These are displayed in Table 19. 156 Table 19 Knowledge Areas Knowledge Foundational Knowledge ? History of Higher Education ? Finance Knowledge Acquisition ? Subject Matter Mastery ? Knowledge Application Complex Cognitive ? Integrate Complex Ideas ? Intellectual Flexibility Foundational Knowledge The first knowledge area derived from this study is foundational knowledge. Foundational knowledge is defined in this study as information provided to students of higher education doctoral programs that enable them to have a basic understanding of higher education as a field of study. Almost all presidents who participated in this study mentioned the effective role that foundational knowledge played in their development as a higher education professional. For example, President William James shares how his program expanded his basic knowledge of education. What the program did for me, it introduced me to a set of literature that was very important for me? the literature on higher education, especially with respect to administration, leadership and higher education. (Because of the program) I have a very good understanding of the literature and with that understanding, learning additional 157 leadership tactics and strategies. In particular observing or reading or learning about presidents?leaders. History of Higher Education The first foundational area that presidents viewed as preparing them for the presidency was history of higher education. Six presidents mentioned its importance in their intellectual development. Several of the presidents came from backgrounds outside of academia and they believed that gaining a understanding of the history of higher education helped them to appreciate the field and ?tell the story? of their institution in the context of broader academia. Peter Johns, president of Ethansville University a small private religious institution in the Southeast region of the United States, shared: I?ve relied a lot on what I learned about the history of higher education and kind of the way that programs have evolved. Johns went on to share that his knowledge of higher education helped him to understand the richness of institutions such as community colleges, although his career did not lead him to serve in that institutional type. Emelia Lily, a president of a small public university in the Northeast region of the United States shared that her doctoral program helped her make mental connections between her current responsibilities and the historical role of higher education. She shared In terms of the doctoral program, what my courses in the history of higher education gave me, It gave me an understanding of how higher education is organized, how it works, sometimes how it doesn?t work, and also gave me an understanding that you don?t work in isolation in particular when you work in a system. 158 Many of the presidents such as Levi Carter perceived that gaining an understanding of the history of higher education provided them with a broader understanding of the higher education industry. I have more of a sense of the history of higher education because of my study, more of a sense of the people who have come before me in the industry in the history of higher education and the contributions that we could all make, but I don?t think I would have that perspective without the study Finance In addition to being in agreement about the value of gaining knowledge of the history of higher education, 11 of the respondents mentioned that being exposed to information on budgeting and finance proved invaluable. President Peter Johns shared that understanding financial models and budgeting helps him in managing his institution. He believes that although he has a vice president of finance, his name is on the line as president and the must have a good understanding of how his institution?s budget is being managed. President Ryan Wyatt of Micah-Henry University expressed it best when he shared: Well, I think that some of what I learned about finance and about theoretical models that are applied to finance and higher education has helped prepare me for this role, especially the revenue theory of cost. Presidents such as Dr. Elijah Alexander not only gained a great understanding of how budgets work in the program, he also learned how to read a budget sheet. He stated: I can kind of drill down a budget and really see how we are allocating those resources and put in procedures and models to kind of move us where we need to be. I can find a penny; I can find a penny in a budget. 159 Knowledge Acquisition of the Context The second knowledge area derived from this study is knowledge acquisition of context. Knowledge acquisition of context has two aspects, one is subject mastery, and the other is application of the knowledge. Knowledge acquisition of context is defined in this study as gaining information that enables graduates to have a basic understanding of the historical and modern context of the field of higher education. It also involves gaining the ability to find that information, and applying it in real world situations. This knowledge area is a precursor to higher education competency. Subject Matter Mastery Many of the presidents expressed deep appreciation for having programs that provided them with essential concepts about the context of higher education, which is needed to be successful in higher education leadership. In addition, seven presidents spoke specifically about various aspects of knowledge, such as an understanding of the knowledge and culture of the academy that they acquired as a result of their program. President Jessica Elliott had served many years as a principal of a religiously affiliated high school before being invited to serve as a president. After accepting the presidency she enrolled in a higher education program. She felt that her program helped her acquire the understanding of how to navigate and lead within the academy. I learned about the culture of higher education, because I surely didn?t know it, but when I went to Mid-West State University, I learned a lot about governance, about leadership of a small college as opposed to other levels of high school. I learned about how to deal with faculty, how to develop a college or university, how to interact with people, it really helped me. 160 In her response, Dr. Elliott displays what many presidents within the study expressed which was an acquisition of knowledge that went further than just learning facts about the culture and context in a theoretical manner, but instead gaining a deeper understanding of the cultural and contextual elements within the higher education setting. After acquiring this knowledge, they sought to master it and then incorporate it within their work. Knowledge Application Presidents such as Emelia Lily shared that she gained a deep understanding of the context of higher education in their doctoral programs. In addition, these presidents emphasized that many of the concepts introduced in their program inform their current work and decision- making. There was a common recognition from the presidents that it was important for presidents to understand the local context before attempting to make large institutional change. Presidents also shared that because of the opportunities to study multiple theories and viewpoints in higher education, they were able to identify connections between seemingly juxtapositions. Lily expressed it this way: Some of the things I learned in my doctoral program help me to be able to see the connections and to see how things may be different, but how things may be the same. Dr. Emelia Lily also shared how the knowledge she acquired in her program influences her in her position as president. I think the skills and the knowledge and the ability, it?s not just skills, you know being confident, knowing that I know how to find information, knowing that I don?t know everything and knowing who to call on or how to get additional information to be able to solve an issue. 161 Dr. Evelyn Aurora also provides a perspective on how her doctoral program helped her acquire the knowledge about how an institution should operate. I think my higher education degree made me step back, get out of the story-telling mode where you focus on the individual and the tragic flaws and all of that, but to look back and look at institutional action and how a institutional action has to be disciplined and influence. It has to have integrity and the institution has to more or less act the same way in same circumstances so that the quality of the product is the same. Complex Cognitive Thinking The third knowledge area derived from this study is complex cognitive thinking. Complex cognitive thinking is defined in this study as the ability to find the interconnections between divergent ideas and the ability to synthesize that information as well as being open to emergent ideas. Integrate Complex Ideas Many of the presidents shared that their program enhanced their analytical thinking ability. For example, Nolan Cooper a president of a large Historically Black University in the Southeast expresses how he began making cognitive connections based on the complexity of higher education in his program. I think what the curriculum in higher education did for me, was to help me to gain greater insight into the complexity and the connectivity of issues in higher education. So, how finance is related to planning and planning is related to the ability to communicate effectively, how the ability to communicate effectively is related to one?s analytical skills, etc. 162 President Gavin Benjamin in the quote below explains how his doctoral experiences help him to view things strategically and incorporate multiple ideas to make a decision. Probably in a strategic planning aspect of it. And then the, one of the best advantages was knowledge of what to expect. Making sure that my decision are broad based. My doctoral program helped me a great deal there. Intellectual Flexibility Some presidents shared that they honed their intellectual capacity to integrate complex ideas in their doctoral program. For example, President Elijah Alexander said, ?I really learned the complexity of higher education.? Their programs also helped them prepare for future challenges within higher education. President Gavin Benjamin said it like this ?It helped me realize that over the course of my career things are going to change tremendously and I better be prepared to adapt. And not adapt just for myself and my administrative style, but adapt the institution to the change, too.? The participants shared that their programs challenged them to look at programs through different lenses. William James, an ivy-league doctoral educated president, adds that his program helped him develop ways in which to analyze complex problems. The most important thing is to have an excellent skill set, analyzing issues and problems, and I certainly learned that in my graduate program. We were challenged on that all the time and so I think that?s probably the most important skill set that I developed and continue to refine. Competencies In this study, competencies are defined as special non-generic skills that apply to a particular sector, job, or field. Competency areas the presidents identified as successfully 163 preparing them for the presidency are displayed in Table 20. The primary core competencies areas that presidents identified as important parts of their doctoral experience in terms of preparing them for the presidency included: Interpersonal Development, Personal Attributes, Management (Assessment/Accountability, Enrollment Management, Fundraising, and Strategic Planning), and Communication (Writing to diverse audiences and Speaking to diverse audiences). Table 20 Competency Areas Competencies Interpersonal Development Personal Attributes Management ? Assessment/Accountability ? Enrollment Management ? Fundraising ? Strategic Planning Communication ? Writing to diverse audiences ? Speaking to diverse audiences Interpersonal Development The first competency area derived from this study is interpersonal development. Interpersonal development is defined in this study as the ability to relate and work with diverse individuals. More than half of the presidents expressed that interpersonal development was an important part of their success as leaders within the academy. Many attributed the enhancement 164 of these competencies to the time they spent within their doctoral programs. In addition, some felt that their program facilitated that development by allowing them to interact with faculty from their program and from other universities at conferences. President Elliott expressed her experience this way: ?[I] learned to listen in class and to interact with other people very positively ? I developed my cultural skills, my skills in diversity.? For many presidents, their doctoral programs served as a socialization mechanism into the academy. Presidents such as Nolan Cooper believed that their doctoral experiences helped prepared them to interact and negotiate at the senior level in higher education. Although most of the presidents prior to their program had served in mid-level positions in higher education, they stated that in graduate school, they were only familiar with the types of institutions they had graduated from and served. Their graduate programs exposed them to colleagues and instructors with different backgrounds. Many of the presidents draw upon these experiences as they interact with various constituencies. Dr. Joshua Dillan had such an experience. He said, Relationship building, so I?m in a cohort with 18 students from big schools, small schools all around the country. I see executives, all ambitious people, and figuring out how does one be a leader in that group, but also the common barrier was a really valuable experience. I also think I saw my higher education career was in small private elite colleges and so I mixed a lot with other people saw private elite colleges, but did not particularly have colleagues from big public institutions or big private research institutions or community colleges or Black colleges or colleges on the Native American reservations and so it really started to open my eyes up to the broader world of higher education that in a way has become very valuable to me as a president of a school, even 165 though it is a small private college where my understanding of the market forces and higher education that has proved very valuable to me. It appears, from the presidents? responses, that their higher education programs effectively served as environments that allowed them to interact and learn from people of diverse backgrounds. Their preparation also enabled them to transfer this knowledge into their presidential roles. Personal Attributes President Evelyn Aurora, along with twelve other presidents, shared that they learned more about themselves, their own perspectives, and the perspectives of others as well as their own personal attributes through their programs. This learning included developing their own sense of autonomy, focusing on developing their personal and professional values and identity, self-esteem and maturity. Learning and identifying their own personal attributes permitted them to understand and perceive their work in a deeper way. She shares this personal example. I learned about perspective, you know whatever perspective you have can influence the questions you ask, the people you interview, and the data you read. I learned about how decisions are not necessarily made following some of those paradigms that you study. Personal attributes are unique competencies. Their uniqueness as competencies lies in that they are determined on an individual basis. Because every student comes in with specific strengths, limitations, weaknesses and concerns, their personal attributes are refined individually and not necessarily refined in the classroom. Management This study included a diverse cadre of management areas. Presidents identified the areas of assessment and accountability of student learning, enrollment management, fundraising, and 166 strategic planning as areas that their program did well in preparing them. The mastery of these management competencies enabled presidents to be prepared to take on challenging responsibilities after completing the doctorate, eventually preparing them for the presidency. Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning In the ACE 2007 study it was found that presidents who had earned a doctoral degree with a degree with a specialization in higher education felt more prepared to deal with assessment and accountability of student learning than presidents who earned doctorates in other disciplines. There were mixed responses to this question. Although a majority of the presidents felt that their programs prepared them in the area of student assessment, a minority of them expressed concerns about this area. This will be further discussed in the section on program weaknesses. Speaking about the strength of this area, President Elijah Alexander said, ?I think my program did a very good job of preparing (me) in the area of assessment.? Dr. William James response concurred with President Alexander?s: In regard to assessment issues, I do feel that I had sufficient preparation for that issue in regard to my doctorate program. It?s something that I?m knowledgeable about. It?s something that is very important. Many of the presidents spoke about assessment in student learning from that perspective. They agreed that they had been taught and understood the issues surrounding student learning and its importance within the academy. They coupled their understanding with their doctoral training in statistics and assessment. President Levi Carter?s comments best represents this experience when he shares: 167 Some of the things (assessment and accountability of student learning) came out of a few of the courses that I took in educational research?as well as a few of the methodology courses I took. Enrollment Management Twelve of the presidents responded that their programs addressed issues related to enrollment management. But many such as President William James mentioned that concepts related to this competency were not taught in isolation. The program related to various issues including enrollment management but we didn?t spend a lot of time on enrollment management. My program was helpful in identifying a number of issues like enrollment management and looking at strategies for that solution. This statement reinforces a common theme found throughout the interviews that presidents reported that their programs did not teach various subject in isolation. They reported that their programs used a thematic approach that allowed their instructors to interweave common themes throughout various courses. This thematic approach assisted with refining the presidents? complex thinking, as in the case of President Nolan Cooper whose program focused on issue of access. Copper explains the approach his program took this way: It [Cooper?s doctoral program] addressed a broad issue such as access. So you can?t talk and think about access without thinking about admissions and outreach and recruitment and marketing. We talked about access, so the issue was access not enrollment management. So, you were able to get to the issue of enrollment management by focusing on the theme of access. 168 Strategic Planning Six of the presidents expressed the belief that their doctoral programs prepared them well in the area of strategic planning. In this study strategic planning is defined as the process in which a higher education institution engages to define its course of action to prepare for the future of the institution. Dr. Peter Johns best sums up the general response of those respondents. I got a good dose of strategic planning emphasis in my program in my higher education program and that has served me well. Presidents expressed that having and understanding of strategic planning process has helped many of them develop a vision, share the vision, gain by in from various constituencies, implement the plan, and assess the results of the initiative. Many of the presidents were exposed to those concepts within their programs. President Emelia Lily shared that her strategic planning course had such a profound effect on her that she decided to change her emphasis area: I took a course in strategic planning, and afterwards I ended up changing my doctoral program. I started out looking at college student development, but I realized that curriculum was not what I needed. What I needed was the higher education administration curriculum and so I transferred departments within the school of education. Communications Communications was one of the most talked about competency areas discussed by presidents within this study. Many remarked that the quality of a president?s thinking and judgment is measured by faculty and other constituencies by the way presidents express themselves in both written and oral communication. Communication as a competency in this study was defined as the effective execution of written or oral communication. 169 Writing One of the areas that participants felt was important to their competency development was the role that their programs played in enhancing their writing ability. Some described learning how to write a pr?cis or an executive brief enhanced their competence in writing professionally. Presidents shared that their programs prepared them to write to multiple audiences, such as to an academic audience, and to the general public. Several presidents such as Joshua Dillan felt that their dissertation writing really honed their competence in writing. The dissertation piece was the most significant piece for me. Figuring out how to develop an hour-long topic, researching and writing it, where I completed my dissertation work I have gone on to chair and be on probably 20 dissertation committees. President Nolan Cooper offers how writing assignments in his doctoral program enhanced his communication ability. I think the program by having to write a pr?cis, you know a short paper where you take a topic and this professor I had in higher education, he forced us to write whatever we were going to write; the analytical piece as well as the application piece in one page. You didn?t have to observe any margins, you could single space, you could double space, but you could only use one page. And, I think that forced me to write in a very concise, clear, crisp kind of manner. President Cooper along with presidents such as Emelia Lily believed that their programs did a good job in teaching them how to write both to scholarly and practitioner audiences. Lily believed learning how to write a strong executive brief helped her effectively communicate in her administrative roles. 170 I learned in my leadership course in my doctoral program was the ability to write a brief, an executive brief. We had to read a number of articles and we had to do no more than a page Public Speaking In addition to learning how to write to diverse audiences, six presidents talked about the role that their doctoral programs played in enhancing their public speaking ability. For example, Dr. Gavin Benjamin, president of Conner State University talked about how a particular class affected his opportunities to refine and hone his speaking ability. Well, you would choose a particular topic, this was before computers so you had a file, you would take a copy of a particular topic out of the file, might be, let?s see, international education and you review literature on that and make a presentation in the class about current issues in international education. Let?s see, its small classes, have maybe six or eight people in the class. So, you?d do a fifteen or twenty minute presentation. Presidents such as Lucas Jacob had to make a cognitive shift when beginning their doctoral program because they had not been accustomed to making many presentations in class. Although these classroom experiences helped to prepare them for the public role they play today. Jacob explains his classroom experiences this way. Well, as you know in most graduate schools, there?s a great deal of presentation work that is done. Very often the faculty member will come in and say ok, you?re going to cover this and you?re going to cover this, and you?re going to cover this and your job is to go out and prepare the material and come back and present to your colleagues with the faculty member acting as devil?s advocate and mentor. And so, that was a learning 171 approach that is not used typically in the under graduate area, so it required a bit of a learning curve. Program Weaknesses Although presidents believe that in general their higher education program did a good job in preparing them for leadership in higher education they made it clear to the author that higher education programs were only one aspect of their training. Most felt that their higher education program played an integral role in their development. However, there were two areas in which the presidents expressed their opinion that their programs did not prepare them well: Fundraising and Student Assessment. Fundraising As it related to the competency of fundraising, all presidents felt that their program did not prepare them to be competent in this area. This corresponds with the results of the secondary analysis of the 2007 ACE study. President Lucus Jacob of Landon State put it best and succinctly when he said: ?There?s nothing in the graduate program that prepares you for fund raising. Absolutely nothing!!? This is an important finding because many of the presidents stated that they spend a lot of time on fundraising. They indicated that they either learned fundraising through professional experiences or through conferences or workshops. Prior to earning their doctorate some of the presidents served as mid-level administrators where fundraising was not the focus of their work. However, once in senior level positions many had to learn how to fundraise on the job. Although many felt that workshops and conferences on fundraising helped them prepare for these issues, they expressed the belief that their academic 172 experience should have addressed preparation for fundraising. Some presidents suggested that case studies and role-play activities could prepare students for these opportunities. President Nolan Cooper provided some unique descriptions of how fundraising could be incorporated into the curriculum. The best way to get the experience I think is to have a foundation executive come in and spend some time at a fund raising seminar with doctoral students. Another example would be to require students to write a successful proposal. So, your task if you have a group of twenty people in the classroom, put them in groups of five and assign one group a request, you have to write a proposal to establish a new center on health disparities and here are, don?t tell you what the foundations are, that?s your task. Another one would be to write a proposal for student persistency to graduation, another one community outreach and diversity, and another one may be the restoration of historic buildings on campus. Give the person some background information about the institution, give them a case study, but the product would need to be a proposal then that could be submitted to a foundation and you actually have the foundation executives come into the classroom and go through the proposal and say, here are the things that we found good about it, not so good about it, you could?ve blah, blah, blah. That?s how the curriculum can address fundraising. Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning Although, as reported earlier, the majority of presidents felt prepared to deal with issues of student assessment and accountability, there were others such as President Ryan Wyatt from Micah-Henry University who felt that not enough time was not spent on these issues. He shared: 173 We did not spend a lot of time on outcomes and the issues related to programmatic accountability that are so important in higher education today. Although all presidents did not feel that their program prepared them as well as they should in the area of assessment of student learning, all believed that the issue of accountability and assessment of student learning was important. Several mentioned that external constituencies such as lawmakers and regional accreditation agencies are holding presidents responsible for student outcomes. Discussion Although the findings of this study may not be generalizable to all situations, they do provide insights that may be useful for those involved in developing and implementing academic programs and professional experiences for current and aspiring university presidents. Curricular Implications One of the most powerful outcomes of this study was the finding that presidents believed that it was very important to include foundational courses and information related to history and finance in higher education doctoral programs curriculum. They further indicated that their programs had done a good job in this regard. These results are similar to Herdlein?s (2004) study of the perceptions of chief student affairs officers in that executive higher education knowledge and competencies can be developed around the areas such as acquisition of knowledge, which includes mastering and implementing the knowledge that is developed. Although most universities seem to include these types of courses, this is one of the first studies that verifies that what is being taught in this area is meaningful to graduates in the presidency and therefore should be continued. 174 When comparing the results of this study to the results of Herdlein?s (2004) study unique distinctions emerge. In this study, president?s perceived that higher education programs positively affected the development of their knowledge and competencies in the areas of finance and budgeting, strategic planning, assessment and accountability, and writing, whereas chief student affairs believed higher education programs underprepared students in those areas. However, there was agreement across both studies as related to higher education programs positively preparing leaders in general knowledge about higher education and understanding human differences. Although Herdlein?s (2004) study utilized a larger sample size and quantitative methods to conduct his study, his results are informative as they relate to the impact that higher education graduate programs can have on its graduates. In addition, faculty within these programs should ensure that their students are able to demonstrate subject mastery through knowledge application. The results also suggest that programs should integrate information and ensure that students are given opportunities to develop intellectual flexibility, meaning that they are open and able to address competing ideas and ideologies. Faculty teaching on management topics such as assessment and accountability of student learning, enrollment management, and fundraising, and strategic planning, should attempt to interweave these as themes throughout the curriculum. This will help students develop the intellectual flexibility and cognitive complexity to address the tough issues they are bound to face in either faculty or administration. Data from this study also suggest that presidents developed strong interpersonal competencies while in their program. This implies that programs should ensure that their faculty and students have diverse backgrounds, so that students can learn how to interact with different 175 individuals. The study also alludes to the notion that higher education programs should create a learning environment where students can explore and enhance their personal attributes. Overwhelmingly, presidents mentioned that their programs helped them develop competence in communication. This indicates that higher education programs should continue to give their students diverse assignment both using oral and written communication formats to ensure that they are prepared to communicate with diverse audiences. A surprising outcome of this study is that, in general, presidents did not address issues related to emerging technologies or diversity, in terms of the changing demographics of the times?areas that many higher education researchers say the presidents must address now and into the future (Farrington, 2008; Jaschik, 2007; June, 2008; Lum, 2008, 2009). It may be that they are comfortable in these areas, but do not view their preparation programs as being a part of developing their knowledge. It may also be that technology is not something they view as in their purview. This area requires further research. This finding points to the fact that curriculum in higher education cannot be static. Program leaders will need to constantly be thinking about the changing demands in higher education and determine ways to best prepare their students for those realities. These presidents often spoke about the need for both theoretical and practical knowledge in order to succeed. Yet, it is very difficult for programs to have topical experts on staff in all areas that must be taught. Additionally, even if faculty have had experience as practitioners, they may have been in faculty positions for many years. Since this is the case, it appears evident that programs should engage and partner with field-base practitioners, particularly program alumni to augment their knowledge and expertise. These partnerships can take the form of guest lectureships and adjunct or visiting professorship appointments. In addition, higher education 176 programs could invite experts on topics of cutting-edge research from other institutions. Engaging in such activities has become more practical with the advent of distance technologies, which would allow programs to invite guest lecturers from around the world to participate in sharing research or practical advice. These individuals could be invited to serve as affiliate faculty in the higher education program and offered opportunities to serve on thesis and dissertation committees as well. Universities may also want to consider creating advisory councils composed of practitioners to help review and revise curricular offerings and to serve as mentors and role models for students. In addition to helping strengthen the relationship between theory and practice, these types of activities will help to assure that the curriculum will include topics relevant to those preparing for the presidency. Policy and Practice Implications This study provides important insights for practice that may be able to be incorporated into policy and practice by executive higher education programs such as the University of Pennsylvania, Jackson State University, and University of Georgia. These are programs that are specifically geared to training executive level higher education administrators. This is particularly timely as higher education programs are developing around the country. Standard higher education doctoral programs can also incorporate these findings into their curriculum. This study has policy implications as field specific conference organizations such as the Council for the Advancement of Higher Education Programs and Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education grapple with indentifying, sharing, and implementing standards to improve higher education curriculum across the fields programs. 177 Another constituency that may glean insights from this research are non-degree granting higher education training agencies. These agencies include organizations such as the American Council of Education, Harvard Institute for Educational Management, and Kellogg Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) Leadership Fellows Program. As suggested for executive and standard higher education doctoral programs, non-degree granting higher education training agencies may want to consider incorporating the knowledge and competencies identified in this study into their conference and workshop curriculum for senior leadership in higher education. The specific knowledge areas for which those who are training higher education senior leadership should focus on are foundational knowledge, knowledge acquisition, and complex cognitive knowledge. The competencies that these programs should incorporate are interpersonal development, personal attributes, management, assessment and accountability of student learning, enrollment management, fundraising, strategic planning, communications, writing, and speaking. Suggestions for the Future Research Although this study included only university presidents, it would be relevant in the future to explore the perspectives of presidents of for-profit institutions, community colleges, and liberal arts institutions. It might also be meaningful to conduct research with university presidents who had earned their doctorate in a discipline other than education. These presidents could provide insights into how the discipline they earned a doctorate in helped to prepare them for their first presidency and whether they perceive their preparation any differently than presidents in this study. It would be fruitful for research to be conducted on the quality and effectiveness of differing types of experiences such as classes, practicum and internships, case studies to 178 determine whether presidents view any of them as being more viable in enabling them to acquire needed knowledge and skills within higher education programs. A study on this topic could provide higher education faculty and curriculum developers with the information that could assist them in enhancing the quality of higher education practice. It would also be important for research to be explored related to best practices of teaching the knowledge, skills, and competencies suggested in this study. In addition, data should be collected that provides higher education faculty and curriculum developers with information on how to best assess the mastery of the knowledge and competencies. This would also help higher education faculty and curriculum developers as they seek to design effective curriculum for their programs. It may also be valuable for research to be explored related to best practices of teaching the knowledge, skills, and competencies suggested in this study. In addition, data should be collected that provide higher education faculty and curriculum developers with information on how to best assess the mastery of the knowledge and competencies. This would also help higher education faculty and curriculum developers as they seek to design effective curriculum for their programs. Conclusion It is important that those entrusted with teaching future leaders, particularly those preparing university presidents teach those students how to acquire the knowledge and competencies that they need to succeed in the 21st century. Although most university presidents do not move straight from their doctoral programs to a presidency, it is important that students be exposed to the knowledge base and competencies needed for senior leadership prior to arriving in that position. Clearly, more research is needed to find out whether higher education programs 179 adequately prepare presidents from other institutional types, but this study provides a useful starting point for future research. 180 Chapter References Altbach, P. G., Bozeman, L. A., Janashia, N., & Rumbley, L. E. (2006). Higher education: A worldwide inventory of centers and programs (revised edition). (Commercial edition published by SensePublishers, Rotterdam, the Netherlands). Altbach, P. & Engberg, D. (2001). 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Training higher education policymakers and leaders: A graduate perspective. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research, design and methods (3rd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage Publications. 185 CHAPTER 6. MANUSCRIPT 3: TOWARDS A THEORY OF HIGHER EDUCATION LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Introduction For almost 400 years, the American college and university presidency has evolved into a coveted yet not easily understood position (Fleming, 2010). It is a position that is expected to provide leadership, management and governance for its institution simultaneously. Presidents may naturally have gifts and graces that lead them to excel in some of these areas, but their position requires that they address each area with skill and finesse (McLaughlin, 2004). Many individuals who aspire to the presidency chose higher education doctoral programs to prepare them for senior leadership in higher education (ACE, 2008). In fact, a recent study by the American Council Education indicated that over 40% of current college or university presidents have earned their doctoral degrees in either education or higher education administration. Many presidents believe that their graduate education influences the manner in which they lead their institutions (Brown, 2008; Freeman, 2011). It is widely known that doctoral programs plays only one part in the developmental cycle of a president (Brown, 2008). But because of the unique role the president plays in the higher education enterprise, there are many questions regarding how to develop and implement higher education programs to best to prepare individuals to succeed in the university presidency (Chandler, 2006). College and university campuses are being impacted by major changes such as growing ethnic diversity, globalization, and new technology. Thus, there is growing recognition that 186 aspiring presidents will need to be prepared to address these and other complex issues that will inevitably effect higher education institutions (June, 2008). This issue is becoming more urgent as the field expects a large number of impending retirements in this position within the next decade (Farrington, 2008). This study sought to gain an understanding of the role of the university president from the perceptions of university presidents in order to formulate a theoretical model from which to create academic programs to prepare leaders for this position. Purpose of the Study This is the third part of a three-part study addressing the university presidency. The first part of this study examined core knowledge and competencies needed for executive leadership in higher education administration as perceived by university presidents. The second part studied university presidents? perceptions of their academic doctoral preparation program as it related to their preparation for the university presidency. The purpose of this phase of the study was to develop a theoretical model for preparing individuals for the university presidency. Theory is defined as ?a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations? (Nagel, 2008). There is presently no theoretical model such as the one this study sought to develop. The theoretical model presented is based upon findings of the first two studies coupled with a survey of the literature, and a reanalysis of the data to determine the pathways and strategies that might be used to assure that academic programs adequately prepare graduates for the university presidency. This study investigated the question: ?What theoretical model should be used in developing an academic preparation program to prepare university presidents?? 