EMERGENT DESIGN
IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
THE APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF EMERGENCE 
TO THE CRAFT OF CREATING PUBLIC URBAN SPACES
Matthew Biesecker
Auburn University
College of Architecture, Design and Construction
School of Architecture 
Master of Landscape Architecture

This book is dedicated to my Father,
Lewis Biesecker. 
I believe it would have made him proud.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 
 I am deeply grateful for having a dedicated 
and talented thesis committee consisting of Dr. Rod 
Barnett, Professor Jocelyn Zanzot, and Dr. John 
Pittari.  Your criticism, though sometimes tough to 
bear, has been motivational throughout this project 
and will continue to be in the future.
 To advisors present at my presentations: 
Professors Rod Barnett, Jaclyn Barnett, David Hill, 
Charlene LeBleu, Justin Miller, John Pittari, Micheal 
Robinson, and Jocelyn Zanzot; thank you all for 
your valuable criticism.  
 I would like to thank 2010 MLA Graduate, 
Alex Bonda, for his support while simulating the de-
sign test.  I would also like to thank you for being 
a good travel companion and having an extended 
music playlist for the five hour drives to Asheville.  I 
wish you the best of luck in your professional career.
 To Professor Charlene LeBleu, you are 
greatly appreciated by myself and my family.  You 
have been an absolute blessing and you are a won-
derful teacher.  Thank you for allowing me the op-
portunity to learn, gain experience, and financially 
afford graduate school through the Graduate Re-
search Assistantship.  
 Throughout my life I have been blessed with 
honest, humble and devoted friends and family, of 
which, I am grateful to have.  I would like to thank 
four people in particular.  
 
?Momma,? you have been a positively sustained 
presence in the lives of your children.  I have loved 
you always, but the older I become the more I 
admire you.  You have so graciously endured the 
events life has brought you and it has been a pleas-
ure to share everyone of them with you.  I am thank-
ful for your commitment to be available when I?ve 
needed a friend to support me.
 Kellie B, I am so proud of you and your 
achievements.  You should take time to appreci-
ate how wonderful you are.  Thank you for being an 
amazing sibling and good friend.       
 I would like to thank my uncle, David Hal-
ford, for allowing me to stay at his home while con-
ducting site visits.  This has not only saved me mon-
ey, but helped me to take time to relax and reflect on 
the elements of life that are truly important.  
 
 And to my lovely Mandy.  Mostly, I thank you 
for not screaming ?HECK NO!? and sprinting in the 
other direction.  You have been extremely support-
ive over the last several years.  You have motivated 
me to do my best; while, at the exact same-time, 
completely distracting me from doing my work.  I 
thank you for checking my grammar; for I know that 
is a year?s worth of work in itself.  Although you cor-
rected almost every line in this book (which could 
mean you are co-author), you must admit, the mis-
spellings, repeated words, run-on sentences, and 
misused ?a?s? and ?an?s? led to some very interest-
ing and poetic writing styles.  Life consists of only 
a few moments, moments I can?t wait to experience 
with you.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
0 Cover       Matthew Biesecker Cover Page
1.1 Urban Emergence     Matthew Biesecker 16-17
1.2 Plan of the Palace of Versailles    Matthew Biesecker 18
1.3 Centric Diagram of the Sun King    Matthew Biesecker 19
1.4  Tempelhof Urban Ideas Competition 1   CHORA   22
1.5  Tempelhof Urban Ideas Competition 2   CHORA   23
1.6  Tempelhof Urban Ideas Competition 3   CHORA   23
1.7  Tempelhof Urban Ideas Competition 4   CHORA   23
1.8  Tree City 1      OMA   24
1.9  Tree City 2      OMA   24
1.10  Tree City 3      OMA   24
1.11 Tree City 4      OMA   25
1.12 Design Methodology Procedure    Matthew Biesecker 27
2.1 The Design Test Graphic     Matthew Biesecker 30-31
2.2 The Test Site       Matthew Biesecker 32-33
2.3 Geological History of the Appalachian Mountains   Matthew Biesecker 34
2.4 The Appalachian Mountains    Matthew Biesecker 35
2.5 Exodus of the Cherokee Nation    Matthew Biesecker 26
2.6 Map of Early European Exploration    Matthew Biesecker 26
2.7 The Trail of Tears      Robert Lindneux  27
2.8 Asheville Grist Mill     UNC-A   28
2.9 Evolution of the Built Environment    Matthew Biesecker 29
2.10 Timeline of Events that Created Asheville?s Built Environment  Matthew Biesecker 30-31
2.11 1890s Test Site Section     Matthew Biesecker 32
2.12 1890s Test Site Figure-ground     Matthew Biesecker 33
2.13 1917 Test Site Sanborn Map    UNC-CH  34
2.14 Stony Hill Soil Removal     UNC-A   36
2.15 Construction of The Grove Arcade    UNC-A   47
2.16 2010 Test Site Section     Matthew Biesecker 48
2.17 2010 Test Site Figure-ground    Matthew Biesecker 49
2.18 Significant Events in Asheville?s Built Environment 1976-2010 Matthew Biesecker 50
2.19 Proposed Development Along the French Broad River 1  Urban Design Associates 51
2.20 Proposed Development Along the French Broad River 2  Urban Design Associates 51
2.21 Proposed Development Along the French Broad River 3  Urban Design Associates 51
2.22 1.2 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback    Matthew Biesecker 52-53
2.23 Publicity Poster Design     Matthew Biesecker 54
2.24 Representation of First Direct Feedback Responses  Matthew Biesecker 55
2.25 Summer Night Movie and Meeting    Matthew Biesecker 56-57
2.26 Montford Context Map     Matthew Biesecker 58
2.27 Existing and Proposed Flint Street Bridge Sections  Matthew Biesecker 58
2.28 Flint Street Bridge Calibration 1    Matthew Biesecker 59
2.29 Process Drawings of Flint Street Bridge Calibrations  Matthew Biesecker 59
2.30 Flint Street Bridge Calibration 2    Matthew Biesecker 60
2.31 Flint Street Bridge Calibration 3    Matthew Biesecker 61
2.32 Process Drawings of Haywood Street Calibrations  Matthew Biesecker 62
2.33 Existing and Proposed Haywood Street Sections  Matthew Biesecker 62
2.34 Haywood Street Calibration    Matthew Biesecker 63
2.35 1.6 Direct Feedback Distribution    Matthew Biesecker 64
2.36   1.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback    Matthew Biesecker 65
2.37 Process Drawings of Market and Ledge Calibrations  Matthew Biesecker 66
2.38 Market Calibration Section     Matthew Biesecker 67
2.39 Ledge Calibration Section     Matthew Biesecker 67
2.40 Market and Ledges Calibration    Matthew Biesecker 68-69
2.41 Market Calibrations     Matthew Biesecker 70-71
2.42 2.6 Direct Feedback Distribution    Matthew Biesecker 72
2.43   2.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback    Matthew Biesecker 73
2.44 Ground-plane Transformation    Matthew Biesecker 74
2.45 Existing Ground-plane     Matthew Biesecker 75
2.46 Ground-plane Calibrations     Matthew Biesecker 75
2.47 Topography Calibrations     Matthew Beisecker 76-77
2.48 3.6 Direct Feedback Distribution    Matthew Biesecker 78
2.49   3.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback    Matthew Biesecker 79
2.50 Process Drawings of Vegetation Installation Calibrations Matthew Biesecker 80
2.51 Vegetation Installation Calibration    Matthew Biesecker 80
2.52 The Land of the Sky Booklet Cover    UNC-A   81
2.53 Stony Hill Soil Removal     UNC-A   81
2.54 Pine Tree Calibration     Matthew Biesecker 81
2.55 Vegetation Installation Calibration    Matthew Biesecker 82-83
2.56 4.6 Direct Feedback Distribution    Matthew Biesecker 84
2.57   4.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback    Matthew Biesecker 85
2.58 Process Drawings of Geological Expression   Matthew Biesecker 86
2.59 Layers of Uses Map     Matthew Biesecker 87
2.60 Screen Calibration     Matthew Biesecker 88
2.61 Asheville?s Sister Cities     Matthew Biesecker 88
2.62 Interactive Ground-plane Calibration   Matthew Biesecker 89
2.63 Interactive Ground-plane Detail    Matthew Biesecker 89
2.64 Geological Calibrations Section    Matthew Biesecker 90-91
2.65 Lower Pool Section     Matthew Biesecker 90
2.66 Geological Calibration      Matthew Biesecker 92-93
2.67 Geological Calibration 2     Matthew Biesecker 94-95
2.68 5.6 Direct Feedback Distribution    Matthew Biesecker 96
2.69   5.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback    Matthew Biesecker 97
3.1 Conclusion Graphic     Matthew Biesecker 98-99
3.2 Evolution of the Site     Matthew Biesecker 102
A.1 Appendix Graphic     Matthew Biesecker 104-105

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication........................................................................................ 5
Acknowledgements.......................................................................... 7
List of Illustration.............................................................................. 8-9
Abstract............................................................................................ 15
Introduction...................................................................................... 16
Design Test....................................................................................... 30
Conclusion....................................................................................... 98
Appendix I:  Defining Emergence..................................................... 104
Appendix II:  Emergence and Landscape Architecture.................... 108
Appendix III:  CHORA Criticism....................................................... 110
Appendix IV:  ?Tree City? Criticism..................................................  112
Appendix V:  Conversations and Criticism....................................... 114
Bibliography...................................................................................... 116
Due to the complicated nature of the material covered in this study and the audience?s di-
verse range of expertise, I feel it is best to divide the book into three major chapters.  These 
chapters include the following: a brief introduction to the thesis, an account of a design test 
of my proposed design methodology, and a conclusion consisting of my findings from the 
design test.  These three chapters will be followed by extensive appendices, which further 
explain components of the study.  This information was not included in the body of the text 
because it would have been distracting from the main points of the thesis.