187 Significance In 2006, the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) incorporated a list of student affairs master?s level preparation standards. In addition, in 2010, the Association for the Study of Higher Education?s Council for the Advancement of Higher Education Programs agreed to a set of guidelines for higher education administration and leadership preparation programs at the master?s degree level. However, there are no guidelines or standards that address higher education leadership doctoral programs created or adopted by these organizations or any others. This study provides an avenue to explore knowledge, competencies, and a theoretical framework within which standards and guidelines could be developed to enable higher education administration doctoral programs to effectively prepare students for the presidency. The results of this study should help administrators, curriculum developers, and faculty associated with higher education administrations programs and educational leadership institutes to better understand higher education students? needs and enhance their programs. This information could also serve as a framework for enriching the knowledge of college instructors and curriculum developers who are engaging in program design, assessment, and revision. Finally, the study should serve as a mechanism to expand the dialogue about this topic and foster additional research to enhance and refine the theoretical framework proposed. Methods Population and Sample The population of this study was 150 presidents. All of these presidents served institutions whose nomenclature included the term ?University? and who earned a degree with a specialization in higher education administration. The initial population was identified through 188 reviewing the backgrounds of 1,647 American Council of Education affiliated college and university presidents, as identified on the organizational website (American Council of Education, 2010, para. 1). After email or phone solicitation, thirteen of the 150 presidents agreed to participate in the study. Creswell (2002) advocates that data saturation can be met by including 3?5 participants in case study projects and 15?20 in grounded theory projects. Additionally, Maxwell?s (1998) proposes that a small sample size is acceptable in qualitative research because it it?s a rigorous and systematic methodology. Thus, it was determined that 13 would be an adequate sample for the study. Participants included three females and ten males. Three African American presidents participated in the study; all were leaders of Historically Black Universities. Ten Caucasian presidents led Predominantly White Universities. Five participants led private religious institutions. Eight presidents led public universities. The presidents served universities that had student enrollments that ranged from less than 2,000 to more than 50,000 students. Pseudonyms are used in this manuscript to keep participant responses anonymous. Multi-Grounded Theory Multi-Grounded Theory (MGT) was used to investigate the knowledge and competencies participants identified as essential for effective leadership in the presidency in higher education administration. MGT is a qualitative research methodology aimed at generating theory that is grounded both in data and in established theory (Cronholm, 2004; Goldkuhl & Cronholm, 2003). The use of this methodology allowed the researcher to combine both inductivism and deductivism in theory development (Cronholm, 2005). 189 The MGT approach was built on the Grounded Theory method advocated and developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998) and expanded by Goldkuhl and Cronholm (2003). These researchers added three grounding approaches to extend this method. This approach allowed for both inductive analysis of data and some deductive use of other theories. In the MGT approach, theory is grounded in: (1) empirical data (preferably collected in mainly an inductive way) empirical grounding, (2) pre-existing theories or concepts (well selected for the theorized phenomena) theoretical grounding, and (3) an explicit congruence within the theory itself (between elements in the theory) internal grounding (Axelsson & Goldkuhl, 2004, p. 2). In this research, the inductive approach was represented by the empirical ACE study data that was analyzed. Access to the data source was requested from the 2007 ACE study from the American Council of Education. The results from the secondary data analysis indentified competencies and knowledge areas that presidents who earned a doctoral degree in education or higher education administration believed they were strong or weak in. Conceptual frameworks from the literature review represented the deductive approach. The conceptual frameworks included in this study derived from Stuver?s (2006) student expectations, Fink?s (2005) curriculum design, Hammon and Miller?s (2006) presidential perceptions, and Herdlein?s (2004) graduate preparation of new professionals. Figure 1 depicts this process. 190 Figure 1. Empirical data (ACE Presidential Study), Research Interest (Higher Education Programs) and Existing Conceptual Frameworks based on Goldkuhl and Cronholm, (2003) The purpose of using MGT in this study was to work toward the development of a theory of higher education leadership, upon which to create graduate programs to prepare individuals for the presidency. This was accomplished by providing detailed insights into the knowledge base and competency domains that students should master prior to the completion of their doctorate. Data Collection Processes Interviews were the primary data source of this study. Prior to initiating interviews, permission was received from the University Institutional Preview Board (Freeman, 2011). Interviews were taped via audio and video recorders. The researcher also took notes and recorded what participants said (i.e., their words and language) and what was unsaid (i.e., body Theory Development ACE Presidential Study Interviewer?s Questions Graduate Student?s Expectations Curriculum Development Higher Education Graduate Programs Presidential Perceptions Multi-Grounded Theory 191 language and long pauses). These notes were taken during the interviews and also informed the analysis process. Coding and Data Analysis Process A start list of 80 ?a priori? codes from the literature review was used in this study. The codes derived from the literature addressed the concepts of higher education programs and presidential leadership. The ?coding incident to incident? approach advocated by Charmaz (2006) was utilized throughout the analysis process. Emergent codes that were similar were combined with one another to limit the amount of redundant codes. Themes that did not derive from the start list were coded as emerging codes. Concerns for Internal/External Validity, and Reliability of Results Generalizability of the results of this study may be problematic. The limited sample size challenges the use of the results to populations outside university presidents who have earned doctoral degrees in higher education administration. However, steps were taken to foster validity and reliability of results. Content validity was sought using three senior academic administrators and faculty who reviewed pilot questions (Ross & Shannon, 2008). The expert panel?s feedback was utilized in the pilot field interviews, which were conducted with six academic administrators. Higher and adult education faculty and higher education administration doctoral candidates formed two focus group interviews that were conducted. Thick descriptions, the use of MGT, and the having another researcher review the themes for accuracy lent additional reliability to the findings. In addition, follow-up email interviews were conducted for purposes of member checking and data validation. Wolfe (2010) defines member checking as, ?a term used to determine the trustworthiness of the data analysis.? By participating in member checking, the presidents had 192 the opportunity to review the researcher?s summations to ensure that the correctly reflect the presidents? feelings and responses (Creswell, 1998; Wolfe, 2010). The second interview allowed the researcher to ask additional questions based on the responses from the initial interview. Theoretical Model Prior to presenting the theoretical model it is necessary to present a brief overview of the findings of part one and two of this study as they were incorporated into the development of the model. When asked to identify what they needed to know and be able to do to succeed in the presidency, respondents identified three knowledge and four competency areas. The three knowledge areas were foundational knowledge, knowledge acquisition of context, and complex cognitive knowledge. The four competency areas were interpersonal development, personal attributes, management, and communications. When asked to identify the knowledge and competencies presidents believed their higher education program prepared them for effectively, the university presidency, respondents selected three knowledge areas: foundational knowledge, knowledge acquisition of context, and complex cognitive knowledge. They selected the four competencies (interpersonal development, personal attributes, management, and communications). They identified fund-raising as an area they were not well prepared for (Freeman, 2001). Figure 4 presents the theoretical model proposed. A written explanation of the figure follows. 193 Figure 4. Model of Higher Education Leadership Development in Academic Preparation Programs. External and Internal Forces Decades ago, Brubacher (1970), when seeking to create a theory of higher education, noted that, at that time, there were two theories of the university. One theory viewed the institution as having ?a certain self-authenticating quality which causes it to stand somewhat aloof from the social milieu? (p. 99). The other theory proposed that the ?university finds itself, not standing aloof, but caught up in the stresses and strains of contemporary events? (p. 99). The Curriculum Faculty Student s 194 theoretical model developed herein is solidly based upon the second theoretical supposition posited by Brubacher, that higher education as connected to the world and must respond to the cultural, organization, and societal milieu within which it functions. It accepts the notion that Higher Education is within and impacted by the culture and context within which it operates. Thus forces within the external and internal environments must be examined and considered when individuals and institutions seek to engage in program development activities. This reality is depicted in the model by the outer circle labeled ?Context and Culture?. Additionally, the literature, emphasizes that Higher Education program developers must consider a broad range of program elements and issues when engaging in planning and implementation processes (Herdlein, 2004; Katsinas, 2007; Wright, 2007). Among these organizational considerations there are such things as: defining the program; identifying faculty expertise; determining needed departmental resources; and considering student diversity, expectations, needs, and learning styles (Western Michigan, 2008). Although these are not discussed in detail in the text, they are depicted in the figure to denote recognition that this work cannot be conducted in a vacuum. Elements of the Program Development Process Three elements stood out in the literature addressing graduate curriculum development. They are students, curriculum and faculty (Fink, 2005; Hammon & Miller, 2006; Herdlein, 2004; Stuver, 2006). Curriculum is an invaluable part of the higher education doctoral program development process (Fife, 1991). The curriculum contains various elements that impact the learning process, which may include such things as institutional standards and guidelines, research, theory, clinical 195 and internship experiences, assessment and faculty expertise. Curriculum is dependent upon the faculty delivering it (Haynes, 1991). The role of the faculty cannot be understated as it relates to their impact on the higher education doctoral program development process. Murrell and Davis (1991) believe that higher education doctoral program identity, autonomy and integrity are shaped by their faculty. Likewise students are the heart of higher education program development. All decisions concerning changing or enhancing higher education doctoral programs should include the needs of students (Freeman, 2011; Mason, 1998). The importance of these program elements are consistent with findings from the first two studies. The core elements are depicted in Figure 4 as central to the program development process. Propositions and Discussion Three propositions derived out of this study regarding the creation and implementation of programs to prepare graduate students for the presidency. They include (1) a balance between theory and practice, (2) the need for consistency and flexibility, and (3) the necessity for assessment and accountability. These propositions are interconnected both with each other and with the three elements, but they are presented as separate for ease in understanding. Each proposition will be presented in terms of their interconnections with Curriculum, Students, and Faculty. These interconnections are depicted on the Figure 4 with arrows. The arrows continue to address the relationships in which they impact and are impacted by one another. No proposition, construct, or element is an island. The arrows within this model represent how each is impacted by one another. 196 Presidential Perspectives Proposition 1: (Theory & Practice)?Higher education doctoral programs must include a balance between theory and practice. Curricular Issues The first area that presidents believed that higher education doctoral programs should address was the curriculum. The presidents spoke about how theory and practice within higher education curriculum should be synergistic working in tandem with practical applications in higher education doctoral curriculum. President Ryan Wyatt gave an example of how theory informed the work that he encounters in his position. I learned about finance and about theoretical models (in my doctoral program) that are applied to finance and higher education. They helped prepare me for this role, the revenue theory of cost, which has been pretty substantially challenged in the current economy helps me understand how the institution got into the budget situation it is in. Higher education doctoral curriculum needs to incorporate a balance of theory and practical application so that the doctoral students are able to serve effectively in leadership roles in higher education. One of the primary components of the curriculum that the presidents suggested be incorporated into the curriculum are theories related to higher education. One example of how practical application can support theory is through hands-on experiences. Most presidents spoke of incorporating higher education theories in combination with hands-on applied experiences. President Joshua Dillan explained that position in the comments below. So I think the effective ones are ones that provide this balance of theory and practice and with the faculty that are teaching them provide that balance of theory and practice. 197 More than half of the participating presidents believed that the case study method was an effective andragogical approach in developing students? critical thinking and problem solving competencies and balancing theory and practice. President Ryan Wyatt mentioned that, ?the case study approach is very helpful.? President Nolan Copper in the quotation below gives a real world example of how case studies can be effectively incorporated into the higher education doctoral curriculum. (Programs) should give the people the case study at the beginning of the semester; give them the issue at the beginning of the semester. I know a professor that did that, he said this is what ya?ll have to do, gave it to you day one so everything you did could be in preparation for what you going to do as opposed to trying to surprise anybody. All presidents in some point of their interview shared that having the opportunity to speak in front of their class while in their doctoral program enhanced their ability to speak to diverse audiences and gave them real world experiences in which to develop this skill. They therefore recognized the need for higher education doctoral programs to incorporate an appropriate amount of time for students to present inside and outside the classroom. This is another way to balance theory and practice. The presidents talked about assuring that graduate students have opportunities to speak before real audiences and learn how to operate in the public venue. President Peter Johns shares the importance of learning how to sustain the interest of an audience while in a higher education doctoral program. He comments: How do you present so that they sustain an interest with an audience? They?ve got a three minute attention span. How do you present so that you?re making things stick? 198 President John goes on to express the importance that honing his speaking ability in his higher education doctoral program and recommends that students within higher education doctoral programs do the same. The communication arts, (public) speaking. Probably a person who is getting into a doctorate program in higher education, you?ve already established those, but practically everything that I do is connected in a direct way with being able to communicate an idea or explain something or lead and so it would be impossible to have too much emphasis focused on that on communication arts and so that?s something that is huge. President Evelyn Aurora adds to the conversation saying that strong programs should give students the opportunity to speak publicly. She adds, ?I think an effective higher education program should help refine your oral communication skills.? The presidents noted that higher education doctoral curriculum needs to incorporate rigorous and relevant assistantship, practicum and internship experiences to ensure that students are prepared to serve effectively in leadership roles in higher education. The importance of this balance between theory and practice in the curriculum is related to the needs of the students. Almost all of the presidents who participated in this study believed that higher education doctoral programs should provide some form of hands-on-experience for their students. Presidents such as Joshua Dillan expressed that hands on experience in higher education programs gives you the opportunity to hone your skills within a safe environment. He, along with other presidents, believed that these opportunities could help students develop their leadership skills. President Dillan expressed his thoughts this way: I think the experience makes you a stronger leader. My experiences have made me more comfortable with more people in more roles. 199 Evelyn Aurora adds to this conversation by sharing that an internship experience within the curriculum is valuable. I think an effective higher education program has to have a practical, more internship component in higher education. President Levi Carter proposed a unique approach to incorporating theory into higher education doctoral program curriculum. He suggested that these programs use the medical and professional education model to train higher education doctoral students with the knowledge and competencies they will need for senior administrative roles in higher education. Carter shares that incorporating theory with practice and mentoring is not a new concept. Theory, practice and mentoring. Now, you know where that comes from? Theory, practice and mentoring? It comes from medicine or Allied Health training. The concept of integrating theory and practice into curricular activities and endeavors supports and extends proposals in existing literature. Although authors such as Wright (2007) have alluded to the concept that higher education programs need to expose doctoral students to higher education theories and practical experiences, the results in this study address directly how higher education theories and practical experiences can be incorporated to support the learning process of doctoral students. The results of this study also corroborates with the work of Haynes (1991). He suggests, ?There should be several internships over the course of a student?s graduate experience. In the internships, students should work closely with faculty and administrators such that they are immersed in the socialization of higher institutions. Coursework should reflect a sense of reality and practicality. Therefore, case studies and simulations should be used extensively. (p.146) 200 These findings suggest that leadership development in higher education doctoral programs should be a cybernetic process in which practice and theory must be emphasized for maximum curricular success. This approach is also line with the comments and thoughts of Peter Brooks (Walker et al., 2008) when he shared, Imagine a graduate program defined as a set of loose, informal apprenticeships and mentorships between students and faculty members: chaos and nightmare, enough to put several echelons of associate deans out of business. Graduate education as a free space of association, collaboration, and inquiry? Administratively unacceptable, surely. Such a model could work only by trusting that faculty members, given the freedom to rethink their roles as educators, could and would devise relevant forms of training. (p.89) Brooks comments are similar to the proposals that Lee Shulman (2005) has advocated for doctoral programs in education. Faculty Topics The first theoretical proposition, which focuses upon the notion that the curricular program assure that students engage in activities and experiences that balance theory and practice in their higher education programs, also has implications for the faculty. One of the first issues addressed by the presidents in this area was the importance of having faculty with varied backgrounds. President Ryan Wyatt shares his thoughts about this. The faculty, I think, the best faculty would be one that includes both theoreticians and practitioners. Some people who have devoted their lives to the study of higher education administration and who have published and have strong theoretical understandings, but I think it is also important to have, in a program like this, practitioners, people who have 201 had the real experience, former presidents, they are former administrative leaders in higher education. So I think a strong program would be one in which the faculty represents both of those perspectives, the theoretical and the practical. President Evelyn Aurora captures the overwhelming sentiments of participants in this study in this regard when she states. I think an effective higher education program has faculty who have been in higher education. I think an effective higher education program also has faculty who have done research and they can teach you analytical skills because as an administrator you are constantly reading and analyzing using research. Almost all of the presidents who participated in this study remarked that higher education program faculty need to have both prior administrative experience and strong research experience. President Peter Johns reiterates this notion below. I would have it staffed with faculty who genuinely have both the scholarly experience and the practical experience. I have an overwhelming bias about utilizing people who have been in the field and have had some direct experience with what they?re doing. You know, I understand the love of scholarship and that you can be drawn into a purely research agenda. But come on! I mean you?re working with people who are going to be front line people in their institutions and it would help to have had some practical experience. These results coincide with the Harris (2007) concept that ?a mix of faculty backgrounds is necessary to properly prepare students in theory and practice.? Harris? (2007) study extends this idea of assuring diverse knowledge and experience within faculty ranks. He found that ?higher education programs use practicing administrators to supplement the standing academic 202 faculty? in many higher education programs. He also reports that some higher education programs also invite retired administrators to provide instruction on topics related to administrative practice. Another way to build the theory/practice balance in the faculty area is by having program faculty build relationships with alumni from the program and administrators on their campus who have earned doctorates in higher education administration. Members of these two constituencies could act as an advisory council for the program faculty of the doctoral programs and could serve as a sounding board to discuss ways in which the doctoral program could be enhanced. These constituencies could also become allies in creating valuable internships, practicum, and assistantships for students within the program. Having such involvement will build external support and lessen criticism. Kochan and Twale (2000) share this same sentiment when they state ?If we neglect to seek out and listen to a broad range of voices as we design and redesign our educational leadership programs, we may find the criticisms of them becoming more pervasive and widespread? (p. 3). In addition to developing an advisory council for the doctoral program, higher education programs should partner with their institutions to develop faculty-in-residence programs. This program would allow tenured higher education faculty who have never served in a full-time senior level position in higher education, or who have not done it for a long period of time, an opportunity to serve a limited period of time as an officer at a senior-level higher education administrator while on sabbatical from their faculty position. Such programs are not as prevalent as in the K?12 educational sector, such as the Teacher-in-Residence program that was developed between Auburn University?s College of Education and Auburn City Schools in Auburn, Alabama (College of Education, 2011, para. 1). This type of program will help young scholars 203 who have a wealth of theoretical knowledge to deepen their intellectual capacity with hands-on experience. Another program similar to the Teacher-in-Residence program mentioned above is the ACE fellows program. This program invites vice presidents, deans, department chairs, faculty and other emerging leaders to spend an extended period of time on another campus working directly with a president (ACE Fellows, 2011, para. 1). This leadership development program exposes each fellow to the culture, policies, and decision-making process a president must go through on a daily basis. This program is different than the program that is advocated by the author because the person would be able to stay and be mentored on the campus of their home institution. Student Factors The need to balance theory and practice is also relevant in the student arena. In addition to dealing with student needs through the curriculum presented, presidents believed that is was necessary for students to engage in a variety of activities that would be able to put theory into practice while participating in their higher education program. In this study, presidents suggested that doctoral students participate early and often in field-specific organizations such as the Association on the Study of Higher Education. Presidents such as Nolan Cooper found that participation in these societies provided an enhanced form of socialization into the academy. Below President Cooper recounts the effect that attending conferences during his program had on his socialization into higher education leadership. These meetings accomplished this whole notion of professional socialization. Learning how it is that senior level administrators act. Senior level administrators don?t act the same way as junior level administrators. The conversations that take place between 204 junior level people are different than the conversations that take place between senior level people. But as a young junior professional, I would make presentations, I would get with my buddies and we would make presentations. But, there was a decided difference between the level and depth of the thinking and the analysis, the insights and so on and so forth that we didn?t have. But, it was important for us to have our day on that stage because we were preparing to become more senior leaders in higher education, I think. So the conferences I think, sort of gave me an inside view of this whole professional socialization process. So as President Cooper alluded to, doctoral student participation in the appropriate professional associations can play a great role in the professional socialization of higher education leaders. President Elijah Alexander expressed it this way: It?s critically important that students going through these programs be given the opportunity to participate fully in professional development. Peter Johns adds to this notion that participation in professional associations and conferences by higher education doctoral students should be seen as professional development opportunities. President Johns stated: I think that would be great for students in a doctoral program to be able to have some appropriate professional development opportunities at some of the major national conferences. Theoretical Proposition 2 (Consistency and Flexibility)?Higher education doctoral program curriculum needs to be flexible and have a diverse array of course offerings in addition to the common core courses. 205 Curriculum Issues The second theoretical proposition derived from this study is consistency and flexibility. This proposition relates to curricular issues in a number of ways. First, presidents expressed a need for programs to have a common core of courses in higher education doctoral programs. Presidents specifically identified two courses that must be included: History of Higher Education, (2) and Finance/Budgeting. For example, President Lily stated, I think there are some basic courses that need to be in a doctoral program. (1) History of higher education in some way, something related to (2) budget and finance. President Ryan Wyatt added that effective higher education doctoral program covers a number of academic topics. I would think that a strong program would focus on issues related to organizational structure and administration, issues related to higher education finance, issues related to the academy and the faculty, issues related to governments, the role of the board, the role of the faculty, the role of the administration and that a student would be able to, through the program, really understand all of the nuances and complexities and inter-relationships that exist in higher education administration. Presidents such as Lucus Jacob advocated that current higher education program curriculum should include an emphasis in communication skill development for those students who aspire to the presidency. Really, your job is to communicate. Well let me back up, your job is to provide the impotence and resources and the where with all to develop that institutional vision and to become the relentless communicator of that vision to all of the various audiences that are 206 out there and to try to do everything you can to arrange for the resources necessary for the faculty and staff to do their job. In addition, President Wyatt and others also talked about the need to include management issues such as strategic planning in the curriculum. He shared You really ought to have an understanding of how to approach strategic planning in a college or university setting and how to convert a strategic plan into action. In addition to having consistency in the curriculum and assuring that graduates have a solid foundation in the history and operations of higher education, the presidents noted that curriculum also needs to be flexible in order to stay relevant and assure that their graduates are prepared not only for the present, but for the future. For example, President Lucus Jacob shared, Thirty years ago you were still learning about in loco parentis and why it made sense. Technology has a huge impact, as I say very often in speeches, it?s only just a matter of time before students who are online now, are online on their cell phones. I mean, the cell phone that I carry on my hip now has more computing knowledge than the United States had as a country and would?ve put a man on the moon and it is still evolving. So, you?ve got to think about how you are going to use that cell phone ten years from now. Your curriculum has got to be flexible enough to keep up with that kind of thing. Other participating presidents also expressed the idea that the curriculum should not be static. Presidents such as Jessica Elliott shared how student assessment was not talked about while she was in her program in the 1980s but is an area that she feels students in higher education doctoral programs today should be familiar with. She said, 207 Well, you know when I started my doctorate in higher education there wasn?t even any emphasis on assessment. These days there?s a lot of emphasis on assessment in colleges and universities, and I think it?s very important. All presidential participants believed that their program did not prepare them for fundraising (Freeman, 2011). This corresponds with the results of the secondary analysis of the 2007 ACE study. This is a valuable finding because many of the presidents stated that they spend a lot of time on fundraising. This demonstrates once again that the higher education doctoral curriculum needs to remain flexible to address the curricular needs of students. The results of this study verifies and demonstrates the value of having core of course offerings (Bamber, Trowler, Saunders, & Knight, 2009; Bray, 2007; Kiem, 2007). It also verifies the need to expand and change course content based upon the needs of the society and the role the student must fill in the organization. A study conducted by Keim (2007) appears to confirm that higher education programs have recognized the need for consistency and flexibility and to some extent attempted to meet it. In this longitudinal study, which monitored the trends of higher education program course offerings over 25 years, the research found that these programs offer on average 27 courses specifically related to higher education whereas in the 1980s, higher education programs offered 17 courses specifically related to higher education. The need for consistency and flexibility is being presently reflected in different doctoral program offerings. It may be wise for colleges of education to consider this notion when dealing with the preparation of presidents. The options presently in place are: Ed.D., Ph.D., Executive Ed.D., and Executive Ph.D. There is a continued need for practitioners? doctoral programs, which generally offer the Doctorate of Education (Ed.D.), which prepares its students specifically to work in administrative settings. These programs should be open to individuals 208 with and without substantial work experience (Wergin, 2011). These programs should be flexible enough to accommodate students who lack the on the job experience and give them the opportunity to develop the knowledge and competencies through internships, practicum and assistantships. Individuals who have prior work experience should not be absolved from this requirement although they may not be expected to earn as many internship/practicum credits as those without the experience. One cannot assume just because they have had work experience they do not have room to improve. In these hands-on experiences students should be coached rigorously in areas that they are not as strong. There should a special emphasis on data-driven decision-making (Herdlien, 2004). The research doctorate in higher education, which is generally offered as a Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.), should contain the same elements that are suggested above with a special emphasis on understanding how to conduct both rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In addition, these doctoral programs should ensure that their students hone their androgogical abilities. The elements from both the Ed.D. and Ph.D., such as having a special emphasis on data- driven decision-making and understanding how to conduct both rigorous quantitative and qualitative research, should also be incorporated by executive higher education doctoral programs, which are both designated as either Exec. Ph.D. or Exec. Ed.D. (Nadler & Miller, 2007). These programs primarily focus on preparing individuals for executive leadership in higher education. The majority of these programs are arranged in the cohort model and students are required to demonstrate that they have performed substantial leadership throughout their careers. Their programs generally take two to three years for students to complete (Freeman, 2011; Selingo, 2003). 209 Faculty Topics In addition to having consistency and flexibility in the curriculum, the presidents stressed the need for faculty to display consistency and flexibility in the manner in which they teach their students. They believed faculty must be consistent in accepting their responsibilities to engage students in their learning, but that they must also be flexible in reaching and teaching students, based on student abilities and learning styles. Schick, Guarino, and Witte (2001) noted that many Colleges of Education have begun to provide their teachers with information and strategies which allow educators to address the needs of various diverse groups of students. Banks (1994), a noted scholar and writer on multicultural education, has outlined five dimensions of multicultural education: (1) content integration, (2) the knowledge construction process, (3) prejudice reduction, (4) an equity pedagogy, and (5) an empowering institutional culture. The epistemologies of these dimensions are important for instructors to understand. Schick, Guarino, and Witte (2001) believe that it is important to integrate these dimensions into the curriculum in all areas so that graduate students will be adequately prepared to meet the challenges of diversity inside and outside the classroom. The data from this study also revealed that teaching and learning activities should be implemented using the appropriate andragogical activities. Presidents such as Nolan Cooper provided suggestions for the classroom that included both traditional and non-traditional approaches, such as reading and in-class writing activities. President Cooper provides an example of the type responses that the presidents provided relative to this finding. In this quotation he gives a suggestion of how faculty in higher education doctoral programs could frame a classroom activity if they were teaching on the topic of personal wholeness. 210 I must say that I also believe educational leadership programs should approach the issue of personal wholeness by making certain there are experiential activities and readings that address these issues, beginning with things as basic as values clarification, stress management, etc. Presidents like President Emelia Lily emphasized that, classroom activities should be engaging. Presidents like Joshua Dillan thought that it was important to expose students to the literature associated with higher education. He remarked that students should be engaged in practical writing activities that are applicable to their work outside the classroom like writing career plans. He shared: What we did was to have these graduate students prepare their vita and also a mock letter in response to an ad in the Chronicle of Higher Education. Then, in teams, other students would respond to the letter and vita as if they were serving on a search committee. The student would then have the opportunity to revise their material but also develop a written career plan to begin to fill in some of the most significant gaps in their resume over time. The literature on the topic of higher education programs emphasizes that one way developers of these programs could provide consistency and flexibility among faculty would be to provide different types of faculty appointments (i.e. permanent, visiting, and virtual faculty, and lecturers) to address the content that students need to be exposed to. Permanent faculty would provide the needed consistency to maintain the program over time. Visiting, part-time, and virtual faculty and lecturers provide flexibility and could be used to fill in areas of needed expertise, particularly in topics that are emerging in which permanent faculty may not be well grounded. In such situations, faculty with virtual appointments and lecturers may serve at their primary institution while also providing their expertise to another institution. 