14
Matthew Biesecker
15Chapter Title
ABSTRACT
 As scientific philosophies and theories have evolved, so has their application to the craft of landscape 
architecture.  The theory of emergence, which was developed in the 1970s, is currently finding applications in the 
design disciplines.  Because the built environment is now largely considered an emergent phenomenon, emergence 
might be used to obtain design goals using behaviors found in the urban realm.  This thesis examines how the theory 
of emergence can be applied to a design methodology used to create a public urban space. The ultimate goal of 
creating an emergent design methodology would be to create an urban network that functions at a higher organized 
complexity than it did prior.  It is hypothesized that if a higher organized complexity is generated, an even higher 
level of organized complexity will emerge because of the original increase in organized complexity.  The strategy for 
researching this thesis is divided into two major sections:  (1) determining the definition and sub-theory of emer-
gence that is most appropriate for the application to the design methodology for creating public urban spaces, and 
(2) constructing a repeatable design methodology for creating a public urban space based on the application of the 
selected definition and sub-theory to a design test.  The success of this examination is based on its ability to gener-
ate conceptual design methodologies and prompt further examination in the application of the theory of emergence 
to other sub-fields in landscape architecture.  If an emergent design methodology can be created the inhabitant?s 
desires can be reflected in the design of public urban spaces in a more direct manner than most current spaces.
KEYWORDS
Emergence, organized complexity, public urban spaces, design methodology

I.  INTRODUCTION
1.2  Plan of the Palace of Versailles
19Introduction
INTRODUCTION
 This thesis examines how the theory of emer-
gence can be applied to the design methodology used 
in creating a public urban space.  It has one primary 
goal: to create a design methodology (or a design proc-
ess) based on the application of the theory of emer-
gence that is suitable for guiding the transformation of a 
site from a private urban space to a public urban space.  
The study also has secondary goals which attempt to 
define the current state of research in the application of 
the theory of emergence to the craft of landscape ar-
chitecture, extending that conversation, and postulating 
the future direction of research in this area.  
 This investigation began, as so many others do, 
by a smaller study guided by personal interest.  My in-
terest in the history of the urban form, the application of 
science and philosophy to landscape architecture, and 
contemporary issues and theories in landscape archi-
tecture naturally led me to examine the contemporary 
interpretation of the Baroque French formal garden.  
This early study found that the Cartesian method, the 
paradox of science, philosophy, and religion found in 
the 17th Century influenced the master designers of the 
time to create amazing landscapes that demonstrated 
not only the artistic expression of these scientific the-
ories, but as a functional implementation as well.  In 
other words, the deeply layered designs found in the 
gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles were inter-
pretations of how the universe was perceived at that 
time (Weiss, 1996).  As this idea was translated into 
modern times, I found that landscape architects have 
translated scientific trends to obtain their design goals 
for as long as humankind has existed.  Thus, in order for 
me to translate the Baroque French Formal Garden into 
contemporary landscapes, the contemporary scientific 
equivalent of Descartes? Scientific Revolution must be 
determined.  Thus, I answered the original question and 
brought me to my personal discovery of the theory of 
emergence.   
1.3  Centric Diagram of the Sun King
This revolving diagram shows the centric 
nature of the the Palace of Versallies and 
the Sun King, Louis XIV.
20 Matthew Biesecker
 Several connections were found between the 
theory of emergence and many of the issues that have 
plagued landscape architecture over the last decade.  
The most fundamental and binding question of the array 
of questions that could possibly be addressed was how 
could a product of landscape architecture adapt to its 
fluctuating context.  The possibility to answer this ques-
tion is based on the research and practical application 
of the theory of emergence over the last half century.  If 
the fields of computer science, mathematics, and eco-
nomics can use emergence as a means to reach goals 
or answers, then why not landscape architecture?
 The theory of emergence was developed ap-
proximately in the 1970s.  It answered many questions 
about how the behavior of certain populations create 
the forms they do.  From this initial series of discover-
ies, three distinct phases have occurred in the applica-
tion of the theory.  In the first phase, early discoveries 
in emergent behavior were rooted in biology and ecol-
ogy.  Examples of this movement include the history of 
how flocks of migrating birds or large schools of fish 
can maintain their form despite not having a leader.  As 
the decades passed, the second phase brought a more 
defined understanding of emergence and what systems 
are emergent. During this phase, the current under-
standing and principles of emergence were discovered, 
which views emergence as the movement from lower 
level simplicity to higher level complexity.  The third and 
most current phase is using the theory to attain prede-
termined goals.  Only a small group of fields, mostly lo-
cated in computer science, have successfully created 
objects or processes that use emergent behavior to gain 
a goal or complexity previously unattainable (Johnson, 
2001). 
 Over the last half century, urban theorists have 
applied the theory of emergence to better understand 
the spontaneous behavior of cities (Wiscombe, 2006).  
Their findings were similar to that of biologist or ecologist 
when they applied emergence to their fields(Johnson, 
2001).  The earliest and most influential researcher in 
this application was the writer and urban theorist Jane 
Jacobs.   Her research, which was based on the spon-
taneous urban life found on the streets of New York City, 
created her perspective that the city is a problem of 
organized complexity (Jacobs, 1989).  Organized com-
plexity is the outcome of an emergent process (John-
son, 2001).  This idea of city form originating from the 
bottom-up was starkly different from the top-down un-
21Introduction
derstanding that dominated the first half of the twenti-
eth century.  In the 1990s, Jacobs? research, along with 
the contributions of Christopher Alexander and Kevin 
Lynch, led mathematician Nikos Salingaros to develop 
his theory of the urban web.  Salingaros hypothesized 
that the ability of a city to be emergent was based on 
its amount and diversity of pedestrian nodes and con-
nections.  Essentially, Salingaros, who has a fondness 
for ancient urban forms, stated that the greater amount 
of pedestrian based transport a space has, the greater 
opportunity it has to be spontaneous (Salingaros, 1998).  
Based on the studies in the urban realm,  landscape 
architects and landscape architecture theorists began 
to question why the products of landscape architecture 
were not emergent if the context was (Wiscombe, 2006).  
  
 
22 Matthew Biesecker
 Based on the research that deemed the urban 
realm emergent, landscape architecture and landscape 
architecture theorist began to ponder whether the ele-
ments that create the urban realm be emergent as well 
(Waldheim, 2001).  The elements which create the urban 
realm are, for the most part, landscape architectural na-
ture.  These elements include roads, streets, parks, pla-
zas, squares, and infrastructure of all types.  Although 
this question has been examined for a decade, little at-
tention has been given to the role of the theory of emer-
gence in understanding the question better or answer-
ing it.  Despite the lack of application, there are some 
landscape architectural practices that use the theory of 
emergence to answer this question.  Two of the exam-
ples of this is the work of CHORA and Rem Koolhass 
and Bruce Mau?s project ?Tree City?. 
 The Dutch planning, urban design, and architec-
ture firm CHORA specializes in difficult urban problems 
that contain many stakeholders.  CHORA?s principal, 
Raoul Bunschoten, and his students from the Berlage 
Institute in Rotterdam, the Netherlands developed a 
scenario-based design methodology that uses mostly 
qualitative information based on the firm?s fieldwork.  
CHORA and Bunschoten use a management system 
called the Urban Gallery to guide the evolution of a plan-
ning project.  The Urban Gallery is a dynamic tool that 
engages stakeholders to act collaboratively throughout 
the duration of the project.  The dynamic nature of the 
Urban Gallery is created by its diagrammatical master 
plans, which generate project knowledge through its 
monitoring of a fluctuating and liquid design (Chora.
org). 
 Studies I have conducted found emergent be-
havior in certain phases of Urban Gallery including the 
stakeholder feedback generated by the prototypes.  But 
as a methodology, it denies emergent behavior to af-
fect the design?s outcome.  This is due to the design 
process?s attempt to forecast an outcome for the un-
predictable future of the site.  CHORA limits the endless 
possibilities of a place to an ?action plan? which is es-
sentially a time-scaled master plan.  It is suggested that 
the CHORA design methodology could benefit by not 
attempting to predict the future, but instead be suscep-
tible to the unknown changes that will occur.
 