211 Harris (2007) shares ?The use of a core full-time faculty trained in the theoretical foundations of higher education with the use of practitioners augmenting the full-time faculty?s expertise provides an appropriate group of instructors for training future administrators and faculty.? Utilizing various faculty appointments ensures that higher education programs can use all the human capital that are willing to serve and provide valuable expertise to the classroom. In particular, faculty with virtual appointments may serve at their primary institution while also providing their expertise to another institution. Student Factors The need for consistency and flexibility also has implications for student selection and admission. Presidents believed that higher education doctoral programs needed to have consistency through rigorous enrollment standards. President William James stated that these programs should expect students to be (1) mentally prepared for the doctoral process, (2) have demonstrated leadership background, (3) have a passion for the field of higher education, and (4) have resilience, determination and discipline. He describes that clearly below: In regards to what type of students, I?d say first and foremost they (1) have to have the intellectual capacity to do a doctorate. They must (2) actually have leadership abilities?Can a person demonstrate leadership abilities or has he or she demonstrated leadership abilities. The third is I think the student has to (3) have a passion for higher education and a desire to serve in higher education and contribute to higher education and (4) fourthly, the person has to have resilience, determination and discipline. Although the presidents believed that higher education programs should have high standards for student admittance, they also believed that it was important to admit students from 212 a variety of backgrounds, to enhance the overall learning experience for everyone. President Jessica Onley shares how her programs diversity helped her develop as a professional. We had a mixed group of students from, international students, married students, and unmarried students. This was a very good experience for me because I really wanted to go to a public institution. I had received my education in private Christian schools and, it became my goal to reach out and to go to a program that would introduce me to the kind of students and the diversity of students I would be dealing with in the future. So I think I developed my cultural skills, my skills in diversity in my program. Presidents such as Evelyn Aurora also noted the importance of program curriculum having an international comparative component to it because of the changing student demographics in the world that students will face. She expressed it this way in her interview: I also think an effective higher education program should deal with some best practices in other countries than the United States. We have one way of thinking about things here, but there are many other countries and you have been hearing in this conference that we are considered number 10 in education. I don?t know what number we are in higher education but it would be nice to see what other countries do. I think an effective higher education program also helps understand the notion of perspective and changing tomography in the United States, like Hispanics, African Americans. As the U.S. populations? demographics continue to change, it is important to have people from diverse ethnic and racial groups in order to prepare people to work in these diverse environments (U.S. Census, 2010). Although an area of importance, many participating presidents did not specifically talk about the role of this type of diversity in their work. 213 Theoretical Proposition 3 (Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning)-Higher Education curriculum needs to incorporate diverse methodologies and tools to assess student learning. Curriculum Issues One of the areas of growing importance in higher education is assessment and accountability (Poda, 2007). The presidents recognized this and dealt with it in a variety of ways. In the curricular area, presidents recognized that the starting point in the process was establishing learning goals in higher education doctoral programs. Presidents insisted that learning goals be clear and understandable for students. The presidents indicated that the learning goals should be directly related to curriculum outcomes. Several presidents, such as Emelia Lily, spoke about the fact that learning goals can be implemented and assessed in multiple ways. For example, Dr. Lily shared the important role the dissertation plays in the learning process. Below she details how the dissertation needs to have explicit goals attached to it. The ability to plan, implement, assess, and apply that back to your plan, ok. And, I?m not meaning that in terms of strategic planning, but what I am talking, thinking about is you need to be able to clearly demonstrate and be able to articulate that you?ve been able to develop a plan, you?ve implemented the plan, assessed the plan, and thought about how you might do it differently and bring closure to something. Jessica Elliott suggests that faculty use multiple teaching strategies to assess student learning and connect their experience to one another. She also advises faculty to assign supplemental information and resources to ensure students accomplish the learning goal. Below 214 she shares that an androgogical technique such as the case study alone may not help advance the instructor in reaching a learning goal. I think if you are going to use case studies then you ought to assign certain books or usually there are articles in appropriate magazines that would help students to really know the core information so that they just will not be, you know be too nonchalant about what they?re discussing. We don?t want them to discuss these issues just because, you know just up in the air, but we want discussions in the case studies to be backed by research. Presidents in this study suggested that higher education use a plethora of methodologies to gauge if students understand and can apply the knowledge they learn in the classroom. William James, president of St. Nathan University, remarks below that in the case of trying to measure the mastery of content related to vision-setting, an instructor could use a simulation activity: I think the best way to assess the ability of students to determine if they are capable in vision setting would be in a capstone course with a simulation exercise providing extensive data and then asking the student to set the vision for such an organization. Some presidents, such as President Evelyn Aurora, suggested that faculty incorporate new technology in their courses to gauge if their students are mastering the content that is taught in class. Although various presidents chose various topics to teach in the class, many suggested that new technologies be used. President Aurora below suggests testing students using computer-generated questions: I think I would use the new media such as blogging, etc. Or, I would use a computer- generated question with links that allowed students to give an example. In other words, it 215 would not be a pen and paper test. It would be an assessment using one or more means of the new media. President Nolan Cooper provided several non-technological assessment measures when he shared I would use a combination of assessment techniques: student journals, personal-peer feedback, faculty observations, focus groups, etc. Along with incorporating diverse andragogical techniques in instruction, presidents shared that it was important that the curriculum have short term and long term assessments of students and program outcomes embedded in them. Below President Emelia Lily provides several examples of assessments. To assess doctoral student learning, I would use a few different assessment methods: I would use case study presentations and discussions to explore the various aspects of leadership, decision-making, administration, and the complexity of issues; I would use a final paper with a presentation to assess the comprehensive nature of the learning based on the course learning outcomes. I would also use various classroom discussions and group projects to assess learning during each class session. I have used the one-minute papers to assess learning and understanding of topics at the end of each class meeting and found them to be very helpful. The study confirmed the role of holding institutions responsible for assessing student learning. This is consistent with the literature, which focuses on the importance of assessment in leadership programs (Kochan & Locke, 2009; Poda, 2007). Heverly and Fitt (1994) capture the essence of these researchers when they write, ?Faculty and academic planners need information 216 that will provide evidence of program effectiveness, point to needed changes in course competencies and suggest strategies for improving program quality.? Faculty Topics Although the presidents did not deal with this issue, the literature supports the fact that assessment not only applies to the curriculum, but also includes faculty. Faculty must be responsible for assessing student learning. This is important not only to ensure that students are effectively learning the content knowledge and competencies they need in the future, but it can also help faculty stay at the forefront of their craft. Poda (2007) shares, Assessing student learning is a central element in the overall quality of teaching and learning in higher education graduate programs. Some of the most popular assessment tools used in assessing higher education graduate programs are written and oral assessments, open book, group assessment, self, peer, and co-assessment, assessment by projects, investigations, and realistic problem-solving tasks. As the U.S. Congress and state legislatures continue to raise the expectations of universities to meet ?performance goals? it is important for the leaders of these programs such as program directors and coordinators, department chairs, and deans to ensure that program faculty are performing at their peak (El Hassan, 2009; Linkon, 2005). Thus, in addition to assessing students, faculty should embrace the responsibility for critically evaluating their own work (Likon, 2005). This may be difficult for many faculty at first, especially those who are untenured. But by incorporating the use of mentoring from senior faculty, peer-mentoring, and peer networking, program faculty can learn the techniques and knowledge that can help them to assess themselves (Gaskin, Lumpkin, & Tennant, 2003; Driscoll, Parkes, Tilly-Lubbs, Brill, & 217 Bannister, 2009; Mullen & Forbes, 2000; Smith, Whitman, Grant, Stanutz, Russett, & Rankin, 2001; Zundel & Mengel, 2007). Student Factors Assessment and accountability are also related to student factors. Students must be involved in their own learning and must reflect upon what they learn. In addition, they need to show a commitment to field of higher education. President William James shares a quote about students of higher education needing to be passionate about the field. He says, I think the student has to have a passion for higher education and a desire to serve in higher education and contribute to higher education. The person has to have resilience, determination and discipline because the course work is great. The comps are fine, but the dissertation, that?s tough and so you have to have the discipline, motivation. So the bottom line would be that the doctoral student must have a passion for the particular topic that can carry him or her through and if you don?t have that, there are a number of ABDs. This sentiment was reverberated by many presidents in this study. Although passion may not seem to be directly related to assessment, it is connected to the notion expressed by presidents that students must take responsibility for their own education, which is a factor in accountability. Presidents such as Nolan Cooper also emphasized that students had the right to expect a high quality instructional experience from their professors. He shared: Students ought to expect a faculty member to deliver a high quality class and it can?t be one of these jive times where you come in there and tell jokes and you talk about contemporary issues all the time and you don?t talk about the contemporary issues in a historical kind of context. 218 Thus, another part of students? being accountable is to expect faculty to have a comprehensive and effective means to assess student learning. Students should expect to receive feedback and they should use it to learn and grow. Expecting high quality curriculum and delivery is a part of being accountable and also of assessing the value of your education. It thus, is a part of the role of being a successful student who, upon graduation, can also become a successful leader. In addition to using assessment for their own learning it is also important for doctoral students to have opportunities to evaluate faculty. Many programs rely on student feedback to decide on important issues such as curriculum and program faculty (Lechuga, 2008). It is vital that students take these evaluations seriously and provide accurate and honest feedback to ensure that their program and faculty in it continue to improve. It is not only important for students to evaluate their instructors? effectiveness, it is also important that they assess their own knowledge and growth. Presidents Joshua Dillan and Nolan Cooper suggested that students should assess what they know already prior to beginning their doctoral program, they described it as a ?knowledge audit.? President Dillan went even further by suggesting that students who have prior experience in a particular division of a university use their time in their program to learn about a different area of the university. He believes that by a doctoral student deeply studying a different area of a university they would be ?Building their brain?/expanding their knowledge base. Although recent literature that addresses the notion of knowledge auditing looks specifically at the benefit of auditing for an entire organization, the principles are applicable to an individual (Biloslavo & Trnavc?evic, 2007). As Biloslavo and Trnavc?evic (2007) express, 219 excelling in one area is not sufficient to be effective in another because excelling in one area may well depend on excelling in another. Summary of Propositions and Elements As noted in the text and Figure 4, there are three propositions flowing from the study: Theory and Practice, Consistency and Flexibility, and Assessment and Accountability. The details related to these propositions are described in the chart below. It includes the propositions, constructs, the constructs (Curriculum, Faculty and Students) and the Elements, which interconnect them. The chart denotes where the primary finding comes from the study (P = presidents), the literature (L), or whether it is an innovative idea (I). It captures the essence of the text for ease in understanding and use. CHART OF THEORTICAL PROPOSITIONS, CONSTRUCTS, and ELEMENTS* Curriculum Faculty Students Theory and Practice (Praxis) (P)-Theoretical frames built into coursework (P)-Hands-on experiences (case studies, presentations) (P)-Assistantships, practicum, internships, apprenticeships (P)-Varied backgrounds (research, administration) in research (I)-Practitioner/alumni Advisory Council (I)-Practitioner sabbaticals for professors (P)-Participate in higher education professional associations and conferences as presenters and observers Consistency and Flexibility (P)-Common core of courses (History, Finance) (P)-Flexible & dynamic array of electives (Strategic Planning, Communication Strategies) (L)-Varied Doctorates (executive, research, practitioner) (P)-Teach to multiple learning styles (P)-Diverse andragogical techniques (L)-Varied types of faculty appointments (Visiting permanent faculty, virtual, lecturers) (P)Admissions process (P)-Students from a variety of backgrounds Assessment and Accountability (P)-Clear learning goals (P)-Short term and long term assessments of students and program outcomes (L)-Faculty self-assessment (L)-Assessment by supervisors (P)-Committed and active participation in their learning (L)-Assessment of classroom learning (L)-Assessment of faculty (P)-Self-knowledge audit Note. P-denotes finding from presidents? perspectives, L-denotes finding from literature, I-denotes innovative concepts from the author 220 221 Implications The results of this study provide executive higher education programs and standard higher education doctoral programs with a theoretical lens that they can use to enhance their curriculum and overall program development efforts. The propositions of incorporating theory and practice (praxis), consistency and flexibility, and assessment and accountability of student learning provide higher education doctoral faculty with a set framework that could be applied to program curriculum, faculty, and students. Not only can this theoretical model be utilized by degree granting programs, but non- degree granting higher education training agencies may be able to incorporate this model in their work. These agencies include organizations such as the American Council of Education, Harvard Institute for Educational Management, and Kellogg Minority Serving Institutions (MSIs) Leadership Fellows Program. The details described in the theoretical framework chart can provide insights into strategies that programs can incorporate to enhance their leadership development programs. These might be used by executive and standard higher education doctoral programs, non-degree granting higher education training agencies or for conference and workshop curriculum for senior leadership in higher education. This theoretical model also provides additional support for the need to establish guidelines and standards for Higher Education Administration and Leadership programs at the Doctoral Degree Level. Groups such as the Association for the Study of Higher Education?s Council for the Advancement of Higher Education Programs have begun this discussion. This model provides a framework for which to continue this discussion and to refine the program development and implementation process. 222 Suggestions for Future Research There are several suggestions for future research around this topic. Although this study included only university presidents, it would be relevant in the future to explore the perspectives of presidents of for-profit institutions, community colleges, and liberal arts institutions. It might also be meaningful to conduct research with university presidents who had earned their doctorate in a discipline other than education. These presidents could confirm or disconfirm whether they perceive that the propositions of incorporating theory and practice (praxis), consistency and flexibility, and assessment and accountability of student learning identified in this study were the most important areas needed for higher education doctoral programs to prepare students for the presidency. This would provide the public with data that could be compared with the results of this study and foster further refinement of the model. Conclusion This study has presented an initial theoretical framework for the development of higher education programs of study to prepare individuals for university presidency. It was formulated through interviews with participating presidents, a review of their professional life history, and a review of the literature. It is hoped that this theoretical framework will serve as a starting point for dialogue and reference on the topic and that it will have a positive impact on the creation, implementation, and assessment of higher education programs focused upon leadership development. 223 Chapter References Altbach, P. G., Bozeman, L. A., Janashia, N., & Rumbley, L. E. (2006). Higher education: A worldwide inventory of centers and programs (revised edition). Rotterdam, the Netherlands: SensePublishers. Altbach, P., & Engberg, D. (2001). 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Doctoral Dissertation, Auburn University, Alabama. Retrieved from Dissertations & Theses: A&I. (Publication No. AAT 3446190). Wright, D. (2007). Progress in the development of higher education as a specialized field of study. In D. Wright & M. Miller (Eds.). Training higher education policymakers and leaders: A graduate perspective. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Wright, D., & Miller, M. (Eds.). Training higher education policymakers and leaders: A graduate perspective. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research, design and methods (3rd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage Publications. 228 CHAPTER 7. DATA REVIEW This chapter presents the data analysis upon which findings were developed. It is organized into three sections. The first section presents an overview of the life history process used in the study. It also reports these life histories as shared by the presidents and as gleaned from their vitae and professional biographies. The second section presents participant quotes garnered from the interviews, which were used to develop Chapters 4?6. The quotes are organized around the categories from which the theoretical framework was developed, which are presented in Manuscript 3 (Chapter 6). In addition to providing the raw data from which the manuscript was written, they capture the essence of the findings contained in the other two, which dealt with the knowledge and competencies presidents viewed as most essential to their jobs and the degree to which their programs prepared them for the presidency. The third section of this chapter includes definitions of the coding list. In addition, coding charts associated with manuscripts one and two are displayed. These charts describe the number of times a particular code was referenced by participants. Professional Biographies of Participants Chapter Seven describes the life histories of thirteen university presidents who earned doctoral degrees with a specialization in higher education representing a variety of Carnegie institutional classifications. The researcher used the Life History Case Studies (LHCS) approach to gather the data. LHCS is a qualitative approach specifically designed to help researchers 229 understand the in-depth and comprehensive meanings in people?s lives to gather background information about the study participants (Campbell, 1999). Two guided interviews were conducted and university presidents were asked key questions about their life history including their training. This process provided an opportunity to construct their life stories, but also added rich data, which assisted in interpreting the responses and developing the information into a meaningful narrative. The life histories are limited specifically to reviewing the following periods in the presidents? lives, (1) Graduate School, (2) Professional Experience after Graduate School, and (3) the Presidency. The life histories address the presidents? backgrounds, their career experiences, their interpretation of their experience, the understanding of the environment around them, and the degree to which their programs prepared them for the presidency. The chart below presents a demographic summary of the participants. Pseuydomyms are used for institutions and participants. Demographic Summary of Study Participants President (Pseudonym) University (Pseudonym) Sex Ethnicity Region Historical Designation Control Carnegie Classification Enrollment Size 1 Peter Johns Ethansville Male White Southeast PWI Private/Religious Master?s /M Less than 5,000 2 Lucas Jacob Landon State Male White Southeast PWI Public Bac/Diverse Less than 3,000 3 Gavin Benjamin Connor State Male White Southeast PWI Public Master?s/L Less than 10,000 4 Elijah Alexander Owen A&M Male Black Southeast HBCU Public Master?s/L Less than 7,000 5 Nolan Cooper Maddox Central Male Black Southeast HBCU Public Master?s/L Less than 8,000 6 Emelia Lily Ava-Asher Female White Northwest PWI Public Bac/AS Less than 5,000 7 William James St. Nathan Male White Northeast PWI Private/Religious Master?s/L Less than 8,000 8 Jessica Elliott Madison Female White Northeast PWI Private/Religious Master?s L Less than 4,000 9 Joshua Dillan Grayson Male White Southeast PWI Private/Religious Bac/AS Less than 2,000 10 Levi Carter Xavierville Male White Northeast PWI Private Bac/Diverse Less than 3,000 11 Ian Fynn Dominic State Male White Mid-West PWI Public RU/VH Less than 51,000 12 Evelyn Aurora Alexis Female Black Northeast HBCU Public Master?s/M Less than 2,000 13 Ryan Wyatt Micah-Henry Male White Midwest PWI Private/Religious Bac/AS Less than 2,000 Historical Designation: PWI? Predominately White Institution; HBCU? Historically Black College or University Carnegie Classification: DRU? Doctoral Research University; Bac/Diverse? Baccalaureate College? Diverse Fields; Master?s/L? Master?s College and University (Larger Programs); Bac/AS? Baccalaureate College-Arts & Sciences; RU/VH? Research University (very high research activity); Master?s/M? Master?s College and University (medium programs) 230 231 Meet the Participants Elijah Alexander. Elijah Alexander is an African American president of a public Historically Black University in the Southeast United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 6,000 students. He described his impetus for pursuing a doctoral degree to be his love for higher education and the fact that he wanted to advance in the profession. Alexander said that he did not set the goal of one day becoming a president. While in the doctoral program in higher education administration he saw his ultimate goal in higher education to be a vice president of academic affairs. He was convinced during a conversation with a male mentor that if he really had an interest in working in higher education and was interested in upper mobility in higher education, it would be significant and important that he earn a doctoral degree. The mentor went on to tell him that it was not going to suffice to just have a bachelor?s degree and a masters? degree. Prior to pursuing his doctoral degree he had a lengthy and productive career as a high school math teacher in the South. After completing his tenure in that role he returned to serve his Alma Mater for three years in the capacities of director of the Special Services Program and director of the University Year for Action Program. Alexander felt very fortunate in to have earned his degree in his particular doctoral program. He remarked over and over again how he received excellent mentorship through his program. One of the unique features of his program at the time was the relationship it had with the Office of Institutional Research. Because of this relationship, during his time during his doctoral studies he was employed as a research assistant in the Office of Institutional Research. His experiences within the classroom and his assistantship experiences formulated many of the concepts and ideas and the administrative philosophy that he has today. He attributes much of 232 his success in the academy to the knowledge and competence he developed around the area of institutional research to his doctoral program. Overall he was very satisfied with his program although he did not believe his program prepared him particularly for institutional politics and fundraising. Evelyn Aurora. Evelyn Aurora is an African American president of a public Historically Black University in the Northeast region of United States. She leads an institution that has an enrollment of less than 2,000 students. Aurora described her decision to earn her doctorate as a chance opportunity. After tagging along with her sister to register for classes, the faculty in the program invited her to take one course. After completing the course she decided to pursue the doctorate. In her mid-20s at the time of her decision, she shared that the reason she pursued a doctorate in higher education administration in particular was because she wanted to ?influence more people? within the academy. She saw herself perhaps becoming a community college president in the future. Prior to beginning her program she served as part of the English faculty at a community college. Aurora went on to serve as the interim chancellor at an Historically Black University; associate vice president for academic affairs at a highly selective research university in the South; vice chancellor for public service and extended education and associate provost at another institution; associate vice president for academic programs and dean of the University College at a university in the North; dean of continuing education and nontraditional degree programs at a Mid-Western University; and dean of continuing education at College in the Mid-West. President Aurora has co-authored a book, and authored or co-author book chapters, articles, reviews, and various professional papers. In addition, Dr. Aurora has received numerous awards and recognitions for her service in higher education. 233 She said that what makes her an effective administrator and teacher is her love for teaching and working with young people. Aurora described herself as a collaborator and a ?students? president?, staying close to the notion that her work was centered on the needs of students. She felt that it was important to understand that co-curricular programming should serve as a support and reinforcement to what is done in the classroom. And Aurora expressed that it was important to her that she make the ?right? decision for the ?right? reasons, especially when students? needs were involved. Aurora believed that her doctoral program did a particularly good job at preparing her for issues related to institutional policy development. In addition to her program, she felt that her years of service in the academy gave her the perspective that has prepared her to be a successful university president. Gavin Benjamin. Gavin Benjamin is the president of a public Predominately White University in the Southeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of close to 10,000 students. He was already working as a biologist, prior to earning his doctorate in higher education administration. After completing his masters? degree, he was asked to stay and teach at the university he currently serves. While in this capacity he gained administrative and grant-writing experience. When he was given the opportunity to earn a doctorate he chose earning a degree in higher education because he liked administrative work. At the time he did not aspire to the presidency. Prior to becoming president, Dr. Benjamin served in numerous administrative and teaching positions at the present institution he serves. Among these were Coordinator of Medical Technology Program, Director of Academic Advisement, Assistant Vice President for Academic Affairs, Associate Vice President for Academic and Student Affairs, Acting Vice 234 President for Academic Affairs and Acting Vice President for Institutional Advancement. He is also noted for developing and implementing the university?s first campus-wide strategic plan. Benjamin believed that his program prepared him to make broad based decisions and think strategically. But he also attributes much of his success and preparation to his ascension through the academic ranks. Although he believed his program prepared him well for the experience he needed at that time, he did share that he learned how to interact with the board of trustees and deal with issues related to intercollegiate athletics on the job. Levi Carter. Levi Carter is the president of a private Predominately White University in the Northeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 2,000 students. When Carter decided to earn his doctorate he had been in higher education for 15 years. At the time he was serving as a vice president for development and college relations. He knew that he wanted to serve as a president and believed that his degree serve in a practical way could enhance his chances of earning a presidency. Prior to serving as a Vice President for Development and College Relations he served in key administrative roles in colleges and universities in the Northeast and Mid-West United States. One of the key highlights of his career has been successfully guiding his current institution as it studied a change to university status and a new name and actually implementing the change to a university. He also lead out and implemented his institutions first campus-wide strategic plan. He has also been able to establish a developed a second campus transforming the University from a commuter school to a residential institution. Carter believed that his program, which was one of and remains to be one of the premier higher education programs in the United States, prepared him for dealing with issues of assessment and dealing with data although he had no interest in serving as a researcher. He 235 believes that his commitment to higher education is greater because he went through his program. Carter said that he has a deeper understanding of the mission, history of higher education because of his program. And he sees it as a privilege and public service to serve in higher education. Nolan Cooper. Nolan Cooper is president of a public Historically Black University in the Southeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 7,000 students. Cooper knew that he wanted to pursue a career in higher education and that he wanted to be a college president. Prior to pursuing his doctorate he had worked several years in higher education. He believed he needed the terminal degree in order to achieve his aspiration of becoming a college president and thought it seemed like a natural fit to pursue a degree in higher education administration. After earning the doctorate he went on to serve in diverse senior administrative roles such as vice president of diversity and vice president of student affairs. He also serves in presidencies in both Predominately White and Historically Black Institutions. He is also one of several of the participants that had served as a professor of higher education in a doctoral program. He emphasized the role that faculty mentoring played in his development as a scholar and administrator. Cooper believed that his program left an indelible mark on him by introducing him to the notion of the ?inter-connective tissue of the academy? which meant understanding how differing institutional units affected each other. He went on to say practical experience is the most important factor in preparing someone for a presidency. Joshua Dillan. Joshua Dillan is the president of a private/religious Predominately White University in the Southeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of less than 4,000 students. Prior to earning his doctorate, he served as a trial lawyer 236 and civil rights attorney in one of the largest cities in the United States. After being coerced by his alma mater he chose to come and serve as their chief operations officer. While in that role he had the urge to gain an additional degree. Although he considered enrolling in some executive MBA programs, he decided to pursue his doctorate at one of the first executive higher education doctoral programs in the country. At the time it he thought he would use the degree for professional development purposes and imagined that it would allow him to retire early and open up a higher education consultant business. His program was unique in that it was a two-year cohort based program. It demanded that the dissertation be completed within that time period and while completing coursework. Within the first several months a dissertation topic must be chosen and the courses were taught in modules, not in course hours. He thought that the greatest strength of his programs was its diversity. Prior to his program, he had only been exposed to private elite institutions. His doctoral program purposefully selected only senior level higher education administrator to participate on the program. These students served diverse institutional types and unique missions, such as religious, gender, and minority serving institutions. His dissertation emphasized the way an institution?s mission affects the market (students) that are attracted to an institution of higher learning. This is an area that he continues to study. Shortly after earning his doctorate he was invited by the academic director to serve as the director of the executive doctorate program. He consented and served as director and chief operations officers of his alma mater until he was invited to serve in his current role. Although he earned his doctoral degree in higher education he knows that in his current institution he is seen as a former lawyer not an academic. 237 Jessica Elliott. Jessica Elliott is the president of a private/religious Predominately White University in the Northeast region of United States. She leads an institution that has an enrollment of less than 4,000 students. Prior to beginning her journey to the presidency, she served as a principal of a private high school for girls. After a tragic illness took the life of one of the college presidents in her denomination, she was asked to place her name for consideration to replace that president. Although at the time she did not have the doctorate, the board of trustees selected her for the position. Elliott felt that it was important for her to have the doctorate to gain the respect of the faculty. After assuming the role of the presidency, she began pursuing her doctoral degree semester by semester part-time and in the summer. When she ultimately did receive the degree, about four years later, the faculty senate congratulated and toasted her. Her experience is truly unique in relation to other presidents. All other presidents had completed their degree before assuming a presidency. She is also unique in that she is one of only two presidents who led their institutions from college to university status. Many of her comments about her program were interwoven with her experience as a president. She believed that one of the greatest learnings from her program was being introduced to the field of higher education since prior to her time as president she had served in the K?12 sector. One of the most important lessons she learned was that the politics were different in higher education than in the K?12 environment. Elliott sees herself as a president who is engaged with both her denomination and community. She emphasized that she attends many professional conferences. Elliott understands that she symbolically represents the institution to outside constituencies. She makes 238 it a point to be a part and lead local activities within the her institution?s city and state including groups such as the Chamber of Commerce, high school boards, and rotary clubs. Ian Flynn. Ian Flynn is the president of one of the largest public universities in the Mid- West region of the United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 50,000 students. Flynn had a unique entrance into the field of higher education, as he decided to pursue both his doctorate in education and law degree simultaneously. At the time, he was pursuing his doctorate the program was not explicitly titled higher education. The program he participated in was titled public education. He earned the degrees simultaneously because he wanted to see how law affected educational issues. Originally, Flynn thought that his degree would prepare him for a position in a community college but eventually decided to use his law degree to give him a chance to work in the field of law. After completing both programs he accepted an offer to clerkship for a Supreme Court Justice. After completing his term there, he was invited to become an assistant dean at a law school and assume a faculty position. In that position he was assigned to admissions and administrative matters. Shortly after that he was asked to serve as a dean of a law school and then president of a large public university all before his late 30s. Flynn has served as the president of a variety of institutions and he has had a much- celebrated career. He believed that his program, although wonderful, did not prepare him and could not prepare him for the presidency. He actually felt that his law degree had a greater impact on his success as a president than his higher education doctorate. He believes that his higher education program served as a primer for what he experiences on a daily basis, but he believes his law degree assisted his in analyzing documents and helped him to develop and ask good questions. 239 Lucas Jacob. Lucas Jacob is the president of a public Predominately White University in the Southeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of less than 3,000 students. While earning his doctoral degree in counseling education, he decided to add a concentration in higher education. He also chose to add a concentration in the area of educational psychology and statistics. He shared that he added the concentration in higher education to add flexibility to the counseling degree. Jacob thought that the degree would provide the opportunity for him to either go into private practice and/or to teach or to go into administration. At the time he did not see the presidency in his horizons. Prior to assuming the presidency his academic background consists of nine years of experience as a vice president, seven years as vice provost, and previous experience at faculty and dean levels of administration. Jacob believed that his concentration in higher education played a tangential role in his development into a president. He believed that practical hands-on experience made the difference for him. He emphasized that communication, especially oral communication, is important to master before someone seeks a presidency. William James. William James is the president of a private/religious Predominately White University in the Southeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 7,000 students. James? fascination with higher education began in his undergraduate years. He was very impressed by people in student personnel and student life at his undergraduate institution and was influenced by one of the administrators greatly. Initially he planned to work in the field of higher education and serve as a vice president of student affairs but he eventually chose to become a minister. His denomination, recognizing his unique gifts, asked him to serve as a principal of a high school. He served in that role for several years until his denomination asked him if he wanted to earn his doctoral degree. By that time he began 240 wanting to serve as a president. After doing some researching and heading the advice of some family, he applied and enrolled in an ivy-league higher education administration program. James believed his program prepared him exceptionally well for the work he does today. The faculty in his program were award winning expert researchers and teachers. He often reminisces about the mentoring opportunities he received during his program. He felt that in particular his program prepared him to conduct research, solve complex problems, and understand issues in higher education. His program allowed him to participate in several field opportunities that allowed him to develop a broad understanding of the academy. He was especially appreciative that his program assisted him in adjusting to his program as an older student. Peter Johns. Peter Johns is the president of a private/religious Predominately White University in the Southeast region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 4,000 students. Prior to seeking a doctoral degree, Johns earned both an undergraduate and master?s degree in political science. After graduating with his undergraduate degree, his alma mater offered him an opportunity to go to work in the Office of Student Affairs. Then he was offered an opportunity to serve in the Office of Development raising money for the institution. At that time, Johns felt that he had gained a lot of practical work experience, but didn?t necessarily have the theoretical underpinning that he felt that he needed. That led him to pursue a doctorate in higher education. By the time he started the program he was a vice- president for development at that time and had risen in the ranks. He shared that he did not anticipate and was not looking for the presidency. He participated in a three-year night and weekend doctoral program. In the last year of his program, his predecessor at his alma mater began to contemplate retirement. When he did so, 241 the board of trustees asked Dr. Johns to take that presidency. Although he did not feel prepared for the presidency, he was fearful that this may be a once in a lifetime opportunity and if he did not take it, the new president would asks him to resign. So he decided to accept the presidency. Johns felt that the strength of the program was that the faculty in the program served as great mentors during his matriculation process into his presidency. He shared that a third of what he learned in his program had strong relevance to day-to-day in the work he does. He posits that his doctoral program informed much of his first presidency and his first presidency informs his current presidency. He believes that current programs should address areas such as crisis and stress management. Those are topics that were not addressed while he was in his program. Emelia Lily. Emelia Lily is the president of a public Predominately White University in the Northwest region of United States. She leads an institution that has an enrollment of over 4,000 students. Lily had completed her masters in student affairs. A year and a half later, after landing a position as Coordinator for Student Development at another institution, she became very restless. She then talked it over with her husband and decided to take a course at the local university in their higher education doctoral program. After passing the class and talking it over with the faculty members in the doctoral program, she enrolled. Although she did not necessarily have presidential aspirations at the time, she does believe that by entering the program, the president of her university noticed her and promoted her to Dean of Students. She went on to serve as a higher education instructor. Lily wanted to pursue a different path in her doctoral program than she took in her master?s program. She earned a concentration in educational law. She believes that her program prepared her well to deal with issues related to educational policy, governance and law. She also 242 appreciated that her program overlapped with the K?12 program in her department. She feels that that experience helped her to understand how to collaborate and meet the needs of K?12 leaders. She believes that the theories she learned in her program informs the way she leads today. Ryan Wyatt. Ryan Wyatt is the president of a private/religious Predominately White University in the Mid-West region of United States. He leads an institution that has an enrollment of less than 2,000 students. Wyatt was serving as a Vice President at a small liberal arts institution when the college?s president asked him to take a different role. In the course of that conversation, she said that she thought he should think about being a university president someday. Although he had served 13 years as a vice president, at the time he was unsure that he could be a president, but the president was persistent. On that first day of his new role, she said to him that he would have to get a PhD along the way to become a president. She vowed to him that if he were open to doing this, she would work with him to help make that happen. So in a response to the inspiration of a mentor, he realized that the doctorate would be an important preparation for the possibility of serving as a university president. Four years after the initial conversation with his mentor, he enrolled in a PhD program. He first began by taking some night courses at a school nearby, and in the following year he enrolled in a program in another state. For four years he flew once a week and spent a day on the campus of that school. He believes his dissertation on the presidency provided him with a lot of context that he leans on in his current position. Wyatt shared that his program helped him gain a broader understanding of administrative leadership and higher education. The program also introduced him to the literature of research that exists in higher education administration. The curriculum in 243 the program introduced him to the theoretical foundations for understanding higher education administration and it gave him a way and space for thoughtful reflection about that work and for critical reflection about his approach to that work and about ways in which he could approach it differently in the future. One issue that his program did not prepare him for was his understanding how public his role was. Serving as a president in a small town, he can never take off his presidential hat. He is always the president and only with close friends and his family can he be just ?Ryan.? Data Analysis The researcher used multiple data sources to confirm the data results (Yin, 2003). Using multiple sources enhanced the study by allowing for structural corroboration. Eisner (1998) describes structural corroboration as ?the confluence of multiple sources of evidence or the recurrence of instances that support a conclusion? (p. 55). The sources the researcher used were field notes taken during participant interviews, memoing (Corbin, 1990) ideas developed during the research process, audiotaping and videotaping the interviews. Trochim (2006) defined memoing as a process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher as they evolve throughout the study. You might think of memoing as extensive marginal notes and comments. Again, early in the process these memos tend to be very open while later on they tend to increasingly focus in on the core concept. (p. 2) Several steps were taken to conduct the data analysis, which included unitizing and coding. The following explains the steps the researcher took in the analysis process. 