1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7  Tempelhof Urban Ideas Competition
CHORA is a scenario-based urban design frim.  (Below 
right) An Action Plan ?contains straegies for the develop-
ment of the conditions in which specific prototypes can be 
initiated, they also describe the potential interrelationships 
betwen diferent prototypes (Chora.org).
(Images courtesy of CHORA)
 
23Introduction
 
24 Matthew Biesecker
 ?Tree City?, the winning entry for the Downsview 
Park Competition, is one of the best examples of the 
application of the theory of emergence to the design 
process of a public urban space.  Dutch architect Rem 
Koolhass and graphic designer Bruce Mau who entered 
the most unpretentious presentation in terms of physical 
interventions produced the winning design.  They devel-
oped a strategy that allowed the park?s design to adapt 
to the ever-changing contextual situation.  Instead of 
proposing a design at the time of the competition, in the 
typical master designer fashion, they laid out a frame-
work for a design process that was designed by the 
emerging patterns created by the individual elements 
that created the city.  This strategy became the project?s 
design.  Koolhass and Mau reduced the design process 
into what is essentially a formula.  This formula is based 
on the principles that urban parks are a lucrative invest-
ment and at the time of the competition it is impossi-
ble to understand enough about the site to successfully 
produce a design (Waldrop, 2001).  
 The studies of this thesis found if a truly emer-
gent formula were to be created, the programed ele-
ments would adapt with the desires of the individuals.  
For this reason, the emergent ability of Tree City is regu-
lated.  This formula could function in a more emergent 
manner if it extended the feedback loop created in the 
placement of elements into the selection of elements.  
 If these two precedent studies were merged with 
the relative new landscape intervention strategy termed 
by Nan Ellin as ?vulnerable urbanism,? a unique form of 
design could be developed that strengthens the emer-
gent behavior found in the process of design.  Ellin?s 
approach asks landscape architects to design for an 
unknown future using small interventions (Ellin, 2006).  
These small interventions could be low in cost and use 
small amounts materials.  This idea is in opposition to 
the master-planning strategy.  Open-ended vulnerability 
could remove the restrictions created by CHORA?s and 
Koolhass and Mau?s ?Tree City?s? methodologies.  This 
addition would allow the methodology?s vulnerability to 
create an emergent behavior instead of regulating it.  
Based on the these ideas and the studies of this the-
sis, a design methodology can be created that exhibits 
emergent behavior at several levels instead of just one 
or two.  If this can be accomplished, the understanding 
of how a product of landscape architecture adapt to its 
fluctuating context may become more clear.  
25Introduction
 
1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11  Tree City 
Images from the Downsview Park Competition in Toronto, Canada.
(Images courtesy of Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA))
26 Matthew Biesecker
 Based on the research of three interconnected 
subjects:  (1) emergence as it is applied to other fields, 
(2) emergence as it exists in the built environment, and 
(3) the current-state of the application of the theory of 
emergence to the field of landscape architecture; a de-
sign methodology has been created that exhibits emer-
gent behavior during the process of design.  The design 
should be followed as a procedure and should be ap-
plied in a cyclical manner.  Also, based on the research, 
a set of principles has materialized that help guide the 
design process.  Project goals come in two forms:  (1) 
holistic goals (goals that control the entire project), and 
(2) individualistic goals (goals that are determined in an 
individual phase of the design process).
 The design methodology?s cyclical procedure 
was determined as follows:
 {B.1} conception of the idea:  this phase of the 
design methodology is the creation of a dream.  An idea 
for what a site could become can come from anywhere 
or anyone and originate at any scale.  Like most projects 
that arise in the public urban realm, this idea is generat-
ed by the citizens, the municipality, a private enterprise, 
or all three together.  This phase begins when change is 
proposed and someone makes a decision to alter the 
landscape.  
 {B.2} investigation of the situation:  at this point, 
the landscape architect should not criticize or condemn 
the idea or ideas brought to them in phase B.1, but de-
vote him or herself to investigation of the true reason 
for the creation of the idea.  The request for a design is 
sometimes based on a mis-aligned perception, which 
it is the landscape architect?s duty to interpret.  The in-
vestigation should consist of studies in the site?s history 
and context, current functionality and use, and its pro-
jected situation.  
 {B.3} design the prognosis:  after a thorough 
analysis has been accomplished and the site?s situa-
tion is understood, the landscape architect should pro-
pose a design that is reflective of the investigation in 
B.2.  The design should not be comprehensive, rather 
incremental.  Early designs should be time and resource 
efficient in case the feedback after implementation does 
not propel the design forward.  As the project continues 
into it?s later stages, more permanent elements can be 
designed.
 {B.4} calibrate the components:  this phase is 
the actual installation of the design. 
 {B.5} record the response:  after the design is 
actualized on the site, rigorous efforts should be taken 
to document the actions that occur on the site.  The 
data chosen to be recorded should be uniform through-
out the duration of the project.  The durations of time 
between this phase and the next can greatly differ, but 
the duration and routes of the recordings need to be 
similar.   
 {B.6} analyze the particulars:  once significant 
and constant data is collected, the architect must in-
terpret the recordings.  This should be an objective and 
subjective process because the feedback is considered 
to be hierarchical.  The direction of the project should 
be fundamentally determined by the data, but the archi-
tect?s personal ideas can influence the conclusion of the 
analysis.  
 {B.7} commencement of the procedure:  as the 
name of this phase indicates that this is not the end of 
the project, but yet merely a step.  At this point the ar-
chitect is instructed to return to step B.3.  This should 
create a feedback and design loop that, as a whole, cre-
ates emergent properties within the defined site.  This 
loop should be continued until the calibrations reach the 
peak of investment.  
 
1.12  Design Methodology Procedure
This procedure should be followed in a cyclical 
manner, were phases B.3-B.6 repeat. 
27Introduction
{B.1} conception of the idea
{B.2} investigation of the situation
{B.3} design the prognosis
{B.4} calibrate the components
{B.5} record the response
{B.6} analyze the particulars
{B.7} commencement of the procedure
conception - the originating of something in the mind
idea - a thought or suggestion as to a possible course of action
investigation - to carry out a systematic or formal inquiry to discover and examine the facts of to 
establish the truth
situation - a set of circumstances in which one finds oneself; a state of affairs
design - decide upon the look and function of
prognosis - a forecast of the likely outcome of a situation
calibrate - to adjust precisely for a particular function
components - a part or element of a larger whole
record - to give evidence of 
response - a reaction caused by a change or event
analyze - examine methodically and in detail the constitution or structure of something, typically 
for purposes of explanation and interpretation
particulars - an individual fact, point, circumstance, or detail
commencement - to have or make a beginning
procedure - an established official way of doing something
28 Matthew Biesecker
 In conjunction with the process of the design 
methodology, several principles were found in the re-
search and testing of this design procedure.  These 
principles are based on the nature of emergence theory 
and the nature of Salingaros? ?urban web.?  The first 
principle is the acceptance that nothing an architect 
can design is perfect.  Designs, which are located in 
an emergent environment are always incorrect because 
emergent systems are unpredictable and above the 
understanding of the human mind.  Therefore, design 
calibrations should be small in physical form, inexpen-
sive, consume little time, and be easily amended. The 
second principle states that the feedback loops or the 
design?s cycles should be small in duration and intimate 
in nature.  The smaller the feedback loop, the more di-
rect and intimate the design?s response to feedback can 
be.  Finally, the architect must view him or herself as 
part of the emergent system.  Due to the static nature of 
landscape elements and materials, landscape architec-
tural designs cannot be manipulated in the same way a 
computer program can. Therefore, someone is needed 
to design and install the elements.  But the designer is 
not above the system, merely an individual participating 
in it.
 After research had been conducted and a de-
sign methodology had been created, the next step was 
to examine the design methodology in a design test.  
Because the design test was not actually conducted, 
it was necessary to create a simulation that generated 
response to the calibration.  The simulation of feedback 
responses was accomplished by presenting and inquir-
ing two people familiar and understanding of the site?s 
conditions and urban web.  These people being Alex 
Bonda and myself, Matthew Biesecker, both Auburn 
University Master of Landscape Architecture students.  
Although the presentation of the design test may seem 
as if it is based on actual events, everything is simulated 
with the exception of for the data collected in the initial 
phase of analysis.
29Introduction

II.  THE DESIGN TEST
32 Matthew Biesecker
{1.1}  THE CONCEPTTION 
OF THE IDEA
 This project began when a simulated Asheville 
city offical approached a small simulated landscape ar-
chitecture firm in Charlotte, North Carolina about cre-
ating an alternate use for an economically insufficant 
automoblie parking lot located near Asheville?s St. Law-
erence Basilica.  The site already had serveral other pro-
posed private uses including a highrise apartment build-
ing and a multi-level automobile parking garage, but the 
city perferred to buy the property and transform it into 
a public amenity.  The landscape architecture firm was 
given the guidelines that the alternate uses they propose 
must (1) be public in it?s nature, (2) genreate revenue for 
local businesses, and (3) create value in the properties 
adjactent to the site.  Being a non-native to Asheville, 
the project?s assigned head landscape architect decid-
ed to follow an untested design methodolgy, which was 
taughted as a way to create a public space based on an 
everchanging context.  Because the landscape architect 
choose to follow that certain design methodology, the 
next step in the project was to study the site?s historical 
and current situation.
2.2  The Test Site
The site chosen for the design test is an 
inefficient automobile parking lot in the 
city of Asheville, North Carolina. 