244 Unitizing The data from the interviews and journals were placed in units that were coded in TamsAnalyzer based on their importance in addressing the research questions. The basic unit of analysis in the present study was the University President Information Unit (UPIU). The UPIU is a single idea that can stand on its own and gives information about the experiences of university presidents. A unit that derived from the data could be a single word, a short phrase, a sentence, or an entire paragraph of data (Mayer, 2010). The criterion for judging each unit was determining ?the mind of the speaker? or what the participant intended in the UPIU. UPIUs can also be complete sentences or entire sections of data that may be one or more paragraphs. In addition, some of the longer units, such as sentences and paragraphs of data, were assigned more than one code. Coding Researchers generally approach data collection through two distinct qualitative epistemologies (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). Researchers either approach their research as travelers or miners. Those described as travelers, approach the interview process from the mental position that they know exactly what they are looking for. In this project the researcher decided to approach it through a miner?s approach. In the miner?s approach the researcher searches through data in order to uncover bits of essential meaning or facts. These particles are waiting in the subject?s interior to be uncovered, and it is the miner?s job to uncover them without contaminating them in any way. In the miner metaphor, data are approached in a manner consistent with social science models where knowledge exists ?a priori? or is ?a given? and therefore must simply be uncovered by researchers (Mayer, 2010). 245 The priori codes have been developed based on the coding categories advocated by Bogdan and Biklen (2003). The coding categories used in this study include: setting/ context codes, definition of the situation codes, perspectives held by the participants, ways of thinking about people and subjects, process codes, event codes, strategy codes, and relationship and social structure codes. Coding Process All data from the participants' interviews, the researcher?s journal entries, and relevant literature were used as priori codes. These were combined into a single Rich text document and then imported into TamsAnalyzer. The researcher labeled this file ?my official dissertation.? The data were labeled with the participants? pseudonyms from the pilot study. From the literature review, the researcher compiled a start list of codes to look for in the data. There were a total of 80 ?a priori? codes that were found to be applicable to the study. These issues were identified in the literature as important to curriculum development and presidential leadership. These were numbered according to Miles and Huberman (1994) and all instances were coded in the data. The start list included: skills, knowledge, competency, program characteristics, development, curriculum, and professional development. As data was coded, the start list began to emerge. Recurring themes not included on the start list or in the relevant literature were coded as emerging codes as well. In addition to using the start list, the ?coding incident to incident? approach advocated by Charmaz (2006) was implemented. This process allowed the researcher to compare like incidents experienced by different participants. This procedure helps to further corroborate ideas developed earlier in the coding process. These ?axial? codes, which are codes that emerge out of the data, help to solidify the identity of emergent properties. Emergent codes were compared to 246 one another to further narrow down the amount of redundant codes and therefore create substantive codes. The results of this process allowed for theoretical coding, which Charmaz (2006) describes as substantive codes being integrated together creating a theory. Journaling Using a reflexive approach throughout qualitative data analysis process is accepted across the qualitative research community (Ortlipp, 2008). One preferred reflexive approach is journaling. In this study the researcher journaled from the beginning of the pilot study process to the end of the study?s analysis. In this approach, the researcher was admonished to write down notes throughout the analysis process. These notes were written particularly for the use of the researcher himself. During this process the researcher wrote about himself, and included his presuppositions, choices, experiences, and actions during the research process (Mruck & Breuer, 2003). Journaling allows the researcher to present the reader with a transparent account of how the study was constructed. The self-reflective journals entries helped the researcher reflect on his decisions. Throughout the study he reviewed his journal entries to examine his personal assumptions and goals. That allowed him to be able to honestly present his belief system and subjectivities to the reader (Ortlipp, 2008). Presidential Quotations The quotes presented in this section are in their original form. They are organized by the code area given to them. Each is related a proposition from the theoretical model proposed and or the research questions addressed. The categories capture those items presented based on three areas: Theory and Practice (Praxis), Consistency and Flexibility, and Assessment and 247 Accountability. The codes below are organized in alphabetical order. The codes listed in this section are: Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning Attendance and Membership in Professional Societies Case Study Communications Complex Cognitive Crisis Management Curriculum Enrollment Management Finance Foundational Knowledge Fundraising Hands-on Experience History of Higher Education Interpersonal Development Knowledge Acquisition Leadership Learning Goals Management Mentoring Personal Attributes Presentations 248 Program Faculty Stress Management Strategic Planning Symbolic Leadership/Public Image Teaching & Learning Activities Theory Writing to Diverse Audiences Assessment and Accountability of Student Learning President Ryan Wyatt If you are going to be a successful administrator, you need to understand the issues of accountability and transparency, how to help people understand the objectives and whether or not the objectives have been met and how the objectives are measured and I think one would need to have pretty good understanding of that. President Joshua Dillan I think it is critical to assess everything that you are doing?I think it will be a pa rt of a president?s job more than it used to be. And (it is important that) we (presidents) compare this to assessing the effectiveness of administrative and operational and business things. Faculty are very much not used to doing this on their side and struggling to do it and having this requirement mandated all of a sudden does not necessarily make it very effective. President Elijah Alexander I think programs did a very good job of preparing (me) in the area of assessment. President William James In regard to assessment issues, I do feel that I had sufficient preparation for that issue in regard to my doctorate program. It?s something that I?m knowledgeable about. It?s something that is very important. 249 President Levi Carter Some of the things (assessment and accountability of student learning) came out of a few of the courses that I took in educational research?as well as a few of the methodology courses I took. President Ryan Wyatt We did not spend a lot of time on outcomes and the issues related to programmatic accountability that are so important in higher education today. President William James I think the best way to assess the ability of students to determine if they are capable in vision setting would be in a capstone course with a simulation exercise providing extensive data and then asking the student to set the vision for such an organization. President Evelyn Aurora I think I would use the new media such as blogging, etc. Or, I would use a computer- generated question with links that allowed students to give an example. In other words, it would not be a pen and paper test. It would be an assessment using one or more means of the new media. President Jessica Elliott Would use the following assessment techniques - Exam Evaluation - Student-generated test questions - Peer Review President Ian Flynn I think there are a number of ways to assess time management ? the most important is the timeliness of their response to classroom preparation and participation. President Emelia Lily To assess doctoral student learning, I would use a few different assessment methods: I would use case study presentations and discussions to explore the various aspects of leadership, decision-making, administration, and the complexity of issues; I would use a final paper with a presentation to assess the comprehensive nature of the learning based on the course learning outcomes. I would also use various classroom discussions and group projects to assess learning during each class session. I have used the one-minute papers to assess learning and understanding of topics at the end of each class meeting and found them to be very helpful. 250 President Lucus Jacob I think it would be highly unlikely for graduate students to master the methods of fundraising. There are many seasoned professionals who are still working at mastering those methods, which typically takes years of experience. That being said, I do believe there are ample materials available to give the student a good understanding of the issues related to fundraising, particularly from the Council to Advance the Support of Education (CASE). I would utilize CASE materials in the basic course in order to give a broad overview of the field. I would require the students, in small groups, to prepare a detailed plan for a fundraising event, and then I would test for understanding by utilizing case studies for analysis. Again, I believe CASE would have a variety of case studies, essay questions and other assistance for faculty. President Nolan Cooper I would use a combination of assessment techniques: student journals, personal-peer feedback, faculty observations, focus groups, etc. I must say that I also believe educational leadership programs should approach the issue of personal wholeness by making certain there are experiential activities and readings that address these issues, beginning with things as basic as values clarification, stress management, etc. President Peter Johns I don?t recall this specific fragment of our conversation, but I assume that I was talking about the elements of leadership that are learned in theory in the classroom, but are best refined through mentorships or from first-hand experience. In this list I would include items as wide-ranging as conflict resolution, media relations, committee leadership, guiding the planning process, etc. All of these tasks involve a high degree of human interaction, and they are all crucial to the success of a presidency. I?m probably not smart enough to figure out how to devise a test to determine mastery. In most cases, I would recommend the journal approach, including heavy interaction with a mentor. President Joshua Dillan What we did was to have these graduate students prepare their CV and also a mock letter in response to an ad in the chronicle of higher education. Then, in teams, other students would respond to the letter and CV as if they were serving on a search committee. The student would then have the opportunity to revise their material but also develop a written career plan to begin to fill in some of the most significant gaps in their resume over time. President Evelyn Aurora I think I would use the new media such as blogging, etc. Or, I would use a computer- generated question with links that allowed students to give an example. In other words, it 251 would not be a pen and paper test. It would be an assessment using one or more means of the new media. President Gavin Benjamin I think so. Now that has changed a great deal over the time. There was no such thing as ?and those types of things when I started as president. Assessment was just beginning. It?s much more important now than it was. Yeah, I can see that in a lot of disciplines it?s not, but I had a boost up being ?association ?.in the schools, too. Having been through a number of self-studies. SACS which credits both of our institutions has gone toward the assessment model, so it?s brought us up over the last ten to fifteen years into a wonderful world of assessment that we build our accreditation on. So, we were probably more prepared for that here in the southern states than were in a lot of other states?No, it was not. I remember the ?. Courses ?discussed the school assessment and?I don?t believe it was. That was some time ago. No, I don?t think it was. Attendance and Membership in Professional Societies President Nolan Cooper These meetings accomplished this whole notion of professional socialization. Learning how it is that senior level administrators act. Senior level administrators don?t act the same way as junior level administrators. The conversations that take place between junior level people are different than the conversations that take place between senior level people. So if you go to a ? used to have an organization called AAHE, the American Association of Higher Education, they had sessions, but as a young junior professional I would make presentations, I would get with my buddies and we would make presentations. But, there was a decided difference between the level and depth of the thinking and the analysis, the insights and so on and so forth that we didn?t have. But, it was important for us to have our day on that stage because we were preparing to become more senior leaders in higher education, I think. So the conferences I think, sort of gave me an inside view of this whole professional socialization process, on the one hand and how to do presentations and keep an audience in a professional context, that?s what conferences did for me. President Evelyn Aurora Probably network, how to meet other people like myself. I used to say if I go to any conference and learn one good idea, it feel it was worth it. So I would usually get those one good ideas. It helped me hear about what other people were doing at other institutions, so it helped broaden my exposure, which I felt was very valuable? Yea, I smiled when you said that, because I remember going to these big conferences and you think you would develop these skills at parties, but it is almost like a party skill. You come in the room and everybody is in a little circle talking and you have to figure out how to get in the circle so you can talk with the people, and also how to move from circle to circle and that is an absolute essential skill if you go into higher education 252 administration, because when you go to chamber meetings, or when you are going to these big business meetings, you have to figure out how to get in the circle, because people tend to talk in circles. How you get in the circle, how you talk to the people and how you move off and make a good impression in maybe 5 minutes and then leave your business card and move on. I learned a lot of that at the networking sessions at conferences and the big receptions, like you have probably gone here and you have to figure out how, ?Well how do I talk to these people? I don?t know anybody? and I learned that at conferences. President Ian Flynn I think what the value of these kinds of enterprises are, and those kinds of conferences, is really the opportunity to meet really interesting people. I?m not certain how much you learn, so much as the opportunity to talk with really interesting people in the network. I think that?s probably the greatest value. President Levi Carter Well, I think they are helpful. I think they are important. I think their useful, the ACE, the counsel independent colleges and all the experiences I?ve had with professional groups, I think have all been helpful? Not necessarily. I think most of them simply develop awareness and context. But awareness and context in higher education is important because I think it?s kind of like what Jim Collins was saying this morning about people that come from business and industry who go on to higher ed. You know, we pretty much run Stevenson University like a business, but the difference is we don?t fiddle too much with the aspects of higher education that are higher education. And we also have kind of a tone and touch that very much comes out of a higher education experience, which you don?t get if it you work for an airline. You don?t get it if you work for a manufacturing company. So, those kinds of things I think become important in terms of success and they can only be had through experience and training and mentoring. President Ryan Wyatt Well again, because the program and my work were so interwoven, it is hard to separate those two. The program did not require me to attend professional meetings but I attended professional meetings as I always have done. At the time I was involved in the counsel for the advancement and support of education case. I had been involved in the National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC) and it?s regional southern ACAC. Those were the organizations in which I was involved most heavily. Frankly, while I was in the degree program was less active in the professional associations because I needed to devote every minute that I could to this degree program. 253 President Joshua Dillan I went through a few and I am generally not a big believer in this. Depending on where they are they can be fun and so it is a nice place to network and meet people, but if you walk away with one new idea it is not bad. So I am generally not a big believer in those. President Peter Johns Well, unfortunately I think that would be great for students in a doctoral program to be able to have some appropriate professional development opportunities at some of the major national conferences. I didn?t have that opportunity while I was in that program because I was so loaded up and I think that is a real challenge for a lot of people in doctoral programs. I don?t know how your situation, I hope that you don?t have to work sixty hours a week in addition to doing your stuff right now. President Lucus Jacob Well, I think it, would it did for me and I?m a big believer in professional involvement, I was, I?m a past president of the Southern Association for College Student Affairs and a past board member for the regional board for NASPA. I?m a very strong believer in that kind of involvement. I think what it does, is it gives you breadth to what you?re doing. It gives you breadth of vision; it helps you understand that your little corner of the world is just that, it?s just your little corner of the world. It?s a big world out there and there are lots of things going on. And, it also gives you the kind of network that you need to be if you run into a problem, you have some notion of who you can call, who would?ve dealt with that same problem and can help you figure out what you want to do. And it helps you benchmark the kinds of things that you are doing. President Gavin Benjamin With the ? there are a couple of us here at the university that started the Alabama Institutional Researchers Association. I am charter member of that. The national association for academic advising, that was one of my roles at that time as well. Those are two examples ? mostly networking was a very useful advantage. Practical solutions, sharing, problems and uh were very much pragmatic results gaining insight, how to solve problems that?s the best advantage, roundtable discussions, what?s happening at Johnson State or what?s happening at Conner State, how are you solving that problem, what are your students experiencing? That sort of thing. President Elijah Alexander Very important. I can recall now going to a number of different professional meetings, I think I remember one in Kentucky that had to do with institutional research and there was one that we went to in Canada, I think it was in Montreal. Several opportunities to present papers and it?s good that you get an opportunity to interact with your collogues, other graduate students at that point would later become your professionals in the field. 254 So, that?s critically important that students going through these programs be given the opportunity to participate fully in professional development? Sure. I view conferences for a number, a couple of things that happen at a conference. One, it?s a good opportunity for networking. But, it is also a good opportunity to deal with what I call best practices; you get an opportunity to see how institution y is doing that versus institution x. And so you have the opportunity to dialogue and talk with your peers in that kind of setting. And it also provides a third thing in terms of where we?re going, that vision for the future, what?s on the horizon. That?s what conferences allow you to do. You exchange information and ideas, best practices, gives you an opportunity to network and to see what that future is going to look like in higher education. President Nolan Cooper Oh, one of the things I learned is how much you know and how much you really don?t know. And, these meetings accomplished this whole notion of professional socialization. Learning how it is that senior level administrators act. Senior level administrators don?t act the same way as junior level administrators. The conversations that take place between junior level people are different than the conversations that take place between senior level people. So if you go to a, used to have an organization called AAHE, the American Association of Higher Education, they had sessions, but as a young junior professional. I would make presentations, I would get with my buddies and we would make presentations. But, there was a decided difference between the level and depth of the thinking and the analysis, the insights and so on and so forth that we didn?t have. But, it was important for us to have our day on that stage because we were preparing to become more senior leaders in higher education, I think. So the conferences I think, sort of gave me an inside view of this whole professional socialization process, on the one hand and how to do presentations and keep an audience in a professional context, that?s what conferences did for me. S@#t, most of that stuff I don?t even remember. President Emelia Lily I went to a couple of conferences, probably not as many as I should have, certainly encouraged to do it but maybe went to one or two conferences? At the conferences? Yeah, certainly about preparing to give a paper, which is so important because that?s academic life. One thing I learned about brainstorms, it has been true for you at Auburn, but the thing about being a doctoral student, your work is out there all the time and your work is out there to be criticized and it?s to be criticized to make it better. I think that?s what is really good about conferences. You get some good feedback but also too I found with the faculty at Harvard Institute of Educational Management and the members of our cohort you learn how to take that criticism to be a better researcher. The conferences help to do that. Before you get to that conference with that paper you want to go through that process with your faculty mentors and friends that are in the program with you. Well, I was involved in NASPA and my, one of my advisors was very well connected with JASPA and that?s the Jesuit Association of Student Personnel Administrators, so he connected me with that group that I attended their meeting, they usually meet prior to the NASPA conference. Another advisor was very involved with 255 NOLPE, it?s the National Organization of Legal Professionals in Education, I believe and so he actually connected me with that group and we co-presented, actually did, he was in the audience, I guess. I?m trying to think if he was at the table with me, but I co- presented my dissertation research at that meeting. So, those are probably the key ones that I was involved with as a doctoral student and again with the help of mentors? Uh, it was interesting because I think as, when I was a doctoral student when I attended these meetings I tried to attend sessions that were related to what I was learning that semester as well as what I could articulate back on the campus where I was working. President Jessica Elliott Uh, no. But, immediately afterwards, and mine is a little unique because I was a president when I finished the doctoral work, I immediately got involved in CIC, were a member of ACE but they?re a little bit big for us, and I went to a couple... CIC, Council of Independent Colleges? It?s the right organization for this size institution. They have workshops, fundraising, boards of trustees, they have a couple of very fine speakers on different topics of education. They have workshops on assessment, they really fulfill the needs of a president and I?m a member of that organization from the beginning. We are members of ACE, American Council of Education, but I went to a couple of their meetings, the rooms were too small, you couldn?t get in, couldn?t get the benefit of the meeting, I want to go to a meeting, I want to attend the meeting. I like social contacts, I have a lot of them, but I can do both, but if I go to a meeting, I want to go to a meeting and ACE did not satisfy me with regard to that. We belong to the Association of Governing Boards, AGB. I receive news and materials from our board of trustees. One mission, the committees of the board any of the new policies that they feel we should take a look at our documents and see if they are included in our documents and if not if we want to consider to place them in there. It is very important, I think that organization. If you wanted me to select two, I would select those two, CIC and AGB. But, we have state organizations also. We have AICU, the Association of Independent Colleges and Universities. In that organization we are advised of political level, how the politics in the state are really influencing education. So they are on the cutting edge of education policies of the state. So, we are involved in that, in a way it is very good. I get involved in government relations significantly, because I don?t have a separate government relations person, I?m it. So, but I?m doing alright and so what are some of the others? Well, oh in Washington, NICU that is also our political representation on the federal level, since we?re a Catholic university, ACCU, Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities has some emphasis on our mission, our relationship to ethical issues and to the church and so forth. So, that?s another organization. Of course, the different schools here also, we belong to the middle states accrediting agency of course, it?s the agency that credits our institutions and in the area I belong, I have chaired and I?m a member of the Chamber, greater northeast chamber, puts me in contact with different businesses and people in the area and it?s a good on tray into fundraising also, we become involved with the activities in the surrounding community. I?m a member of the rotary. I?m a member of a number of boards of high schools and the seminaries, so those are not higher ed organizations, but all of that sets the stage and helps you to meet people for use in the development area. So, you have to be out there. 256 Case Study President Levi Carter The Harvard case studies, things like that, I found those helpful because although it?s not practice it rehearses you for practice and I think that?s an important thing. So, I have found that the training overall, the practice, the trial and error, all have been helpful in terms of my ability to function today. President Peter Johns Case studies. I would do it with case study method? By in large, we did most of it right, but there was some things that we did wrong and I think that through that case study method in particular you can understand like if a person is sitting at a desk like mine, if, there?s great comfort in being able to think you know I?ve either been there before or I studied that before and there?s a feeling of comfort that comes from, well you know it?s going to be kind of rough, but this will be ok. President Ryan Wyatt I think the case study approach is very helpful. President William James The methodology at Harvard is case studies and so with case studies there would be a great way to consider in a sense the abstract because you?re not there doing it but you?re kind of looking at it as a case that you can see, being asked how I might respond to it and then seeing how the leader actually responds with part B of the case. The case study methodology was terrific? and this is so important, is that some decisions that p residents make are not going to be received well by everyone and a couple of times too we looked at the no win situations and that?s really important I think to learn that first as an observer because in observing you can see what went well and what didn?t go well and you?re in it but not that deep into it that you?re not the leader. And also we did that with case studies? Rodney Pen?s a master of case study methodology and I?ll never forget the day that he was telling us that he went over to the Harvard Business School for a conference for himself on how to teach case study methodology. President Gavin Benjamin In doing case studies which were a big part of our program, built on the model Harvard? Uh, it helped me realize that over the course of my career things are going to change tremendously and I better be prepared to adapt. And not adapt just for myself and my administrative style, but adapt the institution to the change, too? That was a wonderful opportunity again to have case study models and you go through case study models. 257 President Lucus Jacob In most higher education programs, that I am aware of, at the very best the only thing that you?re going to learn is why you need to fund raise and you might read some case studies. President Joshua Dillan With case studies is the best way to do it. I could do a case study which would present all the challenges of trying to shift the culture and then understanding the requirement of our accreditor and how you would meet them and then I would present examples of assessment and plans they rejected? These things go late at night and on the weekends and then if they get boring people are like there again it is just that mix of reading history and reading theory, but doing case studies, being exposed to practitioners. I think that is what people expect. President Nolan Cooper We had opportunities to do case studies at Harvard? That case study method brother, it forces you to think and to use the results of your thinking to drive your actions. That?s the beauty of most of these leaderships if they?re done well? He?s been through the Harvard Program, so you make some assumptions about what a person?s knowledge base is, what is it case method? I?m a big fan of case method? I assigned a case with, you?re the parent, so you don?t want any kind of tuition increase, you are members of legislature, so I assigned these roles, I did role assignment, role playing, but people had to write up something, they couldn?t just sit there and argue crazy stuff, they had to have supporting documents, in some cases documentation, in some cases I gave them the case in advance. Communications President Nolan Cooper If you can?t communicate, you can?t raise any money. Part of that communication is ability to connect with the perspective donor?on the skill side I think the communicating, those are skills. You can learn those?in terms of skills I think the communicating skills, the planning skills, the budgeting skills, the fund raising skills, but, do you know what all those come back to, a central thing, communication. They all come back to the ability to communicate effectively? Your role is to make the case to the conservative members of the board why it is in the university?s best interest to have a policy like this. So I went through and assigned these roles and then what they had to do, I gave them awhile to talk about it, so they were developing their communication skills at the same time they were wrestling with the chasm or the disconnect between the values and the reality piece. 258 President Elijah Alexander Communications, those would be skills that I would put high on the list. President Gavin Benjamin Strong communication skills. President Emelia Lily You need to be able to clearly demonstrate and be able to articulate that you?ve been able to develop a plan. President Lucus Jacob Really, your job is to communicate, well let me back up, your job is to provide the impotence and resources and the where with all to develop that institutional vision and to become the relentless communicator of that vision to all of the various audiences that are out there and to try to do everything you can to arrange for the resources necessary for the faculty and staff to do their job? You need to constantly be communicating who the institution is and what it?s trying to achieve, in the hopes that you are planting seeds that will come to fruition at some point in time? No. You know, again you learn about governance, you learn about faculty roles, you learn about law, but unless you are in the field of communication, public speaking or whatever, you don?t learn that in a graduate program? As much as anything else, communication skills. Because if you know anything, you?ve got to communicate that you know it. The mere fact that you have a degree means nothing. You have a degree just like the other thirty or forty people who are applying for this job, but what you?ve got to do is that you?ve got to be able to communicate to me that you know what you need to do and you know how to get it done. So, more than anything else, you?ve got to be able to speak confidently, and you?ve got to be able to write coherently, you?ve got to be able to take advantage of all the various forms of communication and use them to your best advantage? er e are people who have a wide range, and really where you are going to end up is going to depend largely on what your abilities are and whether you hone them in, and then whether or not you can communicate to people that they need you? As much as anything else, communication skills President Ryan Wyatt What you were doing and being able to communicate that passion and being able to convince a person or a company that this was a worthwhile investment, so I felt prepared? One of the things I do a lot of, as a college president is I communicate. I think an effective higher education program should help refine your communication skills, both your written and your oral? So I think that faculty and programs need to maybe increase the opportunities for students to do oral and written communication, particularly oral communication, because you are going to give a lot of speeches, 259 persuasive speeches and informational speeches, speeches where you are telling people you are getting ready to cut their budgets, and there are so many different ways ? the communication arts, writing and speaking probably a person who is getting into a doctorate program in higher ed you?ve already established those, but practically everything that I do is connected in a direct way with being able to communicate an idea or explain something or lead and so it would be impossible to have too much emphasis focused on that on communication arts and so that?s something that is huge. President William James Certainly about preparing to give a paper, which is so important because that?s academic life. One thing I learned about brainstorms, it has been true for you at Auburn, but the thing about being a doctoral student, your work is out there all the time and your work is out there to be criticized and it?s to be criticized to make it better. President Jessica Elliott In my under graduate education, I had a lot of experience in writing papers and doing research, it was part of the program at the time President Joshua Dillan Figuring out how to develop an hour long topic, researching and writing it (dissertation). Complex Cognitive Thinking President Emelia Lily It is really a skill and ability at wrapping up the knowledge that you have, ok. Taking the time to reflect on what it is that you really have accomplished, somebody setting the goal, how you implemented the goal or how you achieved the goal, and being able to talk about how you did that. Why do I say that, well I think it demonstrates leadership, you have to be able to demonstrate that, it demonstrates perseverance. President William James One thing I learned though is the leader has to look at a problem from multiple lenses and if you don?t understand the problem, you?re going to apply perhaps the wrong solution to the problem and so that?s what I found most helpful is to be able to develop a skill set to analysis critically and effectively what the problem is and then define, through consultation with others, define the right solution for the right problem. President Nolan Cooper I think what the curriculum in higher education did for me, was to help me to gain greater insight into the complexity and the connectivity of issues in higher education. So, how 260 finance is related to planning and planning is related to the ability to communicate effectively, how the ability to communicate effectively is related to one?s analytical skills, etc. President William James One thing I learned though is the leader has to look at a problem from multiple lenses and if you don?t understand the problem, you?re going to apply perhaps the wrong solution to the problem and so that?s what I found most helpful is to be able to develop a skill set to analysis critically and effectively what the problem is and then define, through consultation with others, define the right solution for the right problem? my program gave me a skill set to be able to analyze problems? the most important thing is to have an excellent skill set, analyzing issues and problems, and I certainly learned that in my graduate program. We were challenged on that all the time and so I think that?s probably the most important skill set that I developed and continue to refine. President Nolan Cooper I think what the curriculum in higher education did for me, was to help me to gain greater insight into the complexity and the connectivity of issues in higher education. So, how finance is related to planning and planning is related to the ability to communicate effectively, how the ability to communicate effectively is related to one?s analytical skills, etc? I was able to do then was to hone that analytical ability? One is to get people to think critically, analytically, and in a focused kind of way? I learned the importance of thinking analytically? I just don?t think it?s a he ck of a lot of value if the focus is just on enrollment management, without understanding the relationship between all of these different pieces that I?m talking about, because a higher education program has to be more than a set of applied skills. President Gavin Benjamin Probably in a strategic planning aspect of it. And then the, one of the best advantages was knowledge of what to expect. Making sure that I use decision and broad based. My doctoral program helped me a great deal there. President Elijah Alexander The classroom experience was important because again higher education is so complex, especially if you don?t have a conceptual framework upon which to understand some of these issues, then even though you are looking at them in the office of institutional research, that don?t make any sense to you? Really understanding the complexity of higher education, understanding how to deal with cost effectiveness and efficiency within higher education, all of that was important and those were skills that we learned. 261 President Gavin Benjamin It helped me realize that over the course of my career things are going to change tremendously and I better be prepared to adapt. And not adapt just for myself and my administrative style, but adapt the institution to the change, too. President William James The most important thing is to have an excellent skill set, analyzing issues and problems, and I certainly learned that in my graduate program. We were challenged on that all the time and so I think that?s probably the most important skill set that I developed and continue to refine. President Emelia Lily It?s not going to be a how to necessarily, but I do think we need to help folks understand all aspects of administration in higher education? I think you need the ability to make tough decisions? I think the other is that you?ve got to make tough decisions, you know in school were in a bubble, right, well we think we are, but in the real world that bubble doesn?t always exist and so you?ve got to be willing to make those decisions and then evaluate that decision, say uh, you know it was the right decision but I didn?t do it the right way or it was the wrong decision and this is what I would do differently. And so, I think some of that comes with experience, I don?t think you learn that, you can case study it in school, but you?ve got to get in there and practice it. President Gavin Benjamin So, what you?re learning now and doing the research for your particular topic before you begin problem solving that?s a technique or skill that you have to continue to have the rest of your career? solving problems with teams giving assignments, making them work together in teams that?s important, that?s a good skill. President Ryan Wyatt I reflect back often on that program and on the interviews I conducted in the dissertation ? it introduced me to the theoretical foundations for understanding higher education administration and it gave me a way and space for thoughtful reflection about that work and for critical reflection about my own approach to that work and about ways in which I am how to approach that differently in the future.? I think for me, it actually was a time to synthesize what I was experiencing in the campus climate as well in my own work and to have a different lens through which to look at that work. President Ian Flynn My higher education degree gave me an opportunity to think a little bit about higher education in general, about the opportunities that I could see, about some of the issues 262 and potholes we?re facing in universities and colleges, so it was a good primer? think the ability to be able to make the difference between sense and nonsense and be able to talk about that. President Joshua Dillan One is a very complex task with many constituencies. There are political jobs, there are business jobs and there are very complex jobs and so I think the program that I was in on a general basis helped me to understand complexity and helped me to become more sophisticated and helped me to develop my leadership skills. Crisis Management President Peter Johns Yeah, crisis management. I don?t think that we talked for a single minute in my doctoral program about crisis management and you know you?re going to have it. I created an email file on my computer finally that just says crises, and it?s the stuff that doesn?t fit anywhere else that pops up that is a media event and that you know you just got to deal with it and it?s crisis and it can come, it may be like we had a student who died at a residence hall this past fall, I mean just died in their sleep. Probably a heart disorder but you know the autopsy was inconclusive, great old big guy, a student athlete and he just died. His roommate was trying to wake him up the next morning and he?d died in his sleep. But, you know you have that, you have automobile accidents, and you have bizarre things, crises. There are very practical things that you learn through that process about how to manage it and so that is kind of some of the on the job stuff that if I was designing a higher ed curriculum right now I?d have a unit in there somewhere about how to deal with crises?c ase studies. I would do it with case study method. In fact, I?ve written a chapter in a book that?s just out that?s an edited deal on the business of higher education and I wrote up the chapter that I did on crisis management. It is a case study on the deal that happened here about a year and a half ago with a safety officer that invented a story about a gunman on campus and I mean we were on lockdown and all this and the guy just made up the story and it?s a crazy thing but you know on how you deal with that. I think that, I was pretty honest in the chapter about saying what I thought we did right and what I thought we did wrong. By in large, we did most of it right, but there was some things that we did wrong and I think that through that case study method in particular you can understand like if a person is sitting at a desk like mine, if, there?s great comfort in being able to think you know I?ve either been there before or I studied that before and there?s a feeling of comfort that comes from, well you know it?s going to be kind of rough, but this will be ok. So, that?s one answer to that question? I?ve already mentioned a few gaps that I experienced over the years I would plug those gaps and make sure that some items were addressed that I didn?t have the crisis management, you know fiscal affairs, you know those sorts of things. 263 Curriculum President Emelia Lily I think there are some basic courses that need to be in a doctoral program. Uh, history of higher education in some way, something related to budget, finance, and governance and those can be separate courses or they can be all wrapped up into one. You have to have something on the law and it has to be understanding the law, understanding legal research, not being afraid of that. Certainly have to have some courses in either leadership management supervision, organizational development; different programs call them different things. Certainly, you need to have research methods; I think internships have to be part of the program, getting experience. President Gavin Benjamin Finance, organizational, behavior, student development, strategic planning, and in addition to that there should be opportunities for the student to have their own research interests, whether it might be in an executive area, or it might be in student affairs interest, academic affairs. President Evelyn Aurora I think an effective higher education program has to have a practical, more internship component in higher education. I also think an effective higher education program should deal with some best practices in other countries than the United States. We have one way of thinking about things here, but there are many other countries and you have been hearing in this conference we are considered number 10 in education. I don?t know what number we are in higher education but it would be nice to see what other countries do. I think an effective higher education program also helps understand the notion of perspective and changing tomography in the United States, like Hispanics, African Americans. I think an effective higher education program should help refine your communication skills, both your written and your oral. President Nolan Cooper I think the curriculum, for an effective are really high quality leadership and administration program, really isn?t the applied stuff, but it?s a historical, contextual, framework. So you really need to understand the history of higher education. You need to understand some philosophy. You need to make sure that you have some exposure experience working with statistics, assessment kind of stuff, so the curriculum for higher education has to have a core curriculum consisting of history and foundations, philosophy, there?s a quantitative piece associated with it and then there?s a written piece associated with this. 264 President Joshua Dillan In terms of some of the specific as a module on the history of higher education and there is a module on finances, a module on technology. President Ryan Wyatt So I would think that a strong program would focus on issues related to organizational structure and administration, issues related to higher education finance, issues related to the academy and the faculty, issues related to governments, the role of the board, the role of the faculty, the role of the administration and that a student would be able to, through the program, really understand all of the nuances and complexities and inter-relationships that exist in higher education administration. I would think the curriculum would need to ensure that students are exposed to all dimensions of higher education administration. President Peter Johns Crisis management, you know fiscal affairs, you know those sorts of things. But, I would ensure that there were meaningful opportunities for practical experience for students coming through the program, either within the institution where the program is hosted or mapped to other institutions. Enrollment Management President Lucus Jacob You know when I did my graduate program that was before enrollment management was really its own kind of topic area. So, no as I?m sitting here thinking back on the classes I took, I don?t recall really spending any time, because enrollment management has really been something that has come to the forefront in the last twenty years. I think it?s an important thing and it?s certainly something that? at so many places, your prosperity as an institution is depending on your student population, particularly in your private institutions, where you don?t have state funding, I think it?s a very important thing that a president has to put his arms around pretty quickly. But, there was no preparation for me in my graduate program in enrollment management? Oh, sure. President Levi Carter Well, you know, again one of the other roles I had was I was a director of admissions for seven or eight years and I wrote my dissertation in the enrollment area. So, it?s hard for me to be objective about that because I?ve had so much experience in it, but I would say it?s a very important area. I don?t think, in any specific sense, that the curriculum I went through trained me for that. But I had knowledge of it before I went in? I would say you have to have knowledge of both fundraising and of enrollment? And then the fundraising and the enrollment management were all, in my case, all learned on the job over a 30-year period of time. 265 President Joshua Dillan Yeah. In particular this whole issue of the mission in market and we have a module on enrollment management, I think from one of the big enrollment management firms that came in and did part of that and I think that is valuable to some extent but the biggest piece is understanding I think how connected missions in market are and how you have to have a mission that is both rooted in tradition, but also is a tentative market and so enrollment management systems science has developed out of that, you know once you are sort of clear about who you are and how your brand is and what your are selling as a whole. So presidents are enrollment managers but discussing with the president is often dependent on the success of your enrollment manager, so I am very involved in that. President William James The program related to various issues including enrollment management but we didn?t spend a lot of time on enrollment management. My program was helpful in identifying a number of issues like enrollment management and looking at strategies for that solution. President Nolan Cooper It [Cooper?s doctoral program] addressed a broad issue such as access. So you can?t talk and think about access without thinking about admissions and outreach and recruitment and marketing. We talked about access, so the issue was access not enrollment management. So, you were able to get to the issue of enrollment management by focusing on the theme of access. President Ryan Wyatt I was vice-president for enrollment for six years? But we spent very little time on enrollment management ? probably in today?s world, particularly if you are at a smaller private institution, you need to know something about enrollment management. President Gavin Benjamin Somewhat, to a certain extent they were, within the student courses not to the extent that are? today. Retention was talked about? the i mportance of retaining students as enrollment?was just still a new concept at that time. But, it certainly is important. President Nolan Cooper I don?t think you need to address, copy that specifically, I think what you need to be addressing an issue like institutionally effectiveness. If you address institutionally effectiveness then you?re dealing with enrollment management, you?re dealing with learning outcomes, you?re dealing with retention, you?re dealing with learning communities, so there?s no need necessarily to have a course or seminar or anything on 266 enrollment management. So, if you talk about financing for example, when you talk about financing, you could address enrollment management, you could address private gifts, you could talk about grant-sponsored programs? I just don?t think it?s a heck of a lot of value if the focus is just on enrollment management, without understanding the relationship between all of these different pieces that I?m talking about ? because a higher education program has to be more than a set of applied skills ? Enrollment management is a mission question. President Emelia Lily Absolutely and because one of my mentors was the vice president for student affairs I did an internship in, because that was a need on the campus where I was working at the same time, so one of my internships was about enrollment management and so I was able to craft something that helped me to expand my knowledge base and also my professional practice in enrollment management? In terms of it was how I focused my internship experience. So, I had the flexibility to be able to define it in the way that I needed to. In the budget finance course we did have the director of admissions and the director of financial aid both come in and provide briefings on how financial aid works and how admissions works at the university, so that helped as well. So it was embedded in some courses. President Peter Johns Yes, it did. Although, probably not to the extent that it should have. absolutely in a presidency you?ve got to understand that and how it works and so I think it is very important?my view is that it comes from a lot of disciplines. First, from schools of business and you?ve got the emphasis on marketing which you have to be able to understand on selling the institution. You?ve also got elements that come in from Physiology on how people make their decisions and all that. It?s one of the perfect multi- disciplinary fields of what we do, so I think that trying to take a narrower approach is not best, I think bring in the various disciplines to bear. I think that it?s a little bit like fund raising in that you?ve also got to have some kind of practical application through a program either like I said, an independent study or some kind of practicum experience that is built in. I also think that it?s important, in my circles enrollment management even though the concept has been ran now for a long time, it?s still misunderstood. People think about it as student recruitment and it is that but I think that we?re still not doing a good enough job on helping people get a holistic understanding that it?s retention in every aspect of what you?re doing in a campus environment that affects that. Recruitment and retention. President Evelyn Aurora No. Not that I can remember. Enrollment management as I have come to learn, and I think I have gotten a lot of information from those type of professional organizations, enrollment management also the term, sort of developed after I had my doctorate and no I don?t think I really learned that in my program. I think what I learned more about 267 enrollment management when I was at University of Southern State and when I went to my first HBCU, I learned about enrollment management ? case studies. For instance, you know like they do in business curriculums, have a case study of an institution that needs to be turned around, an institution that has enrollment management problems, an institution that has student affairs problems, whatever. As soon as you go into accreditation and the leader, the president, the vice-president has to communicate this to various constituencies like boards of governors, alumni and just give students opportunity to role play in these because it is absolutely something that you will have to do, absolutely. President Ian Flynn I really focused on admissions and administrative matters because that was, in a sense, what my training was about? In today?s word; absolutely? Enrollment, management enrollment, the ability to be able to attract and train students is a different set of activities today than it was 30 years ago... I think that having a primer on the understanding of a relationship between enrollment and the financial aspects of what that means and then how the two of those come together in terms of tuition policies, etcetera. I think that would be very important. I?m not certain a lot of the younger people understand the notion of tuition discounting and the impact that that has in the relationship with a university. Elijah Alexander I think so. What you really, again need there is to be sure that you know what kind of person that you need and again you have to have a vision of where things need to go. You give that person the support that they need to succeed in that area. The president, as the president makes appointments, the administration begins to take shape and people begin to see, well now here is the basis upon which this person?s making these decisions. Here?s what they?re looking for. That sends the tone out of the kind of administration that you are going to have. The right-hand person that I have who is the chief of staff is as well trained as I am. This person has a doctorate from Colorado State University. That sends a signal that I expect that in this administration that people are going to be trained and well qualified for the positions that they hold. Now, I do know that when I get down to finance, I can?t find a PhD in finance. It just doesn?t exist, but in those areas where it is possible, that?s what we?re going to have. Because there?s something about the background of someone who has gone through the doctoral program in terms of how they approach their tasks, versus someone who has not gone through a doctoral program. Finance President Peter Johns I think that my course work in Fiscal management in higher Ed was very helpful? Certainly there is I think a greater requirement for understanding a physical management which kind of grows out of that first thing, I guess that I mentioned. If a person coming 268 into a presidency truly does not understand accounting or how to read a balance sheet or understand cash flow they better figure it out pretty fast. Because there is extraordinary pressure to be able to understand and monitor that and you know it?s, I mean we?ve got great people here in finance but my name is on the line on making sure that the financial house is in order. It?s not enough just to be able to say well, I know how to hire great people; you?ve got to understand it yourself? I had to do a whole lot of on the job training about personally about finance because with political science I didn?t have a strong finance background and if I had it all to do over again, I would?ve taken at least a couple of accounting courses ? would plug those gaps and make sure that some items were addressed that I didn?t have the crisis management, you know fiscal affairs, you know those sorts of things. President Elijah Alexander Knowledge of finance and budgeting, I didn?t say the skills, but now just the knowledge of finance and budgeting. Those would be skills that I would put high on the list. President Lucus Jacob So, if you can do all right in those three areas, the other things like budgeting, and understanding tenure and all these other kinds of things, all that will be able to be manageable ? You?ve got to have a basic understanding of budgeting and finance so that you can have conversations with your business people to make sure that you are in control of your resources ? they have a faculty of presidents and one -president talks about the budget and all the stuff that goes with the budget? But, very little of what I learned about budgets, but very little of my job is about budgets. But when it is about budgets, it?s we don?t have enough money, and I?m trying to get in touch with the legislature to see what he can help us do with the budget process. President Ryan Wyatt We did spend time on finance which we knew we were required to take a course of that? o h I would think that a strong program would focus on issues related to organizational structure and administration, issues related to higher education finance, issues related to the academy and the faculty, issues related to governments, the role of the board, the role of the faculty, the role of the administration and that a student would be able to, through the program, really understand all of the nuances and complexities and inter-relationships that exist in higher education administration? You need to study finance? You need to have an understanding of finance in higher education and how institutional finances are ordered ? probably had a better understanding of issues related to financial accountability, financial controls,? Well I think that some of what I learned about finance and about theoretical models that are applied to finance and higher education has helped prepare me for this role, the revenue theory of cost which has been pretty substantially challenged in the current economy but helps me understand how the institution got into the budget situation it is in. 269 President Elijah Alexander I can kind of drill down a budget and really see how we are allocating those resources and put in procedures and models to kind of move us where we need to be. I can find a penny; I can find a penny in a budget. President Peter Johns I think that my course work in Fiscal management in higher Ed was very helpful. President Joshua Dillan In terms of some of the specific as a module on the history of higher education and there is a module on finances, a module on technology. President Ian Flynn I think that having a primer on the understanding of a relationship between enrollment and the financial aspects of what that means and then how the two of those come together in terms of tuition policies, etcetera? There are three areas you need to focus on. One is obviously strategic financial planning. President Emelia Lily The other area and a course that was a defining course for me was budgeting and finance in higher education. In the finance and budgeting course folks from the development operation and alumni relations came and talked with our class? In the budget finance course we did have the director of admissions and the director of financial aid both come in and provide briefings on how financial aid works and how admissions works at the university? I identified, the legal issues course and the governance and budget finance course, I do draw on some of those skills and some of that knowledge in my work here? I think budgeting, you can do that in class, but until you really see the bottom line and see how it works in actuality, you need some of those experiences? We also learned a lot about budgeting and finance at a much deeper level (at Harvard) ? I think there are some basic courses that need to be in a doctoral program something related to budget, finance, and those can be separate courses or they can be all wrapped up into one. President William James That course was Issues in Higher Education and it was terrific because we looked at all of these major issues from athletics to finance to governments to government relations and so all these multiple issues and in a sense having a master in Eric Bach teaching the class. 270 President Gavin Benjamin I can remember several that were talking about marketing the institution and personnel related issues, budgetary issues, and then again the networking was tremendous? Whether it be ? the basis of that would be finance, there should be opportunities for the student to have their own research interests. President Elijah Alexander Public institutions tend to look for persons skill sets in budget and financing ? we had budgeting, we had finance ? the two areas that are of interest to me that I think are my strengths happen to be the budgeting and the finance piece? knowledge of finance and budgeting, the knowledge of finance and budgeting, those would be skills that I would put high on the list.? I keep going back to budget and finance because you know, if you can?t get the money right, and you can?t balance the budget then all the rest of the stuff, it?s not important.? They need to spend a little time in the budget office, not in the accounting office, no need in spending time in the accounting office, that?s too far down. You don?t need to know how to balance and reconcile books, but the budget office, that?s where you move up the next level. What are the strategic objectives and how do these budget dollars tie into that. What is that process? Spend a little time in the budget offices; see how it?s done. If you are interested in how you justify transferring dollars from one to the other budget, no, the global piece, it would be well if the university has a budget and planning committee. You?d want to spend some time with that budget and planning committee. Yes, they have a thing called hearings, etc. to understand how the process works at that level. Never want to get the president down into the nuts and bolts; you always want to deal with it from the mile high view. That?s where you want to be. President Evelyn Aurora I also learned that, you know, all the finance courses and all of that, I learned that it was a much broader. President Nolan Cooper So, if you talk about financing for example, when you talk about financing, you could address enrollment management, you could address private gifts, you could talk about grant-sponsored programs. Foundational Knowledge President William James What the program did for me, it introduced me to a set of literature that was very important for me ? the literature on higher education, especially with respect to administration, leadership and higher education. (Because of the program) I have a very good understanding of the literature and with that understanding, learning additional 271 leadership tactics and strategies. In particular observing or reading or learning about presidents ? leaders. President Emelia Lily I think there are some basic courses that need to be in a doctoral program. Uh, history of higher education in some way, something related to budget, finance, and governance and those can be separate courses or they can be all wrapped up into one. You have to have something on the law and it has to be understanding the law, understanding legal research, not being afraid of that. Certainly have to have some courses in either leadership management supervision, organizational development; different programs call them different things. Certainly, you need to have research methods; I think internships have to be part of the program, getting experience. President Gavin Benjamin Finance, organizational, behavior, student development, strategic planning, and in addition to that there should be opportunities for the student to have their own research interests, whether it might be in an executive area, or it might be in student affairs interest, academic affairs. President Nolan Cooper I think the curriculum, for an effective are really high quality leadership and administration program, really isn?t the applied stuff, but it?s a historical, contextual, framework. So you really need to understand the history of higher education. You need to understand some philosophy. You need to make sure that you have some exposure experience working with statistics, assessment kind of stuff, so the curriculum for higher education has to have a core curriculum consisting of history and foundations, philosophy, there?s a quantitative piece associated with it and then there?s a written piece associated with this. President Joshua Dillan In terms of some of the specific as a module on the history of higher education and there is a module on finances, a module on technology. President Ryan Wyatt So I would think that a strong program would focus on issues related to organizational structure and administration, issues related to higher education finance, issues related to the academy and the faculty, issues related to governments, the role of the board, the role of the faculty, the role of the administration and that a student would be able to, through the program, really understand all of the nuances and complexities and inter-relationships that exist in higher education administration. I would think the curriculum would need to ensure that students are exposed to all dimensions of higher education administration. 272 President Evelyn Aurora I think an effective higher education program has to have a practical, more internship component in higher education. I also think an effective higher education program should deal with some best practices in other countries than the United States. We have one way of thinking about things here, but there are many other countries and you have been hearing in this conference we are considered number 10 in education. I don?t know what number we are in higher education but it would be nice to see what other countries do. I think an effective higher education program also helps understand the notion of perspective and changing tomography in the United States, like Hispanics, African Americans. I think an effective higher education program should help refine your communication skills, both your written and your oral. President Peter Johns Crisis management, you know fiscal affairs, you know those sorts of things. But, I would ensure that there were meaningful opportunities for practical experience for students coming through the program, either within the institution where the program is hosted or mapped to other institutions. President Evelyn Aurora I learned about how decisions are not necessarily made following some of those paradigms that you study, but that they become very, very political and that you have to make sure, what they call get by and appease people and that is a political sort of process in order to make a decision. I also learned that, you know, all the finance courses and all of that, I learned that it was a much broader feel that I thought it was. President Ian Flynn My higher education degree gave me an opportunity to think a little bit about higher education in general, about the opportunities that I could see, about some of the issues and potholes we?re facing in universities and colleges, so it was a good primer. President Levi Carter I would say some of those skills were more relevant to being a president than just the knowledge I had in the doctoral program at higher education. I think that the doctoral program does give you the information, the history and the context, which I think is helpful to be a president. President Jessica Elliott Learning the profession of higher education as practice throughout the United States and even international, but mostly the United States was something that I really learned 273 President Elijah Alexander How to deal with politics. Politics of the, because you know presidencies involve a lot of politics. You do know that, right? Very political position. You can?t learn that in the textbooks. That?s one of the areas, how to navigate the politics of the presidency. President Lucas Jacob So, working on the counseling theory end of it was kind of a new frontier to me at that particular point in time, so that probably made the greatest gain there. The other gains would?ve been in more practical kinds of ways, managing time, refining writing skills, presentation skills, those kinds of things. Fundraising President Gavin Benjamin I think it would be an excellent addition into the curriculum, I do ? If it is going out and asking for money in that regard? Probably very little course work that could prepare you for that. Although, one of the courses we had was in grant writing and seeking funds in that case you have to do that in a written format for a specific project and we?d had that as an expertise. Fund raising if you mean that in the sense of friend raising for the institution, asking corporations to support you, and gaining money through capital campaigns and gifts. It?s probably not a lot of course work that prepares you for that ? I think anyone that along their line that knows that they?re going to be in a vice presidential or top executive position in a college or university those are also going to have to raise money. Even the deans and others. President Jessica Elliott It is a specialty (fundraising). I think if you have a very good staff in the fundraising area that really can help you. If you have the structure set up, you?re brought in at a unique time, when you have to, you know do ?the ask.? President Lucus Jacob There?s nothing in the graduate program that prepares you for fund raising. Absolutely nothing. And, perhaps that statement may be a bit more absolute than it needs to be, but in most higher education programs, that I am aware of, at the very best the only thing that you?re going to learn is why you need to fund raise and you might read some case studies, but really fund raising is more art than it is anything else, it?s a matter of learning how to be open to people, learning how to cultivate friendships, learning how to let people know what you are doing to give them the opportunity to consider the act of giving, so there is certainly in my graduate preparation, I recall nothing that prepared me for that whatsoever? I think it?s probably going to have to be in the future, because fund 274 raising is becoming more and more a central part of what a president does. In the old days, back when the earth?s crust was cooling you know, we learned about budgeting, we learned about higher education law, we learned about faculty role, you know those kinds of things. And, really you learned almost nothing about fund raising? And that means fund raising in the sense of influencing legislators who are going to vote on the budget, that means making friends for the university, that means making, uh, meeting donors, cultivating donors, entertaining donors? I don?t think their needs to be a course at the graduate school level. I think there needs to be professional development courses as people change in their roles over time to get to the point where that?s going to become a part of what they do? I?d never done fund raising because that?s not what you do in student affairs ? other president spent time talking about fundraising and you know you go through it... the big scale for me is in fundraising. President Jessica Elliott I don?t think you?re ever prepared for fundraising, it is a specialty. I think if you have a very good staff in the fundraising area, that really can help you. If you have the structure set up, you?re brought in at a unique time, when you have to, you know do the ask. President Elijah Alexander If everything at the university tends to be moving along well, and the focus is strictly on fund raising, then as they select a president, then they are going to look at a president who has a strong track record in fund raising. At our institutions, meaning historical black colleges and universities, your stronger fundraisers tend to be in your private institutions, more so than your public institutions... fund raising is important, but I would dare say that this university?s decision was based on the other skill sets as opposed to the fund raising skill sets. If you were to ask me the area that I would want to do better in, it would be fund raising? I had no courses in fund raising at all in my curriculum? one is obviously the theoretical piece and that is due to make sure you?re looking at different fund raising models and then you really need to have some experience, some hands on experience and that can be obtained through a number of ways. You can do a semester or two of internship with the advancement division at the university where you are, I think that?s how you really learn, and it could be just a small project that you?re given to try and generate some revenues for that. You?re given the experience of how that?s done so that again you?re mirroring and following the person who?s doing that? fund raising, those would be skills that I would put high on the list. President Ian Flynn I don?t think that fundraising is anything that one prepares for. I think one has to learn it by doing. I think it?s pretty difficult to take Fundraising 101 and find that to be any kind of a level of competency or development of any kind of competency? I think that one of the best things that I would do if I were a doctoral student is I would think that seriously now about having the opportunity to attach myself to someone who is doing university development for a period of time. really do believe that it is very difficult to know how to 275 do one of these things; fundraising? there should be something in the curriculum about philanthropy but you can?t learn about it until you do it. President William James Fundraising, government relations, community relations, the face of the university. I just think a president needs to provide leadership in his or her community. President Nolan Cooper A lot of this is a function of the kinds of positions you have held in higher education in route to the presidency. You follow what I?m saying? So if you?ve been a dean and you?ve had some fund raising experience, you?ve had a chance to hone that. If you?ve been provost, you?ve had a chance to may be hone some of your skills, but you didn?t learn those skills in the chemistry classroom, they didn?t learn them in sociology or physiology, you follow what I?m saying? They learned them, as a result of having experience? I think the best way to do it is to hook up with a foundation, for example, or private individual who is friendly toward higher education obviously, so the students can get a better sense of what people are looking for. See, foundations as well as individuals they give to people, they don?t give to institutions. I?ve been able to get money from my institutions, the institutions with which I have been affiliated with because I was able to establish an authentic relationship with people... So, the best way to get the experience I think, is to have a foundation executive come in and spend some time at a fund raising seminar with doctoral students. Another example would be to require students to write a successful proposal? You?re not a fundraiser until you raise some money even though you may have fundraising as a part of your resume, which is what you?re supposed to do on your job description, but you are not a fundraiser, you can?t say you?re a fundraiser until you raise some money. And you can only learn that, I believe as you practice it. President Emelia Lily It?s not going to be a how to necessarily, but I do think we need to help folks understand all aspects of administration in higher education. Development and advancement, town and gown relationships, academic affairs, faculty relationships, how colleges work, student affairs, and student development theories, need to be a part of one?s exposure to understand higher education administration? I?m meeting with you, I?m meeting with our foundation representatives who, that?s our local, local?s not the right word, folks who help us on the development side, help us with fundraising. President Evelyn Aurora I think fundraising is friend-raising and if you like people, if you are somewhat of an extrovert, I did not feel unprepared. It think the only thing I could say I felt unprepared in is the techniques, like should you court the person a certain way or should you have dinners at home, or should you have golf outings, but I did not feel unprepared, because I felt like raising money was just about having a passion for what you were doing and 276 being able to communicate that passion and being able to convince a person or a company that this was a worthwhile investment, so I felt prepared? went to some case seminars. I did go to some educational leadership programs. I went to the MLI leadership program. I also was in the cabinet meetings in a lot of institutions, so I listened to what the fundraising professionals were saying and I saw what we did at the various institutions because since I was in higher education so long before I became a college president, I was able to observe what a lot of other professionals in fundraising were doing. So I guess you would say I had on the job training, I had some professional development training, and I did a lot of observations? And it is very important for an institution to be consistent. Too have written policies and to go back and make sure that the organization is actually following these policies is what helps you with things like accreditation. It helps you with things like getting funds and it helps you with your documentation that the institution is really being effective, so I think that is a direct relationship to my academic background. President Peter Johns Graham Private University and I became involved in student affairs work into development work, fund raising and all that. Developed a lot of relationships with donors and one thing kind of progressed from another? my long term goal was just to complete the program and continue doing there what I was doing, which was heavily involved in fund raising, I think I was vice-president for development at that time. I had risen in the ranks and so I thought I had the job that I was probably going to retire in? his area was more fund raising which was by that time where I had kind of gravitated anyway? if you are interested in a presidency, public or private, that is something that you?ve got to understand? I have a strong bias on this and it is much more toward the area of practical application and there is only so much that you can teach intellectually about that area. There still is, uh, there?s certainly a science to it, but there?s still the art and so if students can have some kind of independence study or a practicum experience attached to whatever they?re talking about fundraising in the classroom I think that?s what makes the difference. There?s not any substitute for actually getting into somebody?s home or office and making the ask. President Ryan Wyatt I was vice-president for enrollment for six years. I was vice-president for student affairs for a year and I was executive vice-president and Dean of Advancement which was fund- raising and alumni relations for six years, so actually over the course of my 13 years I supervised three of the major administrative divisions of the university? Well I think I was prepared for fund-raising because I spent six years as the chief fundraiser for a college, working with the president who himself had been a vice-president for development and had great intuition for fundraising, so I actually feel like I am well prepared for fundraising, not because of my doctoral program, but because of my work experience. Frankly, the doctoral program spent very little time on fund-raising, almost none? But we spent very little time on fund -raising? fundraising is crucial today. 277 President Joshua Dillan I would say that I don?t think the program in any direct way helps you to become a fundraiser. We had a module on development in fund raising but on the other hand, I think the experience makes you a stronger leader in my experience and more comfortable with more people in more roles. So being a new fundraiser in my view is being able to be strategic at those strong relationships? Fundraising which is about relationships and being active in one?s civic community, being a business and understanding that ultimately we are running a business which is a different kind of business. President Levi Carter I was a vice president for development at a university in the Northeast?it ?s kind of scary in a sense. You know, you?re asking people for money. You think you?re asking them for their last dollar or something. Most of us don?t have any experience with philanthropy. We don?t give money away, so we just presume that people that were asking money for it wouldn?t have the money, so it just takes a lot practice, experience, mentoring, and studying to be a fundraiser and I can imagine some programs that would prepare you for that, but I can?t imagine what program, as well as higher education, would prepare you very well for fundraising. It?s pretty hard. A lot of it is personality- based? I think that folks need to under stand how to do fundraising... You have to be extraordinarily good with the public and I would say you have to have knowledge of both fundraising and of enrollment? And then the fundraising and the enrollment management were all, in my case, all learned on the job over a 30-year period of time. Hands-on Experience President William James My role was that I spent the summer working with the president of a college in the Northeast?I was, espec ially in regard to various projects; I had two or three projects that were delegated to me by the president to pursue. Beyond that, although not required, passing it by my advisor and the chair of my committee, I worked part-time at Brick College as assistant to the president. So there I went to the cabinet meetings, I did research on higher education issues and would give the president an executive summary and I would do other projects as assigned to me. President Joshua Dillan I think the experience makes you a stronger leader in my experience and more comfortable with more people in more roles? If it were all practitioners I don?t think it would work, so it is figuring out what the right balance there is and I think students in particular want to be exposed to practitioners in this program. 