34 Matthew Biesecker
{1.2} THE SITE SITUATION:  
ASHEVILLE?S HISTORICAL 
AND CURRENT CONTEXT
 The rock at the core of the Appalachian Moun-
tains and at the core of the site was formed over one 
billion years ago.  750 million years ago the supercon-
tinent began to break apart, and 540 million years ago 
the continental crust split.  As the continental crust spilt, 
the Ocoee Basin was formed and filled with seawater, 
while nearby rivers brought clay, slit, sand, and gravel, 
which settled in layers.  The rocks that formed were re-
sistant to weathering and erosion.  As the new oceans 
became larger, the continental crust changed direction 
and collided, resulting in the formation of mountains.  
240 millions years ago a new basin formed because of 
another change in direction of the crustal plates.  This 
is the present-day Atlantic Ocean.  At the time of their 
formation, the Appalachian Mountains were much taller 
and steeper than the present-day Rocky Mountains.  
For the last 100 million years, erosion has carved away 
at the mountains.  Vegetation, wind, ice, and water still 
continue to erode the mountains and deposit the sedi-
ment into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico (usgs.
gov).    
 Four times in the last 2 million years, glaciers 
extended southward into the United States.  The gla-
ciers did not reach Asheville, but the climate brought 
animal and plant species common to cooler, northern 
climates.  These species established themselves and 
continue to live in the higher elevations of Asheville.  
Among these migrating species were the earliest known 
human inhabitants, the ancestors of the Cherokee Indi-
ans (usgs.gov).
2.3  Geological History of the Appalachian Mountains
Continental plate movement caused several mountains and 
oceans to form on the same location as the present-day Appala-
chian Mountain chain.  The extent of the last Ice Age is indicated 
in pink.
(Opposite) 2.4  The Appalachian Mountains
Photographed is the current landscape in the 
Pisgah National Forest.

36 Matthew Biesecker
2.5  Exodus of the Cherokee Nation
This series of maps shows the exodus of the 
Cherokee Nation at 1700, 1783, and 1838.  
By the mid-1800?s, nearly all of the Chero-
kee peoples would be removed from the 
Asheville area. 
2.6  Map of Early European Exploration
(Orange) 1540 Hernando de Soto Expedition
(Black) 1567 Juan Pardo expedition 
37The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
 Origins of the title ?Cherokee? are unknown, 
but may translate to ?those who live in the mountains.? 
What little is known of Cherokee culture before the 18th 
century was recorded by the Spanish in their expedi-
tions of the south.  The first known contact between 
Europeans and the Cherokee tribes was in 1540 during 
the Hernando de Soto expedition and in 1567 during 
the Juan Pardo expedition.  Some of these interactions 
were mutually beneficial, involving the trading of animals 
and agriculture techniques.  Some of the interventions 
were harmful to both parties; ending in battle and the 
exchanging of previously unknown deceases (Conley, 
2007).
 In the late 1600s, European?s began traveling 
the region more consistently because of the game locat-
ed in the seeming endless wilderness.  In the decades 
following, the Europeans and Cherokee would establish 
trading links consisting mostly of guns for animal pelts.  
In the mid-1700s, colonist from the Carolina coastal re-
gion began to push the Cherokee out of their territory.  
This forced migration would continue for the next one 
hundred years and would be exacerbated by the federal 
land-payments given to the Revolutionary War Veterans.  
By the mid-1800s nearly all the Cherokee tribes would 
be removed from the region of Asheville.  Currently, the 
Cherokee have reclaimed land in the region that is pro-
tected by the Federal Government (Conley, 2007).
2.7  The Trail of Tears 
(Image authored of Robert Lindneux)
2.8  Asheville Grist Mill
(Image courtesy of The University of North 
Carolina at Asheville)
39The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
 The region?s topography made travel so diffi-
cult that the western reaches of the Carolina?s were left 
virtually ungoverned.  Morristown a small, remote town 
with an elementary log courthouse was established in 
1793 as the county seat of Buncombe County.  In 1795, 
Samuel Ashe was elected governor of North Carolina 
and with his nomination, the city renamed itself Ashe-
ville.  At the intersection of two ancient trading routes, 
several large land grants were subdivided into more ur-
ban lots.  In the census of 1800 the population of Ashe-
ville was recorded as ?twentyfive free persons and thir-
teen slaves? and the built environment consisted of a 
general store, two grist mills, a tailor, a forge, a school, 
and several homes.  The city would quickly grow due 
to the increased production of the region?s raw natural 
resources (Chase, 2007).  
2.9  Evolution of the Built Environment
Periods shown:  1888, 1917, 2000
40 Matthew Biesecker
41The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
42 Matthew Biesecker
 In 1814, the Eagle Hotel was established as 
the region?s first luxury hotel to accommodate travelers 
wanting to escape from the Deep South?s harsh summer 
humidity and heat.  Other hotels would be established 
over the next two hundred years; some of which would 
be so massively scaled they would define and dominate 
the perspective of Asheville as a town.  The hotels were 
created, as an escape from malaria outbreaks in coastal 
cities likes Charleston and Savanna.  They would also 
act as a place of natural relaxation for people of great 
wealth whom would have been accustom to the smoky, 
industrial cities of the Northeast.  This established the 
areas two perpetual attractors: health and travel, which 
are still the city?s two largest revenue generators today 
(Chase, 2007).
 The terrain of Stony Hill has been altered sev-
eral times throughout the last couple hundred years.  
The first European American use of the site was as a 
Civil War Battery, which was influenced by the sites high 
elevation.  This elevated situation gave influence to the 
site?s next use as the one of the era?s great southern 
travel destinations, the Battery Park Hotel.
2.11  1890s Test Site Section
If compared to the 2010 Test Site Sec-
tion, the over seventy feet of soil that was 
removed of the last two hundred years is 
noticeable.  The knob?s elevation was even 
higher when it functioned as a Battery.
(Opposite)2.12  1890?s Test Site Figure-ground
Pictured is the Battery Park Hotel top Stoney Hill.
(Photograph courtesy of The Univsersity of North 
Carolina at Asheville)


45The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
 After the Civil War, Asheville was devastated and 
left with little functional infrastructure.  The city became 
remote, much like it was prior to early 1800s.  When 
the railroad was replaced in 1880, the form of the built 
environment became much as it is in today?s landscape.  
As the transportation networks from cities like Augusta, 
Georgia and Charlotte, North Carolina to Asheville were 
improved, outside investors and tourists brought their 
city?s artistic sophistication and architectural styles to 
Asheville.  This created an urban style unlike anything 
else in the southeast. This style was a unique blend 
of secluded rural life and the sophistication of a large 
Southern metropolis.  This distinctive fashion became 
known as the ?Asheville Style? and still exists today 
(Chase, 2007).
(Opposite) 2.13 1917 Test Site Sanborn Map
Notice the street and structure consistancy to the 
north of the Basilica St. Lawrence. 
(Map courtesy of the University of North Carolina 
at Chapel Hill)
46 Matthew Biesecker
 From the mid-1880s until the Great Depres-
sion, Asheville?s landscape was profoundly altered by 
the dreams of four wealthy titans: George Pack, Fran-
klin Coxe, George Vanderbilt, and E. W. Grove.  These 
dreams were interpreted by the world-class archi-
tectural talents such as Richard Sharp Smith, Rafael 
Guastavino, Richard Morris Hunt, and Fredrick Law 
Olmstead.  These architectural achievements exist to-
day due to the interesting financial situation the city of 
Asheville was in between the Great Depression Era and 
the mid-1970s.  In the 1920s, the development of the 
Grove Arcade and the present-day Battery Park Hotel 
reduced the height of Stony Hill by 70 feet (over 100 
feet has been taken in the site?s history).  Much of the 
site is now devoted to automobile parking, which was 
the most profitable use for the land in the 1970s (Chase, 
2007).
2.14  Stony Hill Soil Removal
(Image courtesy of the University of North Carolina at Asheville)
47The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
2.15  Construction of The Grove Arcade
(Image courtesy of the University of North 
Carolina at Asheville)
48 Matthew Biesecker
 Unlike many other Southern cities, Asheville 
did not default on its debt from the Great Depres-
sion.  The debt payments, along with the national 
post World War II migration to the then newly cre-
ated suburbs, caused Asheville?s center city to dete-
riorate.  Droves of important stores and businesses 
relocated to the suburbs to take advantage of the 
cheap land.  This movement grew exponentially; 
when one store left, several others followed.  His-
torical buildings in the city?s center were either per-
severed because no new building use was needed 
or the buildings were completely demolished to ac-
commodate the most profitable use for derelict lots, 
the parking lot.
2.16  2010 Test Site Section
(Opposite) 2.17  2010 Test Site Figure-ground
Pictured is the Battery Park Apartment (fore-
ground) and the Grove Arcade (background).
(Photograph courtesy of The Univsersity of North 
Carolina at Asheville)