278 President Evelyn Aurora You know, the ability to influence people in higher education, because I was just thinking about it from the teaching side? I try to make the right decisions for the right reasons? I smiled when you said that, because I remember going to these big conferences and you think you would develop these skills at parties, but it is almost like a party skill. You come in the room and everybody is in a little circle talking and you have to figure out how to get in the circle so you can talk with the people, and also how to move from circle to circle and that is an absolute essential skill if you go into higher education administration, because when you go to chamber meetings, or when you are going to these big business meetings, you have to figure out how to get in the circle, because people tend to talk in circles. President Ian Flynn I?m not certain how much you learn, so much as the opportunity to talk with really interesting people in the network. I think that?s probably the greatest value. President Levi Carter I would probably focus on things like emotional intelligence? You have to have a higher level of emotional intelligence including the ability to handle conflict. President Elijah Alexander So those experiences, that are really what formulated many of the concepts and ideas and the administrative philosophies that I have now, they really came from that experience of working in the office of institutional research with the tutelage of someone like Omar Peterson that made a difference ? you really need to have some experience, some hands on experience and that can be obtained through a number of ways. You can do a semester or two of internship with the advancement division at the university where you are, I think that?s how you really learn, and it could be just a small project that you?re given to try and generate some revenues for that. You?re given the experience of how that?s done so that again you?re mirroring and following the person who?s doing that. I just think at the end of the day that?s how you learn best. You learn best by doing, but yes that needs to be included as part of the program ? you really need to provide the experience. President Peter Johns I have a strong bias on this and it is much more toward the area of practical application and there is only so much that you can teach intellectually about that area. There still is, uh, there?s certainly a science to it, but there?s still the art and so if students can have some kind of independence study or a practicum experience attached to whatever they?re talking about fundraising in the classroom I think that?s what makes the difference. There?s not any substitute for actually getting into somebody?s home or office and 279 making the ask? I think that it?s a little bit like fund raising in that you?ve also got to have some kind of practical application through a program either like I said, an independent study or some kind of practicum experience that is built in ? that was a very practical experience that was not a part of the regular curriculum. It was designed as an independent study? I would have it staffed with faculty who genuinely have both the scholarly experience and the practical experience. I have an overwhelming bias about utilizing people who have been in the field and have had some direct experience with what they?re doing. You know, I understand the love of scholarship and that you can be drawn into purely research agenda but come on I mean you?re working with people who are going to be front line people in their institutions and it would help to have had some practical experience ? if it?s going to be fund raising then the expansive experience probably needs to be throughout an entire semester. Because of a little dose here and there would have some impact but not nearly the kind of impact that a full semester?s activity would bring. President Emelia Lily In terms of that discussion that?s not where that occurred for me, mine was mostly hands on experiences and really started when I was at, in my most recent position as vice president for student affairs. President Nolan Cooper I think in higher education, I think it is awful important that the people who teach in programs, that a certain number of them have had experience leading in programs? And so I think it is very important to have people in the classroom in front of doctoral students who?ve had some experience actually leading and administrating programs, so that when they talk about selecting senior level people, they?re doing so from the perspective of their experience. President Ryan Wyatt I was vice-president for enrollment for six years. I was vice-president for student affairs for a year and I was executive vice-president and Dean of Advancement which was fund- raising and alumni relations for six years, so actually over the course of my 13 years I supervised three of the major administrative divisions of the university ? I was having a practical experience. I had a full time job the whole time I was doing it. I was executive vice-president of, you know, a liberal arts college that was in the midst of a pretty significant transformation, so while the internship was not formally a part of the program, much of my work in the program connected to my experience at the college, but there was not a requirement for an internship, or a practical experience. 280 History of Higher Education President Emelia Lily But in terms of the doctoral program, what helped me courses in the history of higher education, understanding how higher education is organized, how it works, sometimes how it doesn?t work, and also understanding that you don?t work in isolation in particular when you work in a system? Uh, history of higher education in some way ? being able to talk about the history of higher education, but really where we are today and where we?re going tomorrow. President Levi Carter I think that the doctoral program does give you the information, the history and the context, which I think is helpful to be a president. I have more of a sense of the history of higher education because of my study, more of a sense of the people who have come before me in the industry in the history of higher education and the contributions that we could all make, but I don?t think I would have that perspective without the study? I would think some aspects of it are higher education, history. Some of those things would perhaps be core ? I think it?s understandable that you have PhD?s like me who have degrees in higher education who are not necessarily presidents and then they teach something like the history of higher education or they teach sociology for organizations. President Peter Johns I?ve relied a lot on what I learned about the history of higher education and kind of the way that programs have evolved. President Emelia Lily In terms of the doctoral program, what my courses in the history of higher education gave me an, understanding how higher education is organized, how it works, sometimes how it doesn?t work, and also gave me an understanding that you don?t work in isolation in particular when you work in a system. President Joshua Dillan I started to teach since I got out and I taught history courses and education courses and politics courses and it has helped me to be a good teacher. President Jessica Elliott I learned about so I think that gaining knowledge of colleges and universities, even if you go back to the history of colleges and universities by gaining knowledge of where higher education came from, where it was at that time, where it?s going, really helped me. 281 President Emelia Lily History of higher education in some way ? being able to talk about the history of higher education, but really where we are today and where we?re going tomorrow. President Nolan Cooper I think the curriculum, for an effective are really high quality leadership and administration program, really isn?t the applied stuff, but it?s a historical, contextual, framework. President William James And having a course like the history of higher education taught be James Lewis. Interpersonal Development/Human Relations President Emelia Lily I also learned during my doctoral program about the seamless nature of education and I believe having courses with folks that were focused primarily on what was happening in the PK-12, helped me to understand the pipeline of students coming and helped me develop relationships with colleagues that worked in the high schools and elementary schools or in county school administration? Gove rnance also helps me to understand and build positive relationships with our legislators because we are funded in part by the state and so understanding that relationship, but also building relationships were legislators know and support what we?re doing, that would be that? I think the ability to listen, the ability to see connections in the community, on the campus, within the campus, with the community and the campus. President Nolan Cooper it?s the combination of the interpersonal communication skills that one possesses, the academic background that you?ve been able to acquire along with the experience. So, ok. Some combination of those things??ve been able to get money from my institutions, the institutions with which I have been affiliated with because I was able to establish an authentic relationship with people?Even though you might have a hierarchical structure in terms of reporting you need to develop a relationship with the janitor, with the grounds people, those people can give you a lot more information, so I don?t rely on a single source for any information I get. I know more about my institution than anybody here and you have to when you?re president... is the ability to meet out justice in a fair consistent, transparent way. For example, I have some cases I?m dealing with promotion and tenure that have come to me that I?m going to have to say no to, but I need to be able to help the person I?m saying no to understand that whole process, why are we saying no, etc.,etc., as opposed to just send them a letter saying no. So, there?s something about 282 respecting the dignity and integrity of the individual. Now, I know I?m not talking to you about the skill thing, I?m talking to you about a human compassion, and I?m talking values. President Elijah Alexander I do think in interacting, one of the things that a president has to do is to be able to interact, you?ve gotta be a person who?s almost on the verge of ministering, you?ve got to be persuasive, you?ve got to convince people, you?ve gotta, you know engage and be able to convince them and this is the direction that we need to go. President Jessica Elliott I think that the president has to know the basics, but they have to be open, they have to know what the project is, they have to be affable with people, they have to know how to interact with people? If you develop a board, if you have good interpersonal interactions with board members if you are the same way with your faculty if you are the same way with others that you meet socially then when you go to do what they ask for some particular project the people are going to be open and accepting of your request?I think the very first one is good interpersonal relations. You have all kinds of people walking in the venue and uh they have a concern or they just want to meet up with you or whatever, and I think interpersonal relations, good interpersonal relations and listening are very important?So, I kind of have an open door, so if I go back about these core areas of importance, interpersonal relations, listening and I think it?s important to pay attention to the people that report to you, like to meet with the vice president that reports to me, and I think it?s important to really listen to what they?re doing, their successes and their failures or challenges and uh so that you know maybe you can give them some assistance some help, but I think you also have to convey to the entire campus community that you know what you?re doing, not in a pompous way, but in an informed way if you know what I mean...I think that the important one would be this interpersonal relationship, you know every day you?re challenged by this particular area because as I said you have to interact with so many different people all day. President Gavin Benjamin Team building and that?s extremely important in colleges and universities today. President Jessica Elliott Well, learned to listen in class and to interact with other people very positively ? I developed my cultural skills, my skills in diversity. President Evelyn Aurora I remember going to these big conferences and you think you would develop these skills at parties, but it is almost like a party skill. You come in the room and everybody is in a 283 little circle talking and you have to figure out how to get in the circle so you can talk with the people, and also how to move from circle to circle and that is an absolute essential skill if you go into higher education administration, because when you go to chamber meetings, or when you are going to these big business meetings, you have to figure out how to get in the circle, because people tend to talk in circles. President Evelyn Aurora You know, the ability to influence people in higher education, because I was just thinking about it from the teaching side? I try to make the right decisions for the right reasons? I smiled when you said that, because I remember going to these big conferences and you think you would develop these skills at parties, but it is almost like a party skill. You come in the room and everybody is in a little circle talking and you have to figure out how to get in the circle so you can talk with the people, and also how to move from circle to circle and that is an absolute essential skill if you go into higher education administration, because when you go to chamber meetings, or when you are going to these big business meetings, you have to figure out how to get in the circle, because people tend to talk in circles. President Ian Flynn I?m not certain how much you learn, so much as the opportunity to talk with really interesting people in the network. I think that?s probably the greatest value. President Levi Carter I would probably focus on things like emotional intelligence? You have to have a higher level of emotional intelligence including the ability to handle conflict. President Ryan Wyatt I think a successful president has to have certain, sort of personality traits, humility, empathy; the ability to understand and connect with people is critical. President Joshua Dillan Relationship building?it is what you learn from colleagues instead of the network that you developed? Relationships and managing relationships, developing relationships. President Peter Johns He was very focused on people and very focused on relationships. 284 President Lucus Jacob I?m going to react entirely differently than someone who believes that the president sets the agenda, the president calls the shots, the president is always right, the president has got to have it done this way. And for me, when faculty approaches me about this, that or the other, what I?m saying to them is well, what do you think? Tell me what your thoughts are; tell me what you?d like to see us do. Rather than say, ok, this is what I want you to do ? you?ve got to understand that part of what your job is as president, is to influence other people to get them to come to your point of view ? education is not a pail to be filled, and it?s a fire to be lit. As a student, you?ve got to be lit. Someone?s got to set you on fire so that you?ll know that you are in the right place so that you keep going. You?re not ever satisfied. Knowledge Acquisition of the Context President Lucus Jacob You?ve got to have a basic understanding of the academy and what it?s about and how it functions. And you?ve got to have an understanding of politics, because all politics are local, and you don?t get away no matter where you go, there?s going to be politics. President Ryan Wyatt Frankly, the doctoral program spent very little time on fund-raising, almost none ... Well I think if you are going to be a successful college or university administrator, particularly if you are going to be a successful president, you need to understand the basic principles of fund-raising? If you are going to be a successful administrator, you need to understand the issues of accountability and transparency, how to help people understand the objectives and whether or not the objectives have been met and how the objectives are measured and I think one would need to have pretty good understanding of that. President Jessica Elliott I learned about the culture of higher education, because I surely didn?t know it, but when I went to Mid-West University, I learned a lot about governance, about leadership of a small college as opposed to other levels of high school. I learned about how to deal with faculty, how to develop a college or university, how to interact with people, so I think that gaining knowledge of colleges and universities, even if you go back to the history of colleges and universities by gaining knowledge of where higher education came from, where it was at that time, where it?s going, really helped me. President Emelia Lily Some of the things I learned in my doctoral program that are helping me to be able to see the connections and to see how things may be different, but how things may be the same? I enjoy being a learner and that?s part of the way I?ve approached this 285 opportunity, is I?m a learner? I enjoy being a learner and that?s part of the way I?ve approached this opportunity, is I?m a learner. President Lucus Jacob In most higher education programs, that I am aware of, at the very best the only thing that you?re going to learn is why you need to fund raise and you might read some case studies, but really fund raising is more art than it is anything else, it?s a matter of learning how to be open to people, learning how to cultivate friendships, learning how to let people know what you are doing to give them the opportunity to consider the act of giving? No. You know, again you learn about governance, you learn about faculty roles, you learn about law, but unless you are in the field of communication, public speaking or whatever, you don?t learn that in a graduate program ? if you are very smart as a president you?re going to have your arms around the general notions of the role of management ? you are never going to learn all that you need to know. President Gavin Benjamin Practical solutions, sharing, problems and uh were very much pragmatic results gaining insight, how to solve problems that?s the best advantage. President Ian Flynn In fact, between the public and the private and the large and the small and I think each of them have been a great learning experience for me. President William James In fact we even taught fundraising in my program ? there should be something in the curriculum about philanthropy but you can?t learn about it until you do it ? my program, was helpful in identifying a number of issues like enrollment management and looking at strategies for that solution. But most importantly, again, the program I went to had a broader basis, provided a skill set to analyze any problem and to come to an answer ? some decisions that presidents make are not going to be received well by everyone and a couple of times too we looked at the no win situations and that?s really important I think to learn that first as an observer because in observing you can see what went well and what didn?t go well and you?re in it but not that deep into it that you?re not the leader. President Joshua Dillan I also think I saw my higher education career was in small private elite colleges and so I mixed a lot with other people that saw private elite colleges, but did not particularly have colleagues from big public institutions or big private research institutions or community colleges or Black colleges or colleges on the Native American reservations and so it really started to open my eyes up to the broader world of higher education that in a way has become very valuable to me as a president of a school, even though it is a small 286 private college where my understanding of the market forces and higher education that has proved very valuable to me. President Nolan Cooper My mentor and from him I learned the importance of thinking analytically. I mean what?s the story behind the story? I learned from him not to rely on a single source for your information. Even though you might have a hierarchical structure in terms of reporting you need to develop a relationship with the janitor, with the grounds people, those people can give you a lot more information, so I don?t rely on a single source for any information I get ? most programs don?t teach us how to take care of ourselves. Most programs don?t expose us to this whole notion of celebrating small gains, we don?t even talk about that, and we talk about stuff at the mackerel level. President Levi Carter I think a lot of what we really should be doing is teaching skills-based kind of instruction; conflict resolution, leadership itself, visioning, strategic planning, all those kinds of things, but I mean as skills. I don?t mean, just like, ?here?s the history of strategic planning?. I mean how to actually do it. So all those things, for example, I learned really on the job through my own study etcetera as one would expect, but I think you could probably move an average leader more quickly into competency and presidency by teaching the skills? I think assessment is one of the things you do learn? It requires maturity, requires experience, and requires knowledge. Most people don?t have all three things. Leadership President Joshua Dillan I think that it has formed in two rounds. One is a very complex task with many constituencies. There are political jobs, there are business jobs and there are very complex jobs and so I think the program that I was in on a general basis helped me to understand complexity and helped me to become more sophisticated and helped me to develop my leadership skills? I think for me to find out my leadership of this place and why I think I am being affected because I understand the importance of connecting the mission in market and at a school. President Ryan Wyatt I think the program helped me gain a broader understanding of administrative leadership and higher education? It was more having space to think about who I understand myself to be, what I understand to be my particular gifts and graces and capacities for leadership such as they are, and the kind of institution and the needs of an institution that would most cleanly align with myself understanding ? You need to have an understanding of leadership in higher education? You should have a sense of the various 287 constituencies and stakeholders that have an interest in leadership and the institution and how they work with one another... You need to study leadership. President William James As you know, you?re more current than I am today with the literature on higher education, especially with administration, leadership and higher education so I have a very good understanding of the literature and with that understanding, learning additional leadership tactics and strategies ? to prepare people for leadership between grad school and working your way up to the presidency, in some ways you might be a Dean some time, then absolutely, you need to know something about assessment and so I would say a better, well rounded curriculum for leadership and higher education probably needs to include a course in assessment? I think my experience with two presidents really helped me a lot at reminding me that at least the presidential level of leadership there is going to be some difficult decisions? A third issue would be how best is it for the president to spend his or her time in the leadership style that one has? I just think a president needs to provide leadership in his or her community. I feel like on the leadership side things are going well. I?m not perfect by any means but I?m pleased with that? In regards to what type of students, I?d say first and foremost they have to have the intellectual capacity to do a doctorate. They must have actually leadership abilities. President Peter Johns And so consequently the coursework that I had in the doctoral program has really been helpful about providing academic leadership for the institution. It?s only so much that you can do on trying to talk about that in advance but it helps to be warned. The only surprise that I?ve had in fact, in my presidency the only real surprise was that when I realized in the aftermath of that, that I had to be a minister to the campus and I was very poorly equipped to do that, but you?re role becomes kind of a Sheppard, a healer, you know it?s the same thing that happens with, for instance with Obama when the Ft. Hood thing happened. Well, you know what is his role is as president is to get his butt down there to Texas and to be with those families and to you know to help them heal. Well, it?s the same thing that happens when a tragedy occurs on a campus, you know the president is a figure symbolic largely, but to help a community heal. It?s a pastoral function and I didn?t understand that and I didn?t see that coming, but that?s the way it is. And it?s true whether it?s a public institution or private. You know I?m speaking in a broadly spiritual sense here, I?m not talking about you know, like it?s got to be a big prayer meeting or something, I?m talking about it is a pastoral sheparding function. So, you know I guess that?s the only thing I?d throw in for extra. President Gavin Benjamin I think anyone that along their line that knows that they?re going to be in a vice presidential or top executive position in a college or university those are also going to have to raise money. Even the deans and others. 288 Yeah, that?s one of the sociologists at Harvard Institute of Educational Management told us is that you have to realize how you need to be subservient from time to time and if you want to have a marriage. President Nolan Cooper When you have a degree as I have, and you?re getting in higher education leadership and administration, by whatever name, you are a generalist. You know a lot about a lot of different things ? It?s because one of the things when you?re in a leadership position, you have to read a lot, absorb a lot, and take this piece, and this piece and you connect them ? you have to know leadership, you have to communicate, you have to know disciplinary kind of stuff, etc., etc., etc? . I probably learned more about the connective tissue of leadership from that man than any single professor that I had? Anyone who?s in a leadership position must have a set of clear values. You must be driven by something other than the desire to get ahead, you must be driven by something other than preparing for your next position, and I call those values. President Evelyn Aurora I don?t think anyone should go into a leadership role in higher education or any leadership role, if you are not an effective communicator. President Lucas Jacob Nothing that I do on a daily basis, I was taught. You know, because your day is going to number one vary widely, but number two, a lot of what you do as a president is make decisions and you make the call. Somebody comes to see you with a problem; you decide how you?re going to deal with it. Somebody comes to you with a complaint; you decide what you?re going to do to solve that complaint. Your job is to be the decision maker and I don?t know that there is a set of graduate classes or curriculum that can help you be prepared for that. I think a lot of that comes about, you know, Mark Twain said, good judgment comes from experience and experience comes from bad judgment. So, in a lot of ways it?s like being thrown in the river to learn how to swim, you?ve got to make some mistakes, you?ve got to get out there and engage in some experiences and you?ve got again to have somebody that you can trust to help you see what you?re doing. President Emelia Lily I think first and foremost leadership and leadership with vision ... first and foremost we learned about leadership and we also learned about how to interact with presidents and boards and there were presidents within our group, many of us were vice presidents or deans? Why do I say that, well I think it demonstrates leadership, you have to be able to demonstrate that, it demonstrates perseverance, when you receive your doctoral degree in December or before, you are going to be one of a very few individuals who have a doctoral degree and so not only are you going to be able to demonstrate the leadership, but you?re going to demonstrate confidence around that. 289 President Elijah Alexander Another set of skills that are significant, that you could not learn in that regard is this whole notion of academic governance and working within the academy. I did not get very much experience in that, but that is very key to success in leadership positions, because the governance structure in the academy is a little bit different, as a matter of fact, it?s significantly different in a governance structure you will find in business industry or in the public sector. President Levi Carter I have this ongoing seminar that I offer for them on different aspects of leadership in the presidency and things like that. And I have to say that there?s a reason why we have worked for so many average managers and the reason is it?s hard. It requires maturity, requires experience, and requires knowledge. Most people don?t have all three things? I could mentor the person on certain areas ? like leadership would be one of them ? dealing with motivating others, dealing with others, strategic context, creating an environment that reduces conflict, etcetera, where you could actually mentor and show the person how to do that. I think your respect of the discipline, of the person, would have a much higher level of a leadership bit. You have to be coached, though? The problem is that when you have curriculum being taught by faculty where they themselves have not been mentored and coached, it?s going to be so generic that its ability to focus a person?s leadership ability is going to be somewhat limited. Learning Goals President Gavin Benjamin I think uh, the ability to share with other students in order to develop a collegiate attitude. A lot of the models that Dr. Miller provided for us were team building and that?s extremely important in colleges and universities today. No one person can be successful by himself. A university president doesn?t do it by himself, you have to build the team. President Emelia Lily The ability to plan, implement, assess, and apply that back to your plan, ok. And, I?m not meaning that in terms of strategic planning, but what I am talking, thinking about is you need to be able to clearly demonstrate and be able to articulate that you?ve been able to develop a plan, you?ve implemented the plan, assess the plan, and thought about how you might do it differently and bring closure to something. The dissertation will be that project or an internship project that is part of it and then what I would encourage you to do is to think about reflecting on how you did that throughout your doctoral, and completing the doctorate is one of those ways. I guess I challenging you to think about, and I can?t describe it as a set skill, but it is really a skill and ability at wrapping up the knowledge that you have, ok. Taking the time to reflect on what it is that you really have accomplished, somebody setting the goal, how you implemented the goal or how you 290 achieved the goal, and being able to talk about how you did that. Why do I say that, well I think it demonstrates leadership, you have to be able to demonstrate that, it demonstrates perseverance. Management President Joshua Dillan Fundraising which is about relationships and being active in ones civic community, being a business and understanding that ultimately we are running a business which is a different kind of business. President Ryan Wyatt I did participate in the Institute for Educational Management at Harvard in the summer of 1998, so 10 years before I became a president. That was helpful to me. I was still relatively new to higher education and that was before I went through the doctoral program and that was helpful to me as a really thorough introduction to the various issues of educational management and also for me to the various rich variety of types of institutions? I don?t know that those meetings were so much about hard skills as they were about, in the case of IEM, a broad conceptual framework for understanding educational administration, educational management, and in the latter case, it was more introspective. President Ian Flynn I really do believe that it is very difficult to know how to do one of these things; fundraising, people of management of the large issues that you don?t want to face. I?m happy to be the president of the largest, most complex university in this country. I?m not certain that there?s anything that prepares you for that. I think experience is what prepares you for it. President Nolan Cooper And, it ought to play out in our values, it ought to play out in our priorities, and it ought to play out in terms of what we hold people accountable for, what do we hold people accountable for? Establishing a holistic supported learning environment for every student whether we agree with the student or not we have an obligation and that?s how it ought to play out. President Evelyn Aurora I was went to MLI and thought it was very, very helpful. Learning things like how to negotiate a contract with the board, learning things about how to work with boards that have been in place for a long time, how to work with difficult employees. I think those types of management administrative training programs help because you usually hear 291 from people who have been there and done that, and you have some type of sense of belief that they at least have some solutions, so I think they work. They are very helpful. A lot of different presidents over time, the institution had drifted from responding in a disciplined way in terms of policies, in terms of making sure appraising everyone?s alignment with the policies and making sure that the outcome actually aligned with the goals and objectives, so that helps me a great deal. President Lucus Jacob If you are very smart as a president you?re going to have your arms around the general notions of the role of management? If you are very smart as a president you?re going to have your arms around the general notions of the role of management, but then you are going to be smart enough to hire somebody who is very good at what he does and you give them the resources and you negotiate, you know what the ends are. President Emelia Lily I learned a lot about legal issues had a fabulous instructor who today is still a mentor for me, Sam Glass ? one of my mentors was the vice president for student affairs I did an internship in, because that was a need on the campus where I was working at the same time, so one of my internships was about enrollment management and so I was able to craft something that helped me to expand my knowledge base and also my professional practice in enrollment management ? those are probably the key ones that I was involved with as a doctoral student and again with the help of mentors? I think I go back to the role of mentors in helping me, both of the two folks that I talked about, Sam Glass and Don Cook, both helped me in advance in my transition here to Ava-Asher. I talked with Dr. Glass, who?s now retired and several times about the transition, I also talked and actually had a teach in with Dr. Golden who?s the president at Frame University, a small private in the Mid-West and I spent twenty-four hours with him and he prepared me with resources that I should be reading, articles I should be connected to, questions I should be asking, it was literally almost twenty-four hours of how to be a successful president or chancellor. And so I think that?s the first part, it?s maintaining those connections, ok. The second part, I think the skills and the knowledge and the ability, it?s not just skills, you know being confident, knowing that I know how to find information, knowing that I don?t know everything and knowing who to call on or how to get additional information to be able to solve an issue and I?ve also been very fortunate of the types of experiences that I?ve had since earning my doctoral degree that have prepared me to have a successful eight months and hopefully very successful tenure as the chancellor here. But, I have to go back to a couple of those aspects and those couple of courses that I identified, the legal issues course and the governance and budget finance course, I do draw on some of those skills and some of that knowledge in my work here. And, one other thing I?ll add is when you come from one system in a state that?s very different from the system that you go into, one of the things that I know about myself is that I enjoy being a learner and that?s part of the way I?ve approached this opportunity, is I?m a learner. And so, I?ve learned about how things work in Mid-West, I learned about how things work in Southeast, and now I?m learning about how things work in 292 Northwest, but it?s some of the things I learned in my doctoral program that are helping me to be able to see the connections and to see how things may be different, but how things may be the same. President Elijah Alexander Public institutions tend to look for person?s skill sets in either academic programs or management and budget and financing ? you cannot be successful both leading and managing at the same time. You?re either going to lead or you?re going to manage. You can?t do both, because management requires that you get down and begin to dot the i?s and cross the t?s and step by step here?s what you do. Leading is the big picture, the vision? A president is the face of the university you?re out there interacting, creating goodwill on the part of the university. That?s what the president is doing, but if you are having to do all of the management types of things, it?s just not going to work. There?s not enough time in the day to do that. President Levi Carter I?m going to speak at kind of somehow higher to mid-level managers. I?m not going to talk about direct public relations, for example or a director of financial aid, which are more tactical positions. I?m going to talk about somebody who?s maybe an associate provost or an associate vice president. But I think that folks need to understand how to deal with conflict, how to be good listeners, how to really relate to a broad variety of people, how to do fundraising, how to relate to faculty and alumni and I think perhaps through practice and by kind of identifying, I guess, the skills sets that might be necessary in each of these areas, that?s kind of the way I would approach the curriculum. President Gavin Benjamin The ability to engender that vision as an objective for the institution and lead all the constituent groups toward implementing that vision, building that vision and implementing it. President Jessica Elliott I would advise any person in higher education to make sure they don?t get out of the program unless they really have a working knowledge of the financial documents of a higher education institution, if you are going be a president, they need to know this area. How can they do it? They could go to the school of business and take a course, they could go to an accounting firm and volunteer for a summer or something like that, I think or they could go to a course within their own higher ed program. I think probably for presidents or people who are in higher ed all of them need to have a working knowledge of finances of higher education, it?s so important because you can be dealing with people in your institution who are not functioning appropriately in the finance area, and you need to know that. You?ll say oh, I have an auditor, even the auditor couldn?t be, I haven?t had that experience here, but I know places where that has happened and if my 293 people know that I know the finances and they tell me you have a long memory sister, yeah I do. I think it is one of the very important areas is this finance area and you go out and you just have to dig into it and spend the time if you are really serious about it that?s what you?ll do. If you don?t have a course within your program, but I would advise any school that is a must. President Elijah Alexander What you really, again need there is to be sure that you know what kind of person that you need and again you have to have a vision of where things need to go. You give that person the support that they need to succeed in that area. The president, as the president makes appointments, the administration begins to take shape and people begin to see, well now here is the basis upon which this person?s making these decisions. Here?s what they?re looking for. That sends the tone out of the kind of administration that you are going to have. President Peter Johns How you handle a multiple number of issues at the same time. So, how best to multitask? I am a huge delegator and so for me to be able to delegate, again, I have to have the right people in place, and so I?m able to delegate a lot of things to people. President Levi Carter So your ability to access, you know, listening, conflict resolution, prioritization, all that stuff. Mentoring President Evelyn Aurora I had some good mentors who helped me learn how to be an administrator, because this was like the low level administrative position. I was a coordinator and it helped me learn how to develop a style as an administrator. President Elijah Alexander I was fortunate to have excellent mentors. It?s important and I may be jumping around a bit, but it?s important in higher education that you have mentors, whether you are interested in becoming a college president, a professor, a vice president, you must have good mentors, because that?s where you learn from the experiences of others and the experiences that they provide for you. I was fortunate in that I had the opportunity of working in the office of institutional research at Greer State University, you know the area of institutional research really then begins to look at this whole data set and how you can kind of quantify what we do in higher education, but it is the office if you really want to get a picture of everything that happens in a university, it is the office of institutional 294 research that allows that. So I was employed as a research assistant in the office of institutional research. The director of that program later became my major advisor, his name, last name happened to be Flagge and also in that office, I?m sure this name you?ve come across in your higher education literature, a gentleman by the name of Jesse Childers. I think as you go around you will find that most of the individuals will tell you that, who were successful presidents. They had the opportunity to be in the presence or to be mentored by presidents who were successful. President Joshua Dillan I have helped a lot of people to gone on to presidencies and I have talked to almost all of them. I still talk to two to three people last week who were trying to make a job change and sort of talk them through and so that network is important. President Ryan Wyatt I was working at a college actually ? well I was working on a college campus and the president asked me to take a different role and in the course of that conversation, she said you should think about being a college president someday, which I did not particularly think was something I would do, but she stayed with it and she said on that first day, she said you will have to get a PhD along the way, and if you will be open to doing this, I will work with you to help make that happen. So probably about four years later, I began the process of moving toward enrollment in a PhD program. I took some courses at a school nearby, night courses, and in the following year enrolled in a program, actually in another state, and for four years I flew once a week and spent a day on the campus of that school. So I guess the short answer was, in a response to the inspiration of a mentor, I realized that this would be an important preparation for the possibility of serving as a college president. President Ian Flynn Go and spend a little time, have an opportunity to attach yourself to someone who?s doing this, having an opportunity to work in one of those kinds of offices, internships. Any of those kinds of experiences, I think they would be very useful. President William James It was interesting because my plan was to go to a school for my doctorate that I could kind of get in and get out without a lot of pain, blood and suffering and so I was thinking about going to a school on the west coast that has a good reputation but not a national reputation. Some of my relatives have gone to Marie University and so they said to me well look at Marie University. I said I really don?t want to go through a program like that. I don?t know if I could get in and so what I did was I took a look at the catalog and I was reading about what the faculty?s research interest is, I saw Lynette Hausfather, her work with presidential leadership. Lewis Hogan, his work with boards of trustees in 295 governments and so, to me, the faculty there, at least on paper, were pretty much into the areas that I knew I wanted to pursue, especially Lynette and Lewis. It turns out Judy and Lewis Hogan and Peter Early were on my dissertation committee. So for me, that was important. To find a doctoral program that had faculty that are in the research area that I want to pursue in my life as a leader. I think too, and I thought about the fact that Marie University I knew had great researchers where they?re great in the classroom and I have to tell you, they are outstanding in the classroom and I couldn?t believe how great they were in the classroom. You think I like Lewis Hogan, and Lewis?s a master of case study methodology and I?ll never forget the day that he was telling us that he went over to the Marie Business School for a conference for himself on how to teach case study methodology and I said you think I could teach it? So, the faculty were excellent in terms of in the classroom, as they should be in a school of education, cutting edge research and so that?s my time about the faculty and that was really true at Marie. What I liked about the curriculum is that it was broad and it was really research driven, highly research driven. And having a course like the history of higher education taught be James Lewis or looking at as I mentioned, Peter Early with issues of higher education. So for me, the curriculum was really helpful. I thought about some of the questions you asked, for example about assessment and things like that? I think that?s very important. President William James Before you get to that conference with that paper you want to go through that process with your faculty mentors and friends that are in the program with you. Theoreticians, for example, Zachary Conrad, we used some of his work, he?s in the Kennedy School of Government. Also, I?m sure you?ve looked at Bolman and Deal, so it?s that literature. And then, really what helped a lot, were the?the methodology at Marie University is case studies and so with case studies there would be a great way to consider in a sense the abstract because you?re not there doing it but you?re kind of looking at it as a case that you can see, being asked how I might respond to it and then seeing how the leader actually responds with part B of the case. The case study methodology was terrific. And then too I think I had superb faculty members, people that are nationally and internationally known, like Lewis Hogan. Lewis taught me a lot about Board Governance and that is so important and one thing I did learn from the program is that the most important, and I think I would come to this realization but it certainly was affirmed for me in my graduate program, the most important constituent for a president is a board of trustees and Lewis Hogan helped with that tremendously. I also had a class with Peter Early, the former president of Marie University and that was a privilege to have Peter Early. That course was Issues in Higher Education and it was terrific because we looked at all of these major issues from athletics to finance to governments to government relations and so all these multiple issues and in a sense having a master in Peter Early teaching the class. President Peter Johns Well the first one there had been a few, the first one was a guy that I had in political science as an undergrad, whose name was Lachian Thomas and he was briefly governor of a southern state, you know it?s another Lachian Thomas but he was a world war II 296 veteran and he was a Marine and he was almost killed in WWII and he was a crusty character he wore a black eye patch he was blind and had an eye patch over one eye and he was kind of like a pirate you know, he kind of had that demeanor , like I said really crusty but he called things as they were I mean he was brutally honest about accessing situations and especially as an undergrad that had a big impact on me. You know, I was pretty na?ve and he caused me to look at the world in a lot more honest way, I think which kind of prepared me for you know, life and for this kind of work but and he personally took a lot of interest in me. And then a guy named James Oliver who had been on the faculty at Sienna University for two decades before coming to Card University as president he served there for eighteen years as president so his background was political science like mine so we had that in common course he was much older but he also kind of as a very young staff member at Ouachita he kind of took me under his wing and so, and he was painstakingly detailed, for instance you know in a meeting the first thing that he, he kept a notepad with him, well, you saw me I just grabbed a notepad that?s second nature to me at any meeting regardless of what?s going on and he would, and I?d notice on the meeting that I just finished I put the date right up there in the top right hand corner. And then I took a brief little page of notes based on the context, whatever it was he?d start out one six ten up there and then he would have it all there on paper and he was a stickler for planning and for careful management all of those things. Not extraordinary focused on people but definitely on systems and process. And so in my early days I learned my craft through him. Didn?t know I was learning it at the time, but he was good to kind of shepherd me along, encourage me you know all that and then fast forward he retired and a guy named Joshua Charlotte followed him as president and Joshua had been president at Chloe College in the Mid-West and also at a small school in Mid-South, Ella City College. And he had both a PhD in Theology and an EdD from Isabella University. He had been a minister and he retooled in higher education because he thought that was going to be his life?s work turned out to be and Joshua was polar opposite of Thomas he was, process did not make all that much difference to him he was very focused on people and very focused on relationships and his area was more fund raising which was by that time where I had kind of gravitated anyway. And Joshua took an extraordinary interest in me as a young staff member and his first week on the job I remember he took me out for lunch we went out had a couple of hamburgers one day and by the end of that maybe hour and a half session he?d pretty much outlined what he wanted me to be doing over the next year and so I became assistant to the president and then later vice president while he was there. We had long, long hours of conversation and he invested, Joshua Charlotte invested more in me than any person outside my family has ever invested in me an incredible amount of time and so I learned from Joshua the relational aspects and also more the theoretical understanding of a higher education program because you know he kind of did that too. Thomas probably had a little bias against you know because he was a PhD in political science and you know how it goes I mean many of the disciplines view what we do with a little bit of suspicion and so lurking underneath is probably that kind of suspicion but I learned the two different styles, the two different approaches to work and so I kind of consider myself to be a blending of those two styles. And then the, I guess the next person that I would mention would be Roy Goodman who was the director of the higher education program at University of Rainbow. Who had served as, he had a college 297 presidency under his belt it was Steven College a two year, and I guess it still is, a private college had a good student development background and was just a very knowledgeable person and he also took an extraordinary interest in me. So, I feel that I?ve been blessed at these various stops going back to the mid 70?s you know with first Lachian Thomas and then James Oliver and Joshua Charlotte and Roy Goodman those, there have been a lot of other people but those in particular have been mentors that have made a big difference. President Nolan Cooper I don?t think it was a class, I think it was a professor as I think about it, and it would?ve been George Downing. A very conservative looking man, but he was anything but conservative. That?s where I learned not to evaluate people on the basis of how they look. You look at him, he had a crew, I had been in the Marine Corp, so had this crew cut military kind of haircut and so all of the stereotypes that I would associate with a person that looked a certain way, boy he possessed them. Reddish kind of skin, southern kind of accent, you know whatever, seemed disengaged, but he was the most engaging person that I ever let into my life. And, when he would talk about contemporary issues in higher education he would pull in all the pieces, just in discussing it with the class. He was just a magnificent kind of person. So, I probably learned more about the connective tissue of leadership from that man than any single professor that I had. And then I had a mentor who was my vice president for student affairs at my alma mater, had a doctorate in Ed leadership from the University of Truman. Sharp brother, my mentor and from him I learned the importance of thinking analytically. I mean what?s the story behind the story? I learned from him not to rely on a single source for your information. Even though you might have a hierarchical structure in terms of reporting you need to develop a relationship with the janitor, with the grounds people, those people can give you a lot more information, so I don?t rely on a single source for any information I get. I know more about my institution than anybody here and you have to when you?re president. President Evelyn Aurora I enjoyed it because I was working with students, but I also enjoyed it because I had some good mentors who helped me learn how to be an administrator, because this was like the low level administrative position. I was a coordinator and it helped me learn how to develop a style as an administrator. President Lucus Jacob Very often the faculty member will come in and say ok, you?re going to cover this and you?re going to cover this, and you?re going to cover this and your job is to go out and prepare the material and come back and present to your colleagues with the faculty member acting as devil?s advocate and mentor. 298 President Emelia Lily I learned a lot about legal issues had a fabulous instructor who today is still a mentor for me, Sam Glass?one of my mentors was the vice president for student affairs I did an internship in, because that was a need on the campus where I was working at the same time, so one of my internships was about enrollment management and so I was able to craft something that helped me to expand my knowledge base and also my professional practice in enrollment management ? those are probably the key ones that I was involved with as a doctoral student and again with the help of mentors ? I think I go back to the role of mentors in helping me, both of the two folks that I talked about, Sam Glass and Don Cook, both helped me in advance in my transition here to Ava-Asher. I talked with Dr. Glass, who?s now retired and several times about the transition, I also talked and actually had a teach in with Dr. Golden who?s the president at Frame University, a small private in the Mid-West and I spent twenty-four hours with him and he prepared me with resources that I should be reading, articles I should be connected to, questions I should be asking, it was literally almost twenty-four hours of how to be a successful president or chancellor. And so I think that?s the first part, it?s maintaining those connections, ok. The second part, I think the skills and the knowledge and the ability, it?s not just skills, you know being confident, knowing that I know how to find information, knowing that I don?t know everything and knowing who to call on or how to get additional information to be able to solve an issue and I?ve also been very fortunate of the types of experiences that I?ve had since earning my doctoral degree that have prepared me to have a successful eight months and hopefully very successful tenure as the chancellor here. But, I have to go back to a couple of those aspects and those couple of courses that I identified, the legal issues course and the governance and budget finance course, I do draw on some of those skills and some of that knowledge in my work here. And, one other thing I?ll add is when you come from one system in a state that?s very different from the system that you go into, one of the things that I know about myself is that I enjoy being a learner and that?s part of the way I?ve approached this opportunity, is I?m a learner. And so, I?ve learned about how things work in Mid-West, I learned about how things work in Southeast, and now I?m learning about how things work in Northwest, but it?s some of the things I learned in my doctoral program that are helping me to be able to see the connections and to see how things may be different, but how things may be the same. President Elijah Alexander I think as you go around you will find that most of the individuals will tell you that, who were successful presidents. They had the opportunity to be in the presence or to be mentored by presidents who were successful? I was fortunate to have excellent mentors. It?s important and I may be jumping around a bit, but it?s important in higher education that you have mentors, whether you are interested in becoming a college president, a professor, a vice president, you must have good mentors, because that?s where you learn from the experiences of others and the experiences that they provide for you. I was fortunate in that I had the opportunity of working in the office of institutional research at Alston State University, you know the area of institutional research really then 299 begins to look at this whole data set and how you can kind of quantify what we do in higher education, but it is the office if you really want to get a picture of everything that happens in a university, it is the office of institutional research that allows that. So I was employed as a research assistant in the office of institutional research. The director of that program later became my major advisor, his name, last name happened to be Freeman and also in that office, I?m sure this name you?ve come across in your higher education literature, a gentleman by the name of Kevin Killian? Kevin Killian is noted in many areas as kind of being the father of institutional research and qualitative analysis in higher education. He was the director emeritus in the office, and so we had an opportunity to interact with Dr. Killian, as a matter of fact, I took a course from Dr. Killian as well, which is an experience that I will always remember. He helped you to understand philosophically what higher education should be about and also to question many of the assumptions of the way that we do things and to ask is there another way, and what does the data suggest, and what does the analysis suggest is this the way that we need to try and improve this? And, how do we then take that and allocate resources in the university to make more sense about what we are trying to do. So those experiences, that are really what formulated many of the concepts and ideas and the administrative philosophies that I have now, they really came from that experience of working in the office of institutional research with the tutelage of someone like Kevin Killian that made a difference. Also, in the office at that time was another researcher whose name happens to be Krystal Fugate. Krystal Fugate is, as you know, is now the president of Alston State University. Uh, she was an assistant professor in institutional research at the time and so I just had a very rich experience as a doctoral student at Michigan State, I mean a very, very rich experience to work and to be around Kevin Killian, to be there with the current president of Alston State University, it was just an experience that I will always, always remember. President Levi Carter And we also have kind of a tone and touch that very much comes out of a higher education experience, which you don?t get if it you work for an airline. You don?t get it if you work for a manufacturing company. So, those kinds of things I think become important in terms of success and they can only be had through experience and training and mentoring? The model that we?ve used for career education ? which I think is completely relevant to what you?re talking about here ? is theory, practice and mentoring. Now, you know where that comes from? Theory, practice and mentoring? It comes from medicine or Allied Health training? And then you give him a mentor. And then at the end of five years when he?s had a mentor, which means he?s calling someone, and I have mentors now, I have advisors that I work with that advise me from time to time when I think I?m going to get into trouble I usually make a phone call. So if you have that mentor, by the time you were, say, 35, the novel situations that you are going to encounter in complex situations perhaps would?ve been resolved, in other words you would?ve rehearsed the answers and the behaviors to all of the situations. So I guess when I think about it out loud, that would be my ideal training scenario for a president. Theory, practice and mentoring. And only after the mentoring, the theory and the practice would I let them become a president? We don?t give money away, so we just 300 presume that people that were asking money for it wouldn?t have the money, so it just takes a lot practice, experience, mentoring, and studying to be a fundraiser and I can imagine some programs that would prepare you for that, but I can?t imagine what program, as well as higher education, would prepare you very well for fundraising. Personal Attributes President Evelyn Aurora Learned about perspective, you know whatever perspective you have can influence the questions you ask, the people you interview, the data you read. I learned about how decisions are not necessarily made following some of those paradigms that you study, but that they become very, very political and that you have to make sure, what they call get by and appease people and that is a political sort of process in order to make a decision? I think it was my teaching background, because when you each a lesson, you know, you state your goals, you have your activities and you have what they call The Guide of Practice Business and you evaluate and that is very similar to what you do when you design a program. So I felt prepared because I think I was a good teacher? I love working with young people and I have fun? So moving into administration I tried to stay close to the notion that this was all about students and I spent a lot of time talking to the students and you know, going to the cafeteria eating with the students, because I think what it really did do for me? Being a good faculty member, to me, was the core. I mean that is where my passion comes from, to help students and to learn while I am helping them? Collaborative, probably tougher. I try to make the right decisions for the right reasons, which was for students, which means that even though I might like you, if it doesn?t work out because you are not doing what you need to do for the students, I may have to fire you. And this surprises a lot of people, because I look soft, and I?m friendly, but my real focus is what is best for the institution and what is best for the students and if you are not what?s best for them, then you know, I have to do what is best for the students no matter how difficult it might be personally? Probably network, how to meet other people like myself. I used to say if I go to any conference and learn one good idea, it feels it was worth it. So I would usually get those one good ideas. It helped me hear about what other people were doing at other institutions, so it helped broaden my exposure, which I felt was very valuable? Yea, I smiled when you said that, because I remember going to these big conferences and you think you would develop these skills at parties, but it is almost like a party skill. You come in the room and everybody is in a little circle talking and you have to figure out how to get in the circle so you can talk with the people, and also how to move from circle to circle and that is an absolute essential skill if you go into higher education administration, because when you go to chamber meetings, or when you are going to these big business meetings, you have to figure out how to get in the circle, because people tend to talk in circles. How you get in the circle, how you talk to the people and how you move off and make a good impression in maybe 5 minutes and then leave your business card and move on. I learned a lot of that at the networking sessions at conferences and the big receptions, like you have probably gone here and you have to figure out how, ?well how do I talk to these people? I don?t know 301 anybody? and I learned that at conferences ? it is very important for an institution to be consistent. President Ryan Wyatt I think a president has to have the capacity to be a visionary leader and to develop a vision that grows organically out of the institution that is a shared vision in which all of the constituents feel that they have a stake. It needs to be seen as the university?s vision, not as the president?s vision, but the president has to be the person who leads the charge in the development of the vision and then in the implementation of the vision. I think a successful president has to have certain, sort of personality traits, humility, empathy; the ability to understand and connect with people is critical? It was more having space to think about who I understand myself to be, what I understand to be my particular gifts and graces and capacities for leadership such as they are, and the kind of institution and the needs of an institution that would most cleanly align with myself understanding? My answer to that would be a real curiosity for the ways in which colleges and universities are run. If you don?t have a real curiosity about that issue, and you don?t have commitment to take the program and take full advantage of the program, it is going to be a tough ride for you and your classmates both. President Gavin Benjamin No one person can be successful by himself. University president doesn?t do it by himself (5) you have to build the team. So, working with others to put it in the (6) colloquial frame is extremely important. Be able to realize that (7) it?s going to take hard work, it?s not just a 9 to 5 job and that?s important. President Jessica Elliott Well, learned to listen in class and to interact with other people very positively ? I developed my cultural skills, my skills in diversity ? one is good interpersonal relations ? interpersonal relations, listening and I think it?s important to pay attention to the people that report to you, like to meet with the vice president that reports to me, and I think it?s important to really listen to what they?re doing, their successes and their failures or challenges and uh so that you know maybe you can give them some assistance some help, but I think you also have to convey to the entire campus community that you know what you?re doing, not in a pompous way, but in an informed way ? I think that the important one would be this interpersonal relationship. President Joshua Dillan The ultimate reason that some people do it because they like being in school but it is a very expensive way to stay in school? I am stubborn so I ha ve a goal here 302 President Elijah Alexander If you asked where?s my strength, I will tell you probably is in two areas: academic programs and budgeting. I can kind of drill down a budget and really see how we are allocating those resources and put in procedures and models to kind of move us where we need to be. I can find a penny; I can find a penny in a budget? You?re either going to lead or you?re going to manage. You can?t do both, because management requires that you get down and begin to dot the i?s and cross the t?s and step by step here?s what you do. Leading is the big picture, the vision and so I met yesterday, for example, with the founders day committee and talked about the vision of what we would want for a new revised founders day and gave them some ideas and someone asked well, what about, I don?t know about the details, this is, that?s the vision that we see, I leave the details to someone else. As president, you can?t get bogged down into details, because you spend all your time at details? you have to have a vision of where things need to go? Because we?re trying to move an agenda, and we?re trying to move the university in a different way, but that you don?t let that stop you from doing what it is you do, you just do it. As long as you have, clearly articulated related to the mission of the university going forward, you just do it. President Ian Flynn I think that you can learn by doing those kinds of things and then, you know, you just kind of have the genetic ability to go out and pick people?s pockets and so that?s what you do ? I think there are three things. One, I think you need to have a very thick skin, you need to have a good sense of humor and I think you need to have nerves like sewer pipes? Once you make a decision, you need to learn to live with it and not start putting your fingers to the wind. You have to be a good decision maker and make it and live with it. Don?t try to second-guess yourself all the time. But you have to have a very thick skin in today?s world otherwise you will not survive. If you can?t enjoy yourself and laugh and find humor in all the kinds of silliness that you engage in, then you are going to have a very short tenure in my view ? I think the ability to be able to say ?no?, the ability to be able to say ?yes?, and the ability to be able to work yourself through very shark- infested political waters ? I think the ability to be able to say the emperor has no clothes; I think the ability to be able to cut through political correctness and be willing to be brave enough to say that that just doesn?t make any sense? I think it?s important not to be too ambitious too early? I think that probably the issue that is the most important for me now is that I?m a workaholic? I?d say make sure from the very beginning you have balance in your life. Work hard, play hard. Cherish your friends. If you get married, make certain you work hard at that. Love your kids. There?s nothing wrong with having a spiritual side of your life. I think those are the things I have missed and probably will regret for the rest of my life. President Lucus Jacob The other gains would?ve been in more practical kinds of ways, managing time, those kinds of things? Really, your job is to communicate, well let me back up, your job is to 303 provide the impotence and resources and the where with all to develop that institutional vision and to become the relentless communicator of that vision to all of the various audiences that are out there and to try to do everything you can to arrange for the resources necessary for the faculty and staff to do their job? Some people want to be a president because they want power, some people want to be president because they want to leave a mark, and they want to leave a legacy? I?m not going to ask the college junior how I should establish, or what kinds of residence halls rules I should have. But, I am going to ask him what his opinions are. You know, I?m still going to want his point of view? being in control of yourself? They must be able to manage their own time. They must be able to manage themselves ? explain things in stories ? I think the other skills that you are going to develop will depend on you as an individual, because everybody has their unique talent and things that appeal to them. Some people are going to be very good with numbers. They?re likely to end up VP?s for business. There are a lot of people who end up with abilities in a specific field, in a specific discipline; they are likely to end up faculty members or provosts. There are people who have a wide range, and really where you are going to end up is going to depend largely on what your abilities are and whether you hone them in, and then whether or not you can communicate to people that they need you. President Emelia Lily I think building relationships, you?ve got to have those experiences and I had a conversation with a colleague recently about you know well I?m afraid I?m making mistakes and I said yes, we are all going to make mistakes, I make mistakes every day, but I have to be one to admit that I?ve made a mistake, and have to be willing to learn from that mistake and if we?re willing to do those two things, we can make progress. President William James I think the student has to have a passion for higher education and a desire to serve in higher education and contribute to higher education. President Nolan Cooper I think the program did for me that I still use today is this whole notion of being focused, I mean when I was in my doctoral program I was very focused, I didn?t plan to stay all..., I went through the program, bam,bam,bam. So my focus was laser type focus. And so now when I have meetings my meetings are focused, I have a sense of what I?m trying to get accomplished during my five year watch, so that?s focus. So when you get these extremists conversations and people being sort of pull you away from your mission and your focus, I pull them right back. So, I don?t go into any meeting without knowing what outcome I want, that?s something that I learned way back there in my program. So, if we sat down to study for qualifying exams, we had an outcome, would pass the qualifying exam for we had a shorter term objective and that is to cover this thematic area having to do with financing we had to know. That?s something that has really carried forward with me. 304 President Peter Johns It would first of all it would screen for people who have a strong interest in a sustained career in higher ed, you know I mean why do you want to get people involved if they?re going to sell insurance, I mean it really ought to be, you ought to screen the best you can for people who are truly interested in the field and that are going to stick with it and I think that shapes a lot of what happens in the program. President Ian Flynn So I think that you can learn by doing those kinds of things and then, you know, you just kind of have the genetic ability to go out and pick people?s pockets and so that?s what you do. President Levi Carter I would say without question that my commitment to higher education is greater because I went through that program. Public Speaking/Presentations President Jessica Elliott I improved in my presentations to people, different groups, speaking to different groups, I never, I think I had developed that to a certain degree because I had leadership responsibilities, but uh I think because of the responsibilities on this level and I improved in that area because sometimes you have to go from one group to the next, you have to go through faculty to administrators to a social group and you have to adjust your message and I think that?s a technique that I have learned and I have improved in over the years. You finally got one of those skills. President Lucus Jacob If you are going to be an upper level executive administrator, then public speaking is going to be a part of what you do on a regular basis. Whether it?s to the rotary club or the Kiwanis, I?ve done sermons, you know, I?ve spoken at faculty meetings, you end up doing impromptu things from time to time and school presentations, I mean it just becomes, it has to become a second nature to what you do. President Jessica Elliott I think I had developed that to a certain degree because I had leadership responsibilities, but uh I think because of the responsibilities on this level and I improved in that area because sometimes you have to go from one group to the next, you have to go through faculty to administrators to a social group and you have to adjust your message and I think that?s a technique that I have learned and I have improved in over the years. 305 President Evelyn Aurora You are going to give a lot of speeches, persuasive speeches and informational speeches, speeches where you are telling people you are getting ready to cut their budgets, and there are so many different ways. President Gavin Benjamin Well, you would choose a particular topic, this was before computers so you had a file, you would take a copy of a particular topic out of the file, might be, let?s see, international education and you review literature on that and make a presentation in the class about current issues in international education. Let?s see, its small classes, have maybe six or eight people in the class. So, you?d do a fifteen or twenty minute presentation. President Lucas Jacob Well, as you know in most graduate schools, there?s a great deal of presentation work that is done. Very often the faculty member will come in and say ok, you?re going to cover this and you?re going to cover this, and you?re going to cover this and your job is to go out and prepare the material and come back and present to your colleagues with the faculty member acting as devil?s advocate and mentor. And so, that was a learning approach that is not used typically in the under graduate area, so it required a bit of a learning curve. President Nolan Cooper If you don?t think well, how in the world can you write well, if you don?t think well, how can you speak, because speaking is nothing but the outcome or the output of your thinking? They require each group to make a presentation and they probably rotate so the same person isn?t making the report all the time, so it forces a person to learn the importance of presentation? I can?t tell you about making presentations, if I don?t make presentations at professional conferences myself ? speaking, those are all learned skills. President Peter Johns How do you present so that they sustain an interest with they?ve got a three minute attention span you know how do you present so that you?re making things stick? The presentation aspects or the shaping of messages and so a lot of professional meetings are very helpful with that... the communication arts, writing and speaking probably a person who is getting into a doctorate program in higher ed you?ve already established those, but practically everything that I do is connected in a direct way with being able to communicate an idea or explain something or lead and so it would be impossible to have too much emphasis focused on that on communication arts and so that?s something that is huge. 306 President Evelyn Aurora I learned a lot of that at the networking sessions at conferences and the big receptions, like you have probably gone here and you have to figure out how, ?well how do I talk to these people? I don?t know anybody? and I learned that at conferences?One of the things I do a lot of as a college president is I communicate. I think an effective higher education program should help refine your oral communication skills. I think that faculty and programs need to maybe increase the opportunities for students to do oral and written communication, particularly oral communication, because you are going to give a lot of speeches, persuasive speeches and informational speeches, speeches where you are telling people you are getting ready to cut their budgets, and there are so many different ways. President Lucus Jacob You need to constantly be communicating who the institution is and what it?s trying to achieve, in the hopes that you are planting seeds that will come to fruition at some point in time? You know, again you learn about governance, you learn about faculty roles, you learn about law, but unless you are in the field of communication, public speaking or whatever, you don?t learn that in a graduate program. Now, should that be a part of the graduate program? Probably, because it is going to be, if you are going to be an upper level executive administrator, then public speaking is going to be a part of what you do on a regular basis. Whether it?s to the rotary club or the Kiwanis, I?ve done sermons, you know, I?ve spoken at faculty meetings, you end up doing impromptu things from time to time and school presentations, I mean it just becomes, it has to become a second nature to what you do? have the opportunity and the privilege of having the leadership role for some period of time and you want to make the best of it by having the greatest impact and influence on people by the speaking. The other competency, I think that you have to have is that you have to have the ability to communicate. In writing, orally and public assemblages and individual private meetings, you?ve got to have the ability to be clear, to be concise, to make your point, and to do so in a way that engages the person that?s receiving the communication. You?ve got to be able to stand up at an alumni reception and speak in such a way so that the alumni will go, wow, boy I?m glad he?s here. I?m glad he?s in charge. You?ve got to speak to the faculty in a way that makes them say boy, I?m glad he?s in charge. You?ve got to be able to speak to the students in a way that says, well I have confidence in what he?s going to do, and so communication is a constant part of what a president does both individually and collectively? I think the art of making an attendance speech you didn?t know you were going to give. There are a lot of occasions when I walked into a room because it?s on my schedule to do so, and all of a sudden somebody?s saying, will you say a few words? I mean, that happens over and over and over again. You?ve got to master the ability to stand up and say something worth hearing and worth remembering and you have to do it quickly. So, the ability to speak extemporaneously and the ability to keep yourself prepared to speak? So, more than anything else, you?ve got to be able to speak confidently? having to make those presentations and having somebody who?s going to hold their toes to the fire. Who?s going to get up after that presentation and say, ?That?s not the way you need to do it?. 307 Let?s look at what you?ve just done and analyze it? The other gains would?ve been in more practical kinds of ways, presentation skills, those kinds of things. President Joshua Dillan I?m having school meetings, I?ve had two of them, and I?ve got three more to do a meeting with each of the schools and during that period of time we have dialogued back and forth and they are asking questions, that is how I think you build that communication link and it becomes a very, very important skill for a president to be able to engage, to be able to dialogue, to be able to persuade, and at the end of the day that?s all that you have. You know within the academy, you don?t have the ability to make decisions that you would in business; you?ve got to persuade people and convince people this is the way you think things ought to go? There was no nonsense, very straight forward, but quite good as a communicator. He was a, if I had to name a strength for him, it was his ability to communicate and he could talk the talk. He was great. President Jessica Elliott And I was hesitating for a while as to whether I should finish that doctorate, but I was encouraged by the president of another university in Mid-West, Sister Johnson, she said finish that doctorate and just move ahead. So I had encouragement from others to finish up?And so it was a great opportunity for me to learn for my master because my professor had been a president of a small college, Delta College. He had worked with AGB Association of Governing Boards and he was a very fine academic and then addition to that there was one professor who was very strong in Philosophy of education and another one very strong in community colleges he had gotten a huge financial grant in the area of community colleges and we here are somewhat of a community college we were totally commuter up until about three years ago and now we went back into residency, so the community aspect was very interesting to me too. Program Faculty President Joshua Dillan We had all of these conversations because I not only run the program and we have all of these conversations with faculty about the curriculum and changing the curriculum and I want to say that none of that matters, but it actually matters at the margin to the students. President Ryan Wyatt The faculty, I think, the best faculty would be one that includes both theoreticians and practitioners. Some people who have devoted their lives to the study of higher education administration and who have published and have strong theoretical understandings, but I think it is also important to have, in a program like this, practitioners, people who have had the real experience, former presidents, their former administrative leaders in higher education. So I think a strong program would be one in which the faculty represents both of those perspectives, the theoretical and the practical. 