50 Matthew Biesecker
 The debt from the Great Depression was not paid 
until 1976.  This was a monumental event for the city and 
signaled a slow reinvestment into the center city of Ashe-
ville.  Several projects of this period created strong civic 
compassion for historic reservation and established the 
hip, eccentric atmosphere, for which Asheville is known.  
This project?s included landscape architect John L. Lan-
tzius?s renovation of 17 vacant buildings on Lexington 
Avenue, which were modeled after the eclectic neighbor-
hoods of the Pacific Northwest.  The Bele Chere Festival, 
which means ?beautiful thing? in French, was the city?s 
1980?s response to the lack of activity.  Today, the fes-
tival generates $12.4 million for the local economy over 
the span of only three days.  The construction of I. M. 
Pei?s 1977 Akzona, Inc. building created a civic apprecia-
tion for historical preservation through it?s demolition of 
several historic buildings and its dominate location in the 
public Pack Square.  Pack Plaza and Pack Place were ur-
ban renewal and development responses to the Akzona, 
Inc. building.  Pack Plaza restored many cherished build-
ings and Pack Place established new museums and civic 
amenities.  The renewal of Haywood Avenue and Wall 
Street was the first successful redevelopment project 
that used Federal funding.
2.18  Significant Events in Asheville?s Built 
Environment 1976-2010
(From top-left to bottom-right) 
1.) Restoration by John L. Lantzius
2.) Restoration by John L. Lantzius
3.) Restoration by John L. Lantzius
4.) The Bele Chere Festival
5.) Pack Square and the Akzona Building
6.) Pack Place and Pack Plaza
7.) The Wall Street Restoration
8.) The Restoration of the Grove Arcade
51The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
2.19, 2.20, 2.21  Proposed Development Along the French Broad River
(Images courtesy of Urban Design Associates)
52 Matthew Biesecker
2.22  1.2 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback
This feedback study indicates a morning 
study in yellow, a midday study in orange, 
and an evening study in red.  The circles 
indicate pedestrian origins, the squares 
indicate pedestrian conclusions, and the 
lines indicate the location of pedestrian 
movement.  Opposite is a compilation of 
the studies.
53The Design Test:  {1.2} The Site Situation
54 Matthew Biesecker
{1.3-1.6}  PUBLICITY AND 
PEDESTRIAN 
CONNECTIVITY
February 2010-April 2012
 After the initial study of the site?s historical and 
current context was completed, holistic design goals 
were created for the entire project.  These goals includ-
ed generating revenue for the local businesses, building 
interest in properties adjacent to the site, and creating 
a space that is public in nature.  It was simulated that 
when these goals were presented to the Asheville city 
officials, they were deemed appropriate and related to 
the desires they had for the space.  Although skepticism 
surrounded the decision to use the selected design 
methodology, the city officials allowed it to be used. 
 Based on the information gathered from the his-
torical and contextual study and the presentation to the 
city, the design goals for the first design cycle where 
established.  These goals are as follows:  1.) to create 
a publicity among the inhabitants of the site in order to 
generate interest, support, and ideas about the future 
of the site, and  2.) to create an environment conducive 
to restoring the urban web around the site to it?s pre-
1970s function in order to bring pedestrian locomotion 
to the site.  These goals essentially strive to give people 
knowledge of the project and move pedestrians to and 
thorough the site.  
 Publicity was obtained in a variety of commu-
nicative methods: the Internet, word-of-mouth, visual 
communication, etc., all of which relayed the message 
of what, why, and how this project?s intended to con-
struct.  Most of these publicity generators also recorded 
feedback from the site?s inhabitants.  For example, the 
Internet proved to be a strong tool because it not only 
communicated information about the project, but re-
trieved information as well.  The accessible nature of the 
blog, the websites, and the e-mail address created for 
the project, allows someone the opportunity to reflect 
on how they directly respond.  Although meetings and 
postings were used, they did not seem to produce the 
well thought-out and comfortable responses of the one 
generated on the Internet.  Meetings were held with lo-
cal investors, local organizations, local businesses, and 
local homeowners.  There were also several meetings 
that were held on the site to help generate interest in the 
2.23  Publicity Poster Design
These posters, along with other media, were 
created to generate excitement and feedback 
for the project.
55The Design Test:  {1.3-1.6} Publicity and Pedestrian Connectivity
project.      
 Publicity was generated for several reasons.  
First, it allowed the public to be aware of the changes 
that were about to happen on the site.  Second, it al-
lowed a greater amount of direct feedback to be collect-
ed because people understood what was being asked 
of them.  Lastly, the reason publicity was needed was 
because it allowed a more realistic prediction of how the 
site would function in the future.  If the holistic project 
goals were to be obtained, a much more diverse crowd 
would be present on the site than was in the existing 
conditions.  
 These reasons for why publicity is important is 
also the basis for how the success of the calibration was 
assessed.  If the calibration is judged on whether or not 
it created publicity that generated interest, support, and 
ideas for the future of the site, the calibration will be 
viewed as a successful.  However, the calibration did 
not create a depth of rich interest, support, or ideas.  
This could be due to the relatively short time-span be-
tween the beginning and the end of this design phase.  
Because the publicity did complete its goal, although 
more could come from it, the tactics used in creating 
publicity should continue.  
2.24  Representation of First Direct Feedback Responses
This graphic shows the uncertainty of the inhabitants during first 
phase of the project.  It also shows how the feedback was typi-
cally segregated in to what was deemed desired and not desired. 
2.25  Summer Night Movie and Meeting
Events that showed alternative ideas for the 
site became a breeding-ground for creative 
thinking among the inhabitants.

58 Matthew Biesecker
 Two calibrations were installed in the site?s sur-
roundings to help improve the pedestrian conditions to 
and through the site.  These calibrations were installed 
on the Flint Street Bridge, which spans Interstate 240, 
and at the intersection between the site and the Ashe-
ville Civic Center.   
 The Flint Street calibration?s goal was to cre-
ate safer and healthier pedestrian condition for daily 
commuters from the Montford neighborhood.  To ac-
complish this, focus was put on the existing conditions 
of the bridge.  It was observed that people walking the 
bridge tended to stay to the outside of bridge because 
of automobile traffic in the bridge?s center.  This causes 
the pedestrian to then look downward towards the in-
terstate below.  A series of planter boxes were placed 
in the gutter of the bridge to create a physically and 
physiologically safer experience for the pedestrian.  This 
caused the pedestrian to shift towards the center of the 
designated pedestrian path.  The planter boxes did not 
interfere with traffic patterns of automobiles.   Hanging 
planters were placed on the outside of the bridge to de-
ter pedestrians from looking downward.  This encour-
aged their perspective outward to the distant mountain 
view.  Planter boxes proved to be a cost effective an-
swer because they were created from recycled material 
from the abandoned industries located along the French 
Broad River.  
2.26  Montford Context Map
Red arrows indicate the pedestrian move-
ment from the Montford neighborhood.  This 
is needed if the urban network is to function at 
its most efficient.  The test site is indicated in 
yellow. 
2.27  Existing and Proposed Flint Street Bridge Sections
The section to the left describes how the automobile traffic on the bridge shifts the pedestrian to the outside of the bridge. The section to the right 
shows how placing an object in the bridge?s gutter can shift the pedestrian to the center of the path. 
59The Design Test:  {1.3-1.6} Publicity and Pedestrian Connectivity
2.28  Flint Street Bridge Calibration
2.29  Process Drawings of Flint Street Bridge Calibrations
60 Matthew Biesecker
2.30  Flint Street Bridge Calibration
Notice how the publicity and feedback 
mechanism is integrated into the Flint 
Street Bridge calibration.  Also, note how 
the planter boxes allow the gutters to col-
lect storm-water and road debris. 
61The Design Test:  {1.3-1.6} Publicity and Pedestrian Connectivity
2.31  Flint Street Bridge Calibration
These overhanging planters attempt to 
create a reflection of the vegetative over-
hangs, which are common in the higher 
elevations of the Appalachian Mountains. 
62 Matthew Biesecker
 The Haywood Intersection calibration essen-
tially attempted the same technique used on the Flint 
Street Bridge.  A high volume of intricate traffic patterns 
created uncomfortable pedestrian patterns for people 
crossing the Haywood, Flint, and Page streets.  In this 
case, no objects could be placed in the gutter, only on 
the raised automobile traffic dividers.  It was hypoth-
esized that if an object could be placed between the 
pedestrian and the intersection?s automobile traffic, 
pedestrian conditions would improve by making the 
pedestrian feel and be safer.  Because the calibrations 
used recycled materials, cheap plantings, and were 
placed in a delicate manner, the city used very little re-
sources compared the cost of most the top-down land-
scape architecture projects they fund.
 The assessment of this calibration is based not 
only on its ability to return the site?s pedestrian network 
back to a pre-1970s function, but its ability to increase 
the amount of pedestrian traffic moving to and through 
the site.  An increase in pedestrian traffic amounts, if 
correctly adjusted to external factors, could be seen as 
a success.  If the amounts of pedestrian traffic were to 
decrease, the direction of the next design would change.  
The Flint Street Bridge calibrations generated a higher 
rate of pedestrian traffic and caused no other major is-
sues.  The Haywood Intersection calibrations increased 
the amount of pedestrian traffic slightly, but also cre-
ated conflict with automobiles.  This major design flaw 
caused the calibration to be removed.
2.32  Process Drawings of Haywood Street Calibrations
2.33  Existing and Proposed Haywood Street Sections
The section to the left leaves the pedestrian exposed to pat-
tens of automobile traffic.  The section to the right attempts to 
protect the pedestrian from patterns of automobile traffic. 
63The Design Test:  {1.3-1.6} Publicity and Pedestrian Connectivity
2.34  Haywood Street Calibration
Highlighting the designated pedestrian 
paths and placing lighted plater boxes 
attempted to create better conditions for 
pedestrians crossing the intersection.  
64 Matthew Biesecker
65The Design Test:  {1.3-1.6} Publicity and Pedestrian Connectivity
2.35  1.6 Direct Feedback Distribution
2.36  1.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback
This feedback study indicates a morning 
study in yellow, a midday study in orange, 
and an evening study in red.  The circles 
indicate pedestrian origins, the squares in-
dicate pedestrian conclusions, and the lines 
indicate the location of pedestrian move-
ment. 
66 Matthew Biesecker
{2.3-2.6}  THE MARKET AND 
THE LEDGES
April 2012-November 2012
 Based on the information found in the first feed-
back loop, a new design goal can be created.  Although 
the amount of pedestrian traffic increased, most of the 
traffic in the site was based on larger patterns of pe-
destrian traffic that traversed the entire city.  In other 
words, the site was full of pedestrian connections, but 
contained few nodes.  Although the site could be used 
as infrastructure for pedestrian traffic, it was predicted 
that the site could act as both a node and a connection.  
This is evident in the ideas generated by the site?s in-
habitance in the first design phase.  Therefore, the goal 
of this design phase was to create an attraction on the 
site that addressed the patterns found in the inhabit-
ance desires, while not completely altering the existing 
function on the site.  It is important to not vastly change 
the site because: 1.) the site?s inhabitants are concerned 
about the decrease of automobile parking and 2.) it is 
not possible to collect and reflect upon data if the de-
sign is completed in one phase; multiple phases allow a 
subtle growth of uses.    
 To create an attraction, patterns of direct feed-
back were examined.  These patterns of direct feedback 
included:  1.)  the desire to have an alternative to the 
high priced food and produce sold in the local area, 2.)  
concern of the space being loitered  by the areas large 
homeless population, 3.)  a space to relax, read, and 
reflect, and 4.)  a place to hold events of varying sizes.  
 With these ideas in mind, a series of strategi-
cally placed steps, terraces, and ledges were installed.  
This created areas to rest and relax, while also creating 
a space to hold events.  The main attracting element 
was a market which was held daily between the hours 
of 6am-6pm.  The businesses that participated in the 
market consisted of several small local enterprises that 
had struggled during the economic recession.  Rules 
were created that established a daily rotation of busi-
nesses on the site.  This created an ever-changing shift 
of businesses, which allowed the local inhabitants to ex-
perience new foods and products on a daily basis.  This 
became very popular with the local inhabitants based 
on the direct and indirect feedback received.  It also 
created higher sales for the struggling businesses be-
cause they reached a previously unattained client-base. 
Sales also increased due to the low cost of space retail, 
because it decreased the price of products being sold.  
This satisfied the local inhabitants who wanted lower 
priced goods in the area.   
2.37  Process Drawings of Market and Ledge Calibrations
67The Design Test:  {2.3-2.6} The Market and the Ledges
2.38  Market Calibration Section
A series of steps creates an elevated 
terrace that is used for a daily market.
2.39  Ledge Calibration Section
Ledges create spaces to sit, read, 
relax, watch other people, etc.
2.40  Market and Ledges Calibration
Notice the diversity of uses from the calibrations 
that were installed.
(Following Spread) 2.41  Market Calibrations
The terrace allows for several functions, such as a 
market and product showcase, which acts as an 
attraction for tourists and locals.