308 President Ian Flynn I think that probably the ideal program would be one in which you would attract very talented students being taught by a very talented faculty that had great skills in terms of themselves having been engaged in higher education in some appropriate way and also who had the ability to be able to connect the partnership of the externalities of what you?re doing, to some of the ideas that you?re trying to generate. So that would be the kind of program I?d look at. It?s all driven by talent and the curricular structure, as I?ve noted? I found the faculty I was around, I found their help and support to be very useful to me. President William James Before you get to that conference with that paper you want to go through that process with your faculty mentors and friends that are in the program with you. President Peter Johns I would have it staffed with faculty who genuinely have both the scholarly experience and the practical experience. I have an overwhelming bias about utilizing people who have been in the field and have had some direct experience with what they?re doing. You know, I understand the love of scholarship and that you can be drawn into purely research agenda but come on I mean you?re working with people who are going to be front line people in their institutions and it would help to have had some practical experience. President Gavin Benjamin People that have been there. Faculty members that have experience with working in higher education that know and can bring value to the experience for the student. Those that have been involved with models or are aware of models that work well. That have good experiences that they can share in the classroom and put the students where they too can benefit. President Nolan Cooper Faculty. I think in higher education, I think it is awful important that the people who teach in programs, that a certain number of them have had experience leading in programs. Now the one exception to that might be those who teach history. Those who do assessment and so on and so forth, because I think that skill set is different and the reason why you want faculty members who?ve had experience doing that, you want them to lead through example. So, if I?m talking to you about strategic planning, I can have two levels of conversation with you, I can talk with you about what the plan should consist of, something like a person saying, that the, that an essay should consist of a thesis, a statement, and supporting material, but until you write that sucker, ok, it?s all theoretical. And so I think it is very important to have people in the classroom in front of doctoral students who?ve had some experience actually leading and administrating 309 programs, so that when they talk about selecting senior level people, they?re doing so from the perspective of their experience. So, you need what I call accommodation of faculty, those who can deal with didactic, philosophical, that approach, then you need people who can come at it from an applied, but the best would be those people who can, male their pride, I mean the philosophical, with the applied. So that?s the faculty piece and they need to be people who have a record of achievement as administrators and as scholars. I can?t tell you about writing an article, if I haven?t written anything myself, I can?t tell you about making presentations, if I don?t make presentations at professional conferences myself, should say I can?t tell you anything, but you get the point I?m trying to make. President Evelyn Aurora I think an effective higher education program has faculty who have been in higher education. I think an effective higher education program has also faculty who have done research and they teach you analytical skills because as an administrator you are constantly reading and analyzing using research. President Lucus Jacob For the faculty, I would expect them to be engaged scholars. In other words, they are not just folks that are biding their time until retirement, that they are active in the field, that they are active in the research. President Emelia Lily I was going to start with faculty, first and foremost you need a quality faculty and you need a faculty that is engaged in, not only being able to talk about the history of higher education, but really where we are today and where we?re going tomorrow. So, they need to be current in their research. President Levi Carter I would probably try to find more of a balance between people who are experienced as practitioners in higher education. Now, when I went to Dominic State, it was considered one of the top programs in the country in higher education. I don?t know what it?s ranked today, but you know, a lot of the faculty ? and it?s not a criticism, it?s just an observation based upon experience ? a lot of the folks did not have direct experience in higher education and so they studied it, they read about it, et cetera, but they weren?t necessarily a CFO, they weren?t necessarily a president, et cetera. Although my advisor at Dominic State was a president. So that would be one thing I would be looking for. 310 Stress Management President Evelyn Aurora How to deal with lots of stress. I don?t think you can imagine what the stress level is like until you have it. I think it is different at different institutions. It can be anything from the football team, to the wind came and blew the roof off and then you got a snow storm, your favorite teacher dies, you also have a family life that has issues. I mean, it becomes an enormous stress, so I think I learned on the job of how to handle all of that?I think it would have been good if I would have had more of how to deal with stress, but I?m trying to think about what kind of program is this? Is this is a philosophical program. Is this is a religious program? Is this an exercise, get your mind positive, mental, I don?t know what kind of program that you would need to learn to deal with stress, because I think it?s something you kind of work out yourself. Some people decide to golf. Some people hang out with their spouses. I took up gardening, I write in a journal. There are so many ways people deal with it and I think looking from job to job and different stresses and different presidencies. Like one presidency might be all about raising money. Now if you are a person that likes raising money, that is not a stress for you. But if you are a person that is an introvert and doesn?t like going out raising money, that is a stress for you. Do you see what I?m saying? What might be a stress for one person, is not a stress for the others. It is all how you perceive it. President Gavin Benjamin I think a lot of that is a personal basis. For me, it?s my faith and my relationship with Jesus Christ, my Savior and my God. That?s my personal characteristic in that. Other things that go along with that, you have to stay fit and I didn?t realize that until 2003 and I had some heart problems, so I say I exercise on a daily basis now, I walk at least three miles a day. Workout at the gym three days a week. I?ve reduced my weight down. Those are things that help reduce your personal stress to deal with things. And you just can?t take yourself too seriously. If you take yourself too seriously then, that?s not, you know. You may be president but, my wife puts it very?., you may be president across the street, but you?re not a president here. And if you want to have a successful marriage, you can?t act presidential all the time, that?s for sure. Yeah, that?s one of the sociologists at Harvard told us is that you have to realize how you need to be subservient from time to time and if you want to have a marriage. You?ve been married how long now? President Nolan Cooper I think the thing that I didn?t get and that most programs don?t attempt to teach people is this whole sense of wholeness and self-preservation, taking care of yourself. These positions are high stress jobs if you?re doing your job, you?re going to be making decisions that are going to piss a lot of people off, some will be faculty, some will be students, parents, legislators, donors, somebody?s going to be in a perpetual state of being displeased with you, you can?t personalize that stuff even though we do and I do too. But this whole notion of taking care of yourself, your emotional wellbeing, your spiritual 311 wellbeing, all of that stuff, wellbeing, wholeness, wellness. No program that I?m aware of teaches that? How would I? Ok, and that is, I would say it would be in a seminar or workshop or speaker series on the personal dimensions of leadership, the personal dimensions of leadership. Man, this stuff has a powerful impact on families, I have a wife of forty-one years and just think every time I move that woman had to move, uprooted her whole career, it takes a strong woman to deal with some stuff like that, ok, or if a man is following or trailing his spouse, powerful stuff, or you pick up and say, hey we?re going to move to Minnesota, freezing and someone is going with you and you?ve got children and all of that. So there?s a personal dimension of leadership and the price we pay to lead or the sacrifices we make to lead. I don?t think programs do a very good job with that at all. Now you go to conferences and you?ll see presidents and chancellors, and people in the fitness center, but many of us are so overweight, we just, like me I don?t have much life beyond, my life with the university because I?m so absorbed and wrapped up in it. So, one of the things that I have to learn is that the place is a hundred years old, I?ve been here two and a half years, if I stay another two and a half years I won?t solve all of the problems. It?s sort of like eating the elephant one spoonful at a time. But most programs don?t teach us how to take care of ourselves. Most programs don?t expose us to this whole notion of celebrating small gains, we don?t even talk about that, and we talk about stuff at the mackerel level. What if we said to a child, learn to walk Sydney. But, then the child is trying to walk, you can?t just go from crawling to walking, the child stands up, takes a few steps and then they fall down, we say good girl, good boy and we celebrate the little small gains. In the academy what we do is we are so fixated on the big picture that we don?t celebrate the small gains. I think that?s one of the things, but this whole notion of wholeness, wellness, personal dimensions of leadership and all of that. President Ian Flynn I think that probably the issue that is the most important for me now is that I?m a workaholic. I work twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. I love what I do and would not doing anything else, but I think if I were giving advice to a young person like you, I?d say make sure from the very beginning you have balance in your life. Work hard, play hard. Cherish your friends. If you get married, make certain you work hard at that. Love your kids. There?s nothing wrong with having a spiritual side of your life. I think those are the things I have missed and probably will regret for the rest of my life? Yeah, well you know I?ve done it for so long I think it?s become part of my life. What I worry about is what am I going to do when I give up this chair because my life has been so structured I can tell you what I?m doing two years from now tonight. And when you live that structured life for 30 years, and then all of a sudden you drop out of sight, you are no longer the president of a university and you?re off the structure. How do you decelerate? I think that is one of the real challenges. The stress, yeah, the stress is there, but I?ve learned to deal with the stress. My job is to give other people ulcers and not get them myself. 312 President Peter Johns This probably is not the focus of your efforts nor should it be necessarily but the more personal aspects of a presidency and about the personal stresses that you have and how do you manage all of that. I?m not sure that any program can really prepare you for that, but in your ideal program design for instance maybe a doctoral program in higher education could have one evening three or four presidents come in and with a moderator who would press their buttons enough to get them to talk about the impact of the stress and how that affects them personally and how it affects their families because you know my life is divided into these just like everybody else?s life, but these two spheres where one is this very public thing that goes on in a place like this and another is what you get when you go home and you know they don?t always align and this is true in every job you know. College presidents is not unusual about this, the difference is that a college president is a little bit more visible and over a sustained period of time and so perhaps programs could develop a little bit more of a focus on that. I wish I would?ve had some of that. My first year on the job at Mott University we had a plane that crashed in Johnson City, an American Airlines flight that had members of our choir returning from a trip to Europe and we had a student killed on the flight, we had numbers of students who were injured lots of burn victims and the daughter, the fourteen year old daughter of our choir director didn?t die immediately, but she died within two weeks of the accident and I know this is a very small liberal arts college close knit and there was, that had a professional impact on me. I couldn?t even begin to predict what the personal impact was. The personal impact turned out to be the most devastating because you know, I felt like I had to try to help all these people and so I ended up pouring myself out everything I had to try and help these people and I didn?t hold anything back from me or from my family. And, you know my wife hung with me and all of that, but I mean that?s the sort of thing that can cause a divorce, it?s the sort of thing that can have a lot of other unanticipated consequences and it all sticks you know it all sticks so I think, I don?t know if any of that is dealt with in your program, but it ought to be? It?s only so much that you can do on trying to talk about that in advance but it helps to be warned. The only surprise that I?ve had in fact, in my presidency the only real surprise was that when I realized in the aftermath of that, that I had to be a minister to the campus and I was very poorly equipped to do that, but you?re role becomes kind of a Sheppard, a Healer, you know it?s the same thing that happens with, for instance with Obama when the Ft. Hood thing happened. Well, you know what is his role is as president is to get his butt down there to Texas and to be with those families and to you know to help them heal. Well, it?s the same thing that happens when a tragedy occurs on a campus, you know the president is a figure symbolic largely, but to help a community heal. It?s a pastoral function and I didn?t understand that and I didn?t see that coming, but that?s the way it is. And it?s true whether it?s a public institution or private. You know I?m speaking in a broadly spiritual sense here, I?m not talking about you know, like it?s got to be a big prayer meeting or something, I?m talking about it is a pastoral shepherding function. So, you know I guess that?s the only thing I?d throw in for extra. 313 Strategic Planning President Ryan Wyatt You really ought to have an understanding of how to approach strategic planning in a college or university setting and how to convert a strategic plan into action. President Peter Johns I got a good dose of strategic planning emphasis in my program in my higher education program and that has served me well. President Emelia Lily I took a course in strategic planning, and afterwards I ended up changing my doctoral program, I started out looking at college student development, but I realized that curriculum was not what I needed, what I needed was the higher education administration curriculum and so I transferred departments within the school of education. President William James I also am responsible for the consultation with colleagues to develop strategies in regard to that plan. And so in a way, the president needs to be the lead visionary and strategist. President Levi Carter I think it?s a program that would contain the components regardless of where that individual student plans to have his or her career. Whether it be in the student affairs division, whether it be in business affairs division, whether it be as a central executive administrative, those components of how the universities run, how the best universities run, the basis of that would be finance, organizational, behavior, student development, strategic planning, and in addition to that there should be opportunities for the student to have their own research interests, whether it might be in an executive area, or it might be in student affairs interest, academic affairs? probably in a strategic planning aspect of it. And then the, one of the best advantages. Knowledge of what to expect. Making sure that I use decision and broad based. My doctoral program helped me a great deal there. President Jessica Elliott my experience here when I came I said I have to do a strategic plan you know and of that?s another area that I think uh would help the students in a doctoral program to go through and dingle up a strategic plan. 314 Understanding Public Image/Symbolic Leadership President Nolan Cooper My job, this is my job, this is not who I am. And when you get presidents who forget who they are and assume that they are their job or they are the university, they are in trouble. President Ian Flynn I think (you need to have) the ability to be able to say the emperor has no clothes. President Ryan Wyatt I suppose that it is also a very public life and I knew that, and I have lived a public life at another time in life, but this is one where particularly in my setting where I am at a small school in a relatively small town, I am never not the president of the university and it is always the case. I talked about that with people, but I don?t think I really understood it until I had experienced it. President Peter Johns We?ve got great people here in finance but my name is on the line on making sure that the financial house is in order. It?s not enough just to be able to say well, I know how to hire great people ? when a tragedy occurs on a campus, you know the president is a figure symbolic largely... my life is divided into these just like everybody else?s life, but these two spheres where one is this very public thing that goes on in a place like this and another is what you get when you go home and you know they don?t always align and this is true in every job you know. College presidents is not unusual about this, the difference is that a college president is a little bit more visible and over a sustained period of time and so perhaps programs could develop a little bit more of a focus on that. President Lucus Jacob When you think about being a president you don?t think about fund raising, you think about being the leader of an academic community? my experience has been not just here, but at several other places, people always want to get touched by the head guy. They always want to speak to the president, even, if briefly. And, number two, it?s also been my experience that if a president wants something done, and he sends an emissary that emissary may be able to lay ground work but, there?s an ask to be made the president, the leader, the head guy, the big cheese, whatever you want to call him, he needs to go look somebody in the eye and say this is what I need you to do for me. Because, then you establish a bond that is not easily discarded, it can be, but not easily. 315 President Elijah Alexander A president is the face of the university you?re out there interacting, creating goodwill on the part of the university. President William James Last night I was at the White House for a reception held by the President. And so, it?s that public face that only the president can do and it?s certain people that only the president of the institution can be with and ask for help. Like major benefactors. So usually I?m the one that will ask for the gifts of a half a million or million to five million or ten million dollars and you know, if the VP for development came to a person like yourself that had that kind of capacity as well, you would say well why isn?t the president here asking? Those are the areas I think that need to be handled by the president. President Gavin Benjamin There?s some ? that you can do with that. Ace has some very good things that can prepare you in their fellowships and that sort of thing. I think still when you?re on the?.line and you?re the president it?s reality in that situation. There?s not too much that can prepare you for that. Teaching and Learning Activities President Nolan Cooper I would use a combination of assessment techniques: student journals, personal-peer feedback, faculty observations, focus groups, etc. I must say that I also believe educational leadership programs should approach the issue of personal wholeness by making certain there are experiential activities and readings that address these issues, beginning with things as basic as values clarification, stress management, etc. President William James I also had a class with Eric Binder, the former president of Catt University and that was a privilege to have Eric Binder. That course was Issues in Higher Education and it was terrific because we looked at all of these major issues from athletics to finance to governments to government relations and so all these multiple issues and in a sense having a master in Eric Binder teaching the class. President Jessica Elliott Would use the following assessment techniques - Exam Evaluation 316 - Student-generated test questions - Peer Review President William James I think the best way to assess the ability of students to determine if they are capable in vision setting would be in a capstone course with a simulation exercise providing extensive data and then asking the student to set the vision for such an organization. President Ian Flynn I think there are a number of ways to assess time management ? the most important is the timeliness of their response to classroom preparation and participation. President Emelia Lily To assess doctoral student learning, I would use a few different assessment methods: I would use case study presentations and discussions to explore the various aspects of leadership, decision-making, administration, and the complexity of issues; I would use a final paper with a presentation to assess the comprehensive nature of the learning based on the course learning outcomes. I would also use various classroom discussions and group projects to assess learning during each class session. I have used the one-minute papers to assess learning and understanding of topics at the end of each class meeting and found them to be very helpful. President Lucus Jacob I think it would be highly unlikely for graduate students to master the methods of fundraising. There are many seasoned professionals who are still working at mastering those methods, which typically takes years of experience. That being said, I do believe there are ample materials available to give the student a good understanding of the issues related to fundraising, particularly from the Council to Advance the Support of Education (CASE). I would utilize CASE materials in the basic course in order to give a broad overview of the field. I would require the students, in small groups, to prepare a detailed plan for a fundraising event, and then I would test for understanding by utilizing case studies for analysis. Again, I believe CASE would have a variety of case studies, essay questions and other assistance for faculty. President Peter Johns I don?t recall this specific fragment of our conversation, but I assume that I was talking about the elements of leadership that are learned in theory in the classroom, but are best refined through mentorships or from first-hand experience. In this list I would include items as wide-ranging as conflict resolution, media relations, committee leadership, guiding the planning process, etc. All of these tasks involve a high degree of human interaction, and they are all crucial to the success of a presidency. I?m probably not smart 317 enough to figure out how to devise a test to determine mastery. In most cases, I would recommend the journal approach, including heavy interaction with a mentor. President Joshua Dillan What we did was to have these graduate students prepare their CV and also a mock letter in response to an ad in the chronicle of higher education. Then, in teams, other students would respond to the letter and CV as if they were serving on a search committee. The student would then have the opportunity to revise their material but also develop a written career plan to begin to fill in some of the most significant gaps in their resume over time. President Evelyn Aurora I think I would use the new media such as blogging, etc. Or, I would use a computer- generated question with links that allowed students to give an example. In other words, it would not be a pen and paper test. It would be an assessment using one or more means of the new media. Theory President Ryan Wyatt I learned about finance and about theoretical models that are applied to finance and higher education has helped prepare me for this role, the revenue theory of cost which has been pretty substantially challenged in the current economy but helps me understand how the institution got into the budget situation it is in? challenges students through the exploration of theoretical understandings of administration and leadership, to connect the dots between those theoretical understandings and that sort of practical experiences of administration and leadership and higher education. President Joshua Dillan A combination of theoretical understanding of it and then I can do an amazing module on assessment now from what is required of a president at least in the Southern region? So I think the effective ones are ones that provide this balance of theory and practice and with the faculty that are teaching them provide that balance of theory and practice if they are all just theoreticians in active admissions, I don?t think the program would work. President Levi Carter Theory, practice and mentoring. Now, you know where that comes from? Theory, practice and mentoring? It comes from medicine or Allied Health training. 318 President Ian Flynn I do believe that there needs to be a combination of good teaching, good theory and good mentorship and the ability to be able to get out into the body of politics of the university to see how sausage is made. President Elijah Alexander I?m always going to go to providing two things ? one is you provide theoretical. President Nolan Cooper Don?t care how much of this applied stuff you stack on, if you don?t have a historical and contextual framework in which to consider the application, the applications have nothing to hang on? So, you need what I call accommodation of faculty, those who can deal with didactic, philosophical, that approach, then you need people who can come at it from an applied, but the best would be those people who can, merge, I mean the philosophical, with the applied. President Gavin Benjamin Then continuous research. One of our faculty members built the ?.we had to do every week, we had to have a research topic and make a presentation of some classified and that kept me busy. Kept you reviewing literature. That was good. President William James One is the person has to have very good research skills, not only for his or her research agenda and I haven?t done any research now for seven years but to be able to read the research literature and to understand that. Writing President Lucus Jacob In writing, orally and public assemblages and individual private meetings, you?ve got to have the ability to be clear, to be concise, to make your point, and to do so in a way that engages the person that?s receiving the communication? Let?s look at what you?ve just done and analyze it. You know as cruel as it is, I remember very vividly a writing teacher I had in an undergraduate level, who had a student get up and read their composition in class and when that person got through, she said Now, that?s the perfect example of everything that I?ve told you not to do and then proceeded to rip that student to pieces. But, she didn?t do it mean, she wasn?t ugly to the student, she was looking at the writing and what was wrong with the writing and what needed to be repaired about the writing? I think you?ve got to have somebody who?s willing to hold you to a 319 standard and analyze what you?re doing and say that?s good communication and that?s not. President Joshua Dillan I would say most of it was the dissertation piece is the part of the most significant piece for me. Figuring out how to develop an hour-long topic, researching and writing it, where we had to do dissertation work and I have gone on to chair and be on probably 20 dissertation committees. President Nolan Cooper I think the program by having to write a pr?cis, you know a short paper where you take a topic and this professor I had in higher education he forced us to write whatever we were going to write the analytical piece as well as the application piece in one page. You didn?t have to observe any margins, you could single space, you could double space, but you could only use one page. And, I think that forced me to write in a very concise, clear, crisp kind of manner. President Emelia Lily I learned in my leadership course in my doctoral program was the ability to write a brief, an executive brief. We had to read a number of articles and we had to do no more than a page President Peter Johns But the communication arts, writing and speaking probably a person who is getting into a doctorate program in higher ed you?ve already established those, but practically everything that I do is connected in a direct way with being able to communicate an idea or explain something or lead and so it would be impossible to have too much emphasis focused on that on communication arts and so that?s something that is huge. President Evelyn Aurora I think an effective higher education program should help refine your communication skills, both your written and your oral? I think that faculty and programs need to maybe increase the opportunities for students to do oral and written communication. President William James Certainly about preparing to give a paper, which is so important because that?s academic life. 320 President Nolan Cooper Putting together quality papers? That?s something that has really carried forward with me. The other piece is a writing piece, what I see is so many people who can?t write worth a nickel. You know they have PhD?s, EDd?s , JD?s, all kinds of D?s, but they can?t write. And part of the reason they can?t write is that they don?t practice writing ? if you don?t think well, how in the world can you write well ? writing those are skills ? so the curriculum there?s a written piece associated with this ? I can?t tell you about writing an article, if I haven?t written anything myself ? writing, those are all learned skills ? he only way you can write is to write. I mean, no matter what you do in composition, you have to write, you have to learn to, you have to write, practice writing President Emelia Lily So if there?s any way that you can begin, and work in your dissertation with your writing like this, but you also need to be able to write in a more focused, concise way, I think that would be a skill that I would want doctoral students to know. President Lucus Jacob I think that you have to have is that you have to have the ability to communicate, in writing?. In writing, you?ve got to have the ability to be clear, to be concise, to make your point, and to do so in a way that engages the person that?s receiving the communication. President Ryan Wyatt I frankly saw some writing among some classmates that troubled me, and I think they would have trouble moving too far along in higher education administration without owning those skills in writing. President Jessica Elliott When I came to my doctorial level, I didn?t have a lot of problems with research and writing. Section 3 ? Definitions and Charts As previously noted, Section 3 includes definitions of the coding list. In addition, coding charts associated with manuscripts one and two are displayed. These charts describe the number of times a particular code was referenced by participants. Official Code Definitions Priori Codes Definitions Conference Association & Participation Attendance and Participation in Professional Conferences and Institutes. Management Budgeting, Knowledge of Politics, Collaboration, Conflict Management, Planning and Implementation, Taking Initiative. Personal Attributes Autonomy, Values, Identity, Self-Esteem and Maturity. Leadership Leadership Ability. Complex Cognitive Integrate Complex Ideas, Reflective Thought, Intellectual Flexibility. Knowledge Acquisition Subject Matter Mastery, Knowledge Application. Interpersonal Development Understanding Human Relations, Relate to others, Work with Diverse Populations, Effective Communication, People Skills, Empathy and Firmness. Foundational Knowledge Conceptual Competence, Student Development Theory, Leadership, Technology, Counseling, Time Management, Overall Knowledge of Higher Education, Administrative Skills, Legal Knowledge, Enrollment Management, Academic Mission Research/Assessment, Strategic Planning, Campus Politics, and Budgeting. Hands-on Experience Internships, Practicum, etc. Learning Goals Expected Student Outcomes. Teaching/Learning Activities Lecture, Case Study, Role Play, and Gaming/Simulations. Curriculum Set of courses, and their content, offered by higher education program. Program Faculty Doctoral Faculty within Higher Education Program Assessment/Accountability Student Learning Measuring Student Learning Outcomes. Enrollment Management Admissions, Student Recruitment. Fundraising Advancement & Development, Friend-raising. Emergent Codes Definitions Mentoring Personal Development Relationship, Deep or Passive. Strategic Planning Knowledge Area. History of Higher Ed Knowledge Area. Finance Knowledge Area. Case Study Class activity. 321 Emergent Codes Definitions Presentations Speaking to Diverse Audiences, In-class and out of class activity. Writing Effective Writing. Symbolic Leadership Public Image of President. Theory Exposure to academic Research. Communication Sending a Message in a Written, Oral, Visual, or Nonverbal Format. What knowledge and competences are required to succeed in executive leadership as perceived by university presidents? Priori Codes Johns Jacob Benjamin Alexander Cooper Lily James Elliott Dillan Carter Flynn Aurora Wyatt * Foundational Knowledge X X X X X X X X X X X X * Knowledge Acquisition X X X X X X X X X * Complex Cognitive X X X X X X X X + Interpersonal Development X X X X X X X X X X X X + Personal Attributes X X X X X X X X X X X + Management X X X X X X X X X X X + Assessment/ Accountability Student Learning X X X X X X + Fundraising X X X X X X X X X Emergent Codes Johns Jacob Benjamin Alexander Cooper Lily James Elliott Dillan Carter Flynn Aurora Wyatt * History of Higher Education X X X X X X X * Finance X X X X X X X X X X X * Public Image/ Symbolic Leadership X X X X X + Strategic Planning X X X X X X + Communications X X X X X X X X X X + Writing to diverse audiences X X X X X + Speaking to diverse audiences X X X X X X Knowledge Areas = * Competency Areas = + 322 To what extent do university presidents perceive their academic program as preparing them for their role? Priori Codes Johns Jacob Benjamin Alexander Cooper Lily James Elliott Dillan Carter Flynn Aurora Wyatt + Foundational Knowledge X X (-) X X X X X X X X X X + Knowledge Acquisition X X X X X X X + Complex Cognitive X X X X X X X X * Interpersonal Development X (-) X X X X X X * Personal Attributes X X X X X X X X X X X X X * Management X X X X X X X X X X X *Assessment/Accountability Student Learning X X (-) X X X X X X (-) X X X (-) X (-) * Fundraising X (-) X (-) X (-) X (-) X (-) X (-) X X (-) X (-) X (-) X (-) X X (-) Emergent Codes Johns Jacob Benjamin Alexander Cooper Lily James Elliott Dillan Carter Flynn Aurora Wyatt + History of Higher Ed X X X X X X + Finance X X (-) X X X X X X X X X * Strategic Planning X X X X X X * Communications X X X X X X X X X X * Writing X X X X X X * Speaking X X X X X X Knowledge Areas = * Competency Areas = + Negative Response = (-) 32 3 324 Conclusion This chapter (7) presented the data analysis upon which findings were developed. 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New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2007(112), 69?82. 344 Appendix 1 Auburn University Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval Letter 345 INFORMED CONSENT for a Research Study entitled ?A PRESIDENTIAL CURRICULUM: AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIGHER EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION PROGRAMS AND PREPARATION TOWARDS THE COLLEGE PRESIDENCY? You are invited to participate in a research study to share your perspectives in respect to your doctoral training, current position, and higher education programs in general. The study is being conducted by Sydney Freeman Jr., a graduate student working under the direction of David Diramio, PhD at Auburn University. You were selected as a possible participant because you are college and university president that has earned a doctorate with a concentration in higher education administration and are age 19 or older. What will be involved if you participate? If you decide to participate in this research study, you will be asked to participate in taped interviews asking about your perspectives in respect to your doctoral training, current position, and higher education programs in general. Your total time commitment will be approximately 40 minutes. Are there any risks or discomforts? There are no perceived risks associated with participating in this study. To minimize any risks, we will not collect any specific or identifying information (such as SSN or name) during the interview and all information will be maintained confidentially. Video/audio tape from the interview will be destroyed after transcription. You will be assigned (or you can give me one!) a pseudonym and your responses will not have any identifying information. Are there any benefits to yourself or others? Although there are no personal benefits, you can expect to make a general contribution to the effort to help understand how higher education administration programs can strengthen their curriculum. Will you receive compensation for participating? To thank you for your time you will be offered a small gift of a post-it holder. If you change your mind about participating, you can withdraw at any time during the study. Your participation is completely voluntary. If you choose to withdraw, your data can be withdrawn as long as it is identifiable. Your decision about whether or not to participate or to stop participating will not jeopardize your future relations with Auburn University, the Department of Educational Leadership, Foundations & Technology or the American Council of Education. Participant?s initials ______ Page 1 of 2 346 Your privacy will be protected. Any information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Information obtained through your participation may be used for the purposes of doctoral study, possible publications, and presentations. If you have questions about this study, please ask them now or contact Sydney Freeman Jr. by phone at 256-457-9014 or by email at freemsy@auburn.edu. You are also welcome to contact my major professor Dr. David Diramio by phone at (334) 844-3065 or by email at diramio@auburn.edu. A copy of this document will be given to you to keep. If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, you may contact the Auburn University Office of Human Subjects Research or the Institutional Review Board by phone (334)-844- 5966 or e-mail at hsubjec@auburn.edu or IRBChair@auburn.edu. HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED, YOU MUST DECIDE WHETHER OR NOT YOU WISH TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY. YOUR SIGNATURE INDICATES YOUR WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE. _____________________________ ____________________________ Participant's signature Date Investigator obtaining consent Date ____________________________ _____________________________ Printed Name Printed Name ______________________________ Co-Investigator Date _____________________________ Printed Name Page 2 of 2 347 Appendix 2 ACE Request for Use of Survey Data and Approval to Use Data 348 349 350 351 Appendix 3 IRB Recruitment Script My name is Sydney Freeman Jr. and I am a graduate student from the Department of Educational Leadership, Foundations & Technology at Auburn University. I would like to invite you to participate in my research study to share your perspectives in respect to your doctoral training, current position, and higher education programs in general. You may participate if you are a college and university president that has earned a doctorate with a concentration in higher education administration. Please do not participate if you are not a college or university president, or have not earned a doctorate with a concentration in higher education administration. As a participant, you will be asked to share perspectives on the aforementioned. Questions will be asked in either a one-on-one focus group format, email interview format. The interview should range between 30-45 minutes. There is no expected risk to this study. The information you share with me will be completely confidential. You will be assigned (or you can give me one!) a pseudonym and your responses will not have any identifying information. Your responses will only be shared with my major professor, Dr. David Diramio, and will be combined with responses from other participants. The information I gather will inform the work of those associated with the curriculum development of higher education administration programs. If you would like to participate in this research study, please reply to this email at freemsy@auburn.edu or call 256-457-9014. 352 Appendix 4 IRB Interview Guide Interview Guide [INTRODUCTORY SCRIPT] Thank you for agreeing to be interviewed today. My name is Sydney Freeman and I am a graduate student at Auburn University in Alabama. I am conducting a mixed methods dissertation research study about college presidents with doctoral degrees in higher education administration. Some of the data informing my study comes from the ACE American College President study of 2007, including information about the backgrounds, career paths, and experiences of college and university chief executive officers. I have conducted a secondary analysis of the ACE data, which has provided the foundation for some of our discussion today. I am going to ask you questions about your experience as both a doctoral student and serving as president. The information you share with me today is completely confidential. You will be assigned (or you can give me one!) a pseudonym and your responses will not have any identifying information. Your responses will only be shared with my major professor, Dr. David Diramio, and will be combined with responses from other participants. The information I gather here today will inform the work of those associated with the curriculum development of higher education administration programs. To ensure that I am able to capture accurate and complete responses, I would like to record this interview. As I mentioned, the recording will be transcribed and all names and places will be removed so as to protect your identity. Recordings will be destroyed after transcription. Do I have permission to tape record? 1. Let?s go back to the time before you started your doctoral program. a. Why did you decide to seek a terminal degree in higher education administration? b. When did you decide to pursue a doctorate, at what stage in your career? c. What was your long term professional objective? d. Did you believe that your degree would prepare you for that vocation? Probe: In the back of your mind, did you think that your degree would prepare you for a future presidency? 353 2. Now I?d like to ask about your experience as a doctoral student. a. Please share with me some of the skills and competencies you learned and developed while studying in your higher education administration doctoral program. b. In the ACE study, when asked whether they were sufficiently prepared for fundraising activities, presidents with doctoral degrees in education or higher education felt less prepared than those from other disciplines. What is your reaction to this finding? Did your program address issues of fundraising and, if not, how could that have better incorporated into the curriculum? Probe: Would you suggest using the Indiana University HEA program model? Is fundraising a topic that needs to be offered as a cognate or certificate? c. It was also found in the ACE study that those with doctoral degrees in education or higher education felt more prepared to manage issues of accountability and assessment of student learning than presidents from other disciplines. Did you feel the same way in your first presidency and if so how did your doctoral program prepare you to deal with issues of accountability and assessment? Probe: If not, why? d. The study also noted that those who earned a doctoral degree in education or higher education felt better prepared in addressing issues related to enrollment management. Did your doctoral program address issues related to enrollment management and, if so, how has that informed your practice today? 3. Did your program have a internship or practicum experience? If so, did you participate? Probe: Why did you decide not too? a. How did attendance at professional conferences and memberships in professional societies assist in your professional development? 4. Now I would like to ask you a few questions about your current job a. How have the skills and competencies introduced back in your doctoral program shaped the way you perform your duties today? 5. What are the core competencies needed for today?s college or university president across level and type? 354 6. Can you give examples of skills or knowledge that you have learned on-the-job as president? 7. How has professional development training programs such as the Harvard Institute for Educational Management, ACE?s Presidential Roundtable, or Kellogg MSI Leadership Fellows Program, assisted in your skill development? Probe: Could you elaborate on that? Please describe specific skills you have learned. 8. Now I would like to ask you a few questions about higher education programs in general a. How would you describe an effective higher education doctoral program? Probe: Please describe expectations of faculty, curriculum, and students. 9. Please provide examples of skills or competencies you would advise students of develop while in their higher education programs? (Interviewer note: use suggestions from ACE list. Suggestions include the following: assessment of student learning, enrollment management, media, public relations etc.) Probe: And what would be the best way to facilitate those skills? What techniques would you advise faculty to use? i.e. Case studies, Simulations, Role Play, internships, etc. (Interviewer note: Don?t give examples unless asked for) 10. What should I have asked you, but did not? 355 Appendix 5 Higher Education as a Field of Study: Bibliography 356 Higher Education as a Field of Study: Bibliography Adams, C. S. (1985). The future of graduate programs in higher education. 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