72 Matthew Biesecker
73The Design Test:  {2.3-2.6} The Market and the Ledges
2.42  2.6 Direct Feedback Distribution
2.43  2.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback
This feedback study indicates a morning 
study in yellow, a midday study in orange, 
and an evening study in red.  The circles 
indicate pedestrian origins, the squares in-
dicate pedestrian conclusions, and the lines 
indicate the location of pedestrian move-
ment.
74 Matthew Biesecker
{3.3-3.6}  TOPOGRAPHIC 
TRANSFORMATION
November 2012-July 2013
 Like the previous design phase, the goal of this 
phase is to reflect the desires of the site?s inhabitants.  
In this phase, a paradox arose when the feedback indi-
cated conflicting desires.  This conflict originated from 
the underlying desire to have the space still function 
as a automobile parking lot.  Animosity cannot arise 
from the inhabitant?s decision to still want to the site to 
function as an automobile parking lot.  This is because 
it is built on the collection of decades of urban patterns 
adapting to the space functioning as an automobile 
parking lot.  The goal becomes figuring out how to give 
the inhabitants the opportunity to use the space as 
they want, while the space is still used as an automo-
bile parking lot?  
 For whatever reason, the site?s designated 
space for automobile parking has been slowly decaying.  
Cracks split the concrete, dividing the yellow lines that 
indicate parking spaces into beautifully broken shapes.  
Some of the cracks are large enough to be considered 
a walking hazard and others are small and intricately 
spreading.  If this fractured surface is viewed as a design 
opportunity, an interesting ground-plane can emerge.  
 Previous feedback showed a strong desire for a 
public open space that could be used for events, sports, 
relaxation, and summer night movie screenings.  Due to 
the slopping surface on the site, a flatter ground-plane 
is needed if many of these actions are to be preformed 
on this site.  Therefore, infill was brought to the site and 
distributed above the parking surface.  Soil was placed 
until it reached the height of the ledges that were in-
stalled in the previous design phase.  Afterward grass 
was seeded and was allowed to grow into the cracks of 
the concrete.  This created a softer, flatter surface than 
previously existed.  
 The reaction to the design by the site?s inhab-
itance was astonishing.  Although it was never stated 
that automobiles could not park on the calibrated sur-
face, the amount of automobiles parking in that area de-
creased.  The intention of the design was to allow park-
ing because it only occurred during the daytime.  This 
would have allowed events space in the nighttime when 
no automobiles were present.  The recorded reaction 
after the calibration of the simulation was that only a 
few cars would park on the surface leaving it open to 
other uses 24 hours a day.  The reaction to a 24 hour un-
programmed open space was also astonishing.  Instead 
of the space functioning as the previous feedback loop 
indicated, the space became much more under-utilized 
than predicted.  The uses people stated desire for in this 
space was not emerging even though it had been cre-
ated.  Of course some people did use the space, but not 
in the manner or amounts previous envisioned.  
2.44  Ground-plane Transformation
The transformation from broken concrete 
to a flat lawn is symbolic of the approach 
taken in this project?s design methodol-
ogy.  The gradual transformation for the 
existing to the desired.   
75The Design Test:  {3.3-3.6} Topographic Transformation
2.45  Existing Ground-plane
2.46  Ground-plane Calibrations
2.47  Topography Calibrations
The calibration was much less popular with the 
site?s inhabitants than originally projected.  The 
building to the extreme right of the perspective 
had to be covered with a creeping vegetation in 
order to keep people from climbing onto its roof.
The canopy of the Flowering Dogwoods divide 
the space both vertically and horizontally. 

78 Matthew Biesecker
79The Design Test:  {3.3-3.6} Topographic Transformation
2.48  3.6 Direct Feedback Distribution
2.49  3.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback
This feedback study indicates a morning 
study in yellow, a midday study in orange, 
and an evening study in red.  The circles 
indicate pedestrian origins, the squares 
indicate pedestrian conclusions, and the 
lines indicate the location of pedestrian 
movement.
80 Matthew Biesecker
{4.3-4.6}  VEGETATION 
INSTALLATION 
July 2013-August 2023
 In the previous design phase, changes to the 
site?s surface caused the site to have less automobile 
parking.  The calibration also left a void in the reflection 
of feedback such as the desire to have an event space 
and a space to participate in sports.  After a period of 
recording data on the direct and indirect feedback of the 
site?s inhabitants, it was found that people neglected to 
use the space as determined in previous feedback be-
cause of the limited size of the space and other climatic 
issues.  Therefore, the goal of this design phase was to 
determine it?s limitations of the site and then reevaluated 
its possibilities.
 Even though there was a demand for the site 
to be come a space conducive to sports, the size and 
slope of the site limited its possibilities of fulfilling that 
desire.  Because of this, it was concluded that the de-
sign should focus on enhancing the other ideas gen-
erated by the site?s inhabitants, such as the desire to 
have a place to relax, reflect, read, view and be viewed 
by other people, and as a place to reinforce pedestrian 
locomotion.  
 This reassessment led to a design calibration 
that attempted to create microclimates based on the ex-
periences people desired to have.  This calibration was 
accomplished in two sections.  First, a series of Flow-
ering Dogwoods were planted to create a microclimate 
underneath and around its canopy.  An intimate space 
was created underneath the canopy that allowed people 
a softly shaded space to read and relax. These trees 
also created barriers along the site which divided the 
site into smaller spaces.  The second calibration was the 
planting of a native pine near the high-point of the site.  
The pine tree attempted to create shade for the western 
half of the site, while also acting as a attraction. The pine 
acted as a reflection of the past elevation changes.  This 
is based on the image of the knobs excavation during 
the 1920s, which showed a quarry like landscape with 
one remaining pine atop a struggling mound of soil.  The 
maximum height of the pine at maturity would reflect, 
almost exactly, the elevation of the knob prior to the 
revolutionary war.
2.50  Process Drawings of Vegetation Installation Calibrations
2.51  Vegetation Installation Calibration
Growth of trees indicated by different shades of pink.
81The Design Test:  {4.3-4.6} Vegetation Installation
(Top Left)  2.52  The Land of the Sky Booklet Cover
(Image courtesy of The University of North Carolina at 
Asheville)
(Bottom Left) 2.53  Stony Hill Soil Removal
(Image courtesy of The University of North Carolina at 
Asheville)
2.54  Pine Tree Calibration
The pine tree calibration is a 
symbol of past landscapes.  
2.55  Vegetation Installation Calibration
The pine tree calibration is a symbol of past landscapes.  

84 Matthew Biesecker
85The Design Test:  {4.3-4.6} Vegetation Installation
2.56  4.6 Direct Feedback Distribution
2.57  4.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback
This feedback study indicates a morning 
study in yellow, a midday study in orange, 
and an evening study in red.  The circles 
indicate pedestrian origins, the squares 
indicate pedestrian conclusions, and the 
lines indicate the location of pedestrian 
movement.
86 Matthew Biesecker
{5.3-5.6}  GEOLOGICAL
EXPRESSION 
August 2023-
 Over the period of almost a decade the site?s in-
habitants remained content with its form.  Over this time, 
recession that hindered the city?s resources to invest 
into public space ended, businesses established them-
selves in nearby vacant buildings, and private investors 
constructed several multi-use high rises adjacent to and 
in the vicinity of the site.  The placement of new struc-
tures reduced the site?s capacity to be used as parking 
for automobiles.  Because the space and the inhabitants 
desires for automobile parking on the site decreased, 
Page Avenue was no longer required.  Therefore, the 
city decided to remove the street and grant it to the pub-
lic space.  This along with slowly evolving changes the 
site?s context lead to a new design phase.  
 One of the main goals of this design phase was 
to retain the pedestrian patterns that accumulated along 
Page Avenue for the duration of the project, while still 
reflecting the new changes in the site?s context.  This 
was accomplished by leaving the existing pathway 
which were heavily used by pedestrian traffic.  This cre-
ated a unified site that contained layers of pedestrian 
traffic patterns.  
 Over the duration of the project, movies have 
been screen on a regular basis, along with the occa-
sional live theatrical show, courtesy of the Asheville 
Civic Center.  The screen that was used for movie pro-
jections became worn and needed replacing due to the 
frequency it had been used.  This situation created the 
opportunity to permanently replace the screen with one 
of better quality.  It also created the opportunity to al-
low a the screen to be viewed 24 hours a day.  At first, 
the screen showed different movies throughout the 
daytime and evening hours.  Although this created an 
ever-changing show for the local inhabitants, it became 
overplayed and lost much of its attraction.  Instead of 
leaving the screen unused for a majority of the day, it 
was connected to a two-way video feed to Asheville?s 
sister cities.  The video feed was timed for communi-
cation during appropriate daytime hours and became a 
popular attraction for tourist and locals.  Through the 
digital realm, the screen extended the public space into 
anther public space halfway around the world.    
2.58  Process Drawings of Geological Expression (Opposite) 2.59  Layers of Uses Map
This map shows the pedestrian patterns 
that traverse the site (pink dots), the 
event spaces created by the calibrations 
(pink ovals), and the increased building 
front intensities (pink lines).
87The Design Test:  {5.3-5.6} Geological Expression
            0                 60                         150                                           300
Pedestrian Patterns 
Asheville, USA
Valladolid, Yucatan
San Cristobal de 
las Casas, Mexico
Osogbo, Nigeria
Saumur, France
Karpenisi, Greece
Vladikavkaz, Russia
89The Design Test:  {5.3-5.6} Geological Expression
 The demand for a public art installation on the 
site grew over the duration of the project.  To reflect 
this desire, a ground-plane was installed that record-
ed movement by signaling small lights placed within 
the surface.  The ground-plane could be programmed 
to react to pressure in an infinite amount of ways, the 
first tested being a watercolor spat.  This also became 
a popular attraction for both tourist and locals and also 
recorded indirect data for future feedback.  
 Three pools were created to reflect the desires 
of the site?s inhabitants to include a dog wash and a hot 
springs.  One pool was located near the highest eleva-
tion of the site, one at a middle elevation in the center of 
Page Avenue and the other was located near Haywood 
Avenue at one of the lowest elevations.  The two most 
elevated pools were gently sloped to allow for ease of 
accessibility.  The lower pool had been created to allow 
a slow movement of water to circulate.  Between the 
lowest pools, a variety of boulders were placed to create 
a space for sitting within the pathways of heavy pedes-
trian traffic.  These boulders were also a reflection of the 
past state of the site when it was termed ?Stony Hill.?
 Feedback on this collection of calibrations was 
neither propelling or direction altering.  The feedback 
recorded showed the inhabitants to be content with the 
calibrations, although still slowly generating unique ide-
as.  These new ideas, as the ones before it, were based 
on the emergent phenomena found in the interaction of 
the site?s inhabitants and their interaction with the cali-
bration. Based on the feedback, it was decided that a 
larger design calibration would disrupt the patterns that 
have been and are being established on this site.  From 
this point forward, it is predicted that the desires of the 
site?s inhabitants will remain level, needing many small 
calibrations, but very few calibrations of comparable 
size to the five previous.
(Top Opposite) 2.60  Screen Calibration
The screen functions as a two-way transmitter of 
public space and a part-time movie screen.  
(Bottom Opposite) 2.61 Asheville?s Sister Cities
Asheville established itself as a sister city to promote 
world peace.
(Top Left) 2.62  Interactive Ground-plane Calibration
The interactive ground-plane acts as an attraction and a 
feedback mechanism.
 
(Top Right) 2.63  Interactive Ground-plane Detail
The interactive ground-plane consists of a pressure acti-
vated LED light-board.
90 Matthew Biesecker
2.65  Lower Pool Section
The lower pool cycles water through itself to allow fresh water 
for dog washing.  Inside the pool is a collection of rocks that are  
reflective of past landscapes.
91The Design Test:  {5.3-5.6} Geological Expression
2.64  Geological Calibrations Section
This sections shows the all three pools, along with the boulders that 
were placed in what was Page Avenue.   Also shown is the relationship 
between these newly created spaces and the existing market terrace. 
2.66  Geological Calibration
Mist rises from the pools as a symbol of 
the Great  Smokey Mountains and the 
site?s past landscapes. 
(Following Spread) 2.67  Geological Calibration
This is the perspective of the fifth calibration from 
the balcony of the Battery Park Apartment Building.
94 Matthew Biesecker
95The Design Test:  {5.3-5.6} Geological Expression
96 Matthew Biesecker
97The Design Test:  {5.3-5.6} Geological Expression
2.68  5.6 Direct Feedback Distribution
2.69  5.6 Pedestrian Indirect Feedback
This feedback study indicates a morning 
study in yellow, a midday study in orange, 
and an evening study in red.  The circles 
indicate pedestrian origins, the squares 
indicate pedestrian conclusions, and the 
lines indicate the location of pedestrian 
movement.
III.  CONCLUSION
III.  CONCLUSION
100 Matthew Biesecker
CONCLUSION
 After the design test was completed, the thesis 
and design test were assessed by their predetermined 
goals.  The thesis was also criticized by a panel of crit-
ics from the Auburn University School of Architecture, 
my collogues in the Auburn University Master?s of Land-
scape Architecture Program, and myself in order to find 
the strengths and weaknesses of the thesis.  This con-
clusion will be based on seven post-design test ques-
tions that are a culmination of the questions used to 
assess and critique the thesis.  The questions are as 
follows:  (1) did this thesis establish a vocabulary suit-
able for the discussion of the application of the theory of 
emergence to landscape architecture?  (2) was the de-
sign methodology emergent in the process of designing 
a public urban space?  (3) did the design test create an 
emergent design methodology for creating public urban 
spaces?  (4) did this thesis generate a foundation for fur-
ther discussion on the subject?  (5) what ideas were de-
veloped in this thesis that could be furthered?  (6) how 
could this project be improved?  (7) what might be the 
future developments in the application of emergence to 
the craft of landscape architecture? 
 This thesis established a vocabulary based on 
the research I conducted using several sources.  The 
vocabulary created covered terms that would be used 
in this thesis: rules, interactions, complexity, complex 
systems, organized complexity, public urban spaces.  
Other terms will need to be explored and defined if this 
thesis continues into other sub-fields of landscape ar-
chitecture.  Also, new methods for detecting emergent 
behavior in the built environment will have to be created 
in order to relate this thesis to other sub-fields in land-
scape architecture. 
 
 Although the term emergent is still elusive, the 
design methodology created in this thesis was found to 
have emergent behavior.  This should not be mistaken 
as a perfect emergent process.  Due to the material na-
ture of landscape architecture, I doubt a truly and ho-
listically emergent process, as we would compare it to 
other disciplines, will ever evolve.  This does not mean 
we should not seek to create a design methodology that 
has emergent behavior; only that perfection might not 
be attainable.  
 The design test echoed the success of my at-
tempt to create an emergent design methodology.  The 
design test, if viewed at the scale of single phase, is not 
emergent, except maybe for inhabitant?s responses to 
the design calibration and the designer's response to 
the analysis.  If the design test is viewed at the scale of 
the entire project, it is emergent.  This is possible be-
cause it increases organized complexity throughout the 
life of the project, uses feedback loops that indicate the 
patterns of desires and reactions of the site?s inhabit-
ants, and the design?s form is not predictable by exam-
ining one individual.
 Further discussion on this thesis should arise 
because only one design test was used, which could 
be limited by its test location?s place and time, my re-
actions as a designer, and the nature of simulating the 
test.  If another person using the same test parameters 
and the same design methodology replicated this same 
test, I believe a completely different process and design 
would materialize.  This, I believe, is the freedom in the 
project to still be a designer.  This interpretation is the 
project?s design. 
 This project had several ideas that could be 
used in other studies.  Most of the ideas that could be 
furthered are individually no different than the ideas of 
others in the field of landscape architecture.  What is dif-
101Conclusion
ferent about this project is how these ideas are related.  
This relationship of ideas is what should be developed 
further in other academic inquires.  The following are 
individual components of this project that could be fur-
thered: (1) the feedback loops or mechanisms, (2) the 
cyclical nature of the design procedure, and (3) the ap-
plication of emergence after the design has reached its 
calibrations/fulfillment pinnacle.  
 Several components of this project could be 
improved; three of which will be identified and alterna-
tives for the improvements will be attempted.  The first 
component that could be improved is the simulation of 
the design test.  Because the project was a simulation 
of what might occur in real life, concern arises about the 
authenticity of the simulation.  This could be improved in 
several ways: (1) test the design methodology in a real-
world setting, (2) create a larger and more diverse base 
of people to simulate the unpredictable feedback, and 
(3) take more time to test the simulation against case-
studies that are similar to each of the phases of design.  
 The second component that could use future 
improvement is the functionality of the feedback loops.  
During the multiple presentations of this project the same 
question arose, ?on what basis are the feedback loops 
assessed??  This question was answered by stating that 
the analysis that brought on a design goal design also 
created the basis for assessment of the feedback.  The 
design?s goal created a means for testing the success-
fulness of the design.  I do not have an alternative basis 
for the feedback loops, but it is accepted that this is not 
completely acceptable answer.  But the answer is not 
completely wrong as well.  Each person who tests this 
design method could have their personal interpretation 
of what the basis should be.  The third concern found for 
this project is the lack of control a designer would have 
in the design of the project.   
 It is the nature of the project to allow certain 
controllable reactions to take form in the design; there-
fore the designer cannot have complete control.  If the 
design that emerges is not to the designer liking, then 
this design methodology may be discarded and another 
methodology be used.  The design cannot be completely 
condemnable, even if it is aesthetically unpleasing, be-
cause the form of the project is based on the responses 
of the individuals who inhabit the site.  This question is 
the essences of the top-down/bottom-up design para-
dox, thus cannot be answered completely by the current 
state of theoretical understanding in landscape archi-
tecture.  

103Conclusion
(Opposite) 3.2  Evolution of the Site
This graphic is an account of the simu-
lated evolution of the design test.  Notice 
the gradual accumulation of landscape 
architecture elements on the site over the 
duration of the project.
The phases were as follows:
{1.3-1.6} February 2010-April 2012
{2.3-2.6} April 2012-November 2012
{3.3-3.6} November 2012-July 2013
{4.3-4.6} July 2013-August 2023
{5.3-5.6} August -
APPENDIX I-V 

106 Matthew Biesecker
APPENDIX I:  
DEFINING EMERGENCE
 It is important to understand that similar to most 
words, which can be expressed in both the forms of a 
noun and a verb, the term emergence has several inter-
pretations and understandings.  For the purposes of this 
thesis it is important to define emergence as it relates to 
the design process of creating public urban spaces. 
 Essentially, emergence is the complexity cre-
ated from the patterns of behavior on a lower scale.  
An emergent system is a bottom-up system, which is 
a complex adaptive system that displays emergent be-
havior. Its adaptive ability comes from a multitude of 
relatively simple lower-level elements and not a singular 
higher-level entity.  Depending on the definition in use, 
several different components form its meaning.  In some 
definitions the lower-level entity that generates higher-
level complexity is interaction, while other definitions 
use rules.  In this thesis, interactions and rules will be 
used separately and in conjunction in order to generate 
organized complexity.  
 Ants and the structures they create are com-
monly used as examples to explain the theory of emer-
gence.  The operations of an ant colony will also help to 
explain four commonly used terms: rules, interactions, 
complexity, and complex systems.  Keep in mind, I do 
not think of humans as ants, but merely want to use 
them as an aid for understanding fundamentals of emer-
gence.  
 Despite the title ?queen ant? studies have 
shown that there is no ultimate leader, planner, or ar-
chitect in the structural development of ant colonies or 
the structures known as anthills.  The form of an anthill 
is designed by the incomprehensible actions of the en-
tire ant population.  The theory of emergence has identi-
fied the designer as emergence itself.  To describe how 
this design without a designer takes place, the narrative 
should begin at the lowest-scale of ant colonies and 
move towards the highest-scale.
 Ants communicate by emitting chemical sig-
nals, which express approximately twelve functional 
emotions.  Ants, not being able to understand the world 
outside of their local perspective, think and act on their 
local scale.  This behavior is based on the rules of ant 
communication and understanding.  When an ant?s de-
sires are regulated by these simple rules the controlled 
unpredictable behavior of an individual creates the pat-
terns of higher-level complex systems.  Therefore, rules, 
in the sense of emergence, are not used to regulate in-
dividuals from their desires, but to regulate a complex 
system from becoming chaotic.  Rules are what sustain 
organization in organized complexity.  
 The rules allow ants to communicate and to in-
teract with one another at their local scale.  These inter-
actions, when viewed at an individual level may seem 
and might be random.  Communication signals may indi-
cate the desire to exchange food particles, create alarm, 
or show attraction; however, if the signals are viewed at 
the next highest-level, patterns of the ants desires as a 
whole will emerge.  This is how interactional emergence 
functions.  Many seemingly random interaction over a 
duration of time generates the patterns found in com-
plex systems.  Interactions breed other interactions in 
the same way that when ideas are exchanged it usually 
promotes the creation of other ideas.  
 If the entire ant colony sequence is understood, 
the rules of ants create the interactions of ants, which 
create trails and ant infrastructure, which then cre-
ate the entire ant colony; organized complex systems 
107Appendix I:  Defining Emergence
arise from the individuals.  Complexity, although often 
thought of as confusing or incomprehensible, is simply 
the composition between many interacting parts.  Com-
plex systems are systems composed of interconnected 
parts that exhibit behaviors, which are not obvious from 
the properties or behavior of the individual parts.  In the 
ant colony example, complexity would be all of the ants 
interacting, and a complex systems would be the colony 
itself.  
 After these fundamentals are understood, ques-
tions arise about how this theory can be applied to cre-
ate a desired goal.  These are typically questions about 
organized complexity.  Organized complexity is the ul-
timate goal of most scientific and computational appli-
cations.  It allows a bottom-up complexity to emerge 
from lower level patterns, while still having some form of 
control and guidance.  Organized complexity is the jux-
taposition of complete control and chaos.  It allows an 
unknown outcome to transform into something useful.  
108 Matthew Biesecker
APPENDIX II:
EMERGENCE AND LAND-
SCAPE ARCHITECTURE
 Since the term emergence was coined in 1875 
by English philosopher and literary and theatrical critic 
G. H. Lewes (Lewes, 412), the theory has been tested 
by scholars in a variety of fields including ecology, eco-
nomics, mathematics, and computer science.  As the 
theory was examined, emergence was found to be 
present in nearly everything and seemed as though it 
had always existed.  As the urban realm was taken un-
der examination, the results were similar to the findings 
of other fields (Helie, 2009, 76).  But the development 
of the theory of emergence did not end in its applica-
tion as a means to understand an existing phenomenon.  
The next step in its development was dedicated to the 
application of emergence to obtain a predetermined 
goal.  This second application of emergence to the ur-
ban realm is currently in an early state.  Tom Wiscombe, 
an architectural designer and founder of the California-
based architectural practice EMERGENT, finds that this 
transition to apply emergence as a means to obtain a 
goal in architecture is posed for investigation. 
 ?The idea that innovation, whether scientific, techno-
logical, or architectural, is a by-product of artistic chance or 
a result of singular genius can no longer be sustained in the 
21st century.  Complexity theory reveals that innovation-- 
the creation of the new-- is the direct result of bottom-up 
evolutionary processes.  Science knows this; industry is 
learning.  Architecture is just beginning to engage the con-
cept.
 In order to move into this space of innovation, archi-
tects will have to except the value of multiplicity and dynam-
ic feedback over the retrograde nature of authority.  They 
will have to accept that architecture might not be about 
essences and theoretical positions, but rather about ex-
changes of techniques, expertise and materials in multiple 
industries.  They will have to accept that the architecture is 
no longer a heroic center, but one micro-intelligence among 
many.  They will have to let go and begin to love the swarm.
 New models of practice therefore might be based on 
dynamic organizations in which entities can operate both 
independently and in collectives at the same time--that is, 
as parts and as wholes.  Parts, which are more specialized 
than wholes, can rarely evolve or become innovative on 
their own, just as a single neuron in ht human brain can 
never have thought.  Evolution occurs in the system.
 Perhaps the best way to frame this discussion is 
through the phenomenon of emergence (Wiscombe, 2006, 
59-61).?  
 More studies are currently being conducted 
about the relationship of the theory of emergence to 
urban design and planning than the related fields of ar-
chitecture and landscape architecture. It is important to 
understand that most of these studies being conducted 
use different definitions of emergence and have varying 
goals for its application.  These discrepancies seem to 
be rooted in the conflicting material natures of the disci-
plines: urbanism more flexible, architecture more rigid.  
As a variety of understandings of emergence are applied 
to this array of interconnected fields, a diversity of ideas 
about how emergence should be used is generated.
 Studies in urbanism typically apply the theory of 
emergence to cities much the same way an entomolo-
gist would study ants; viewing the city as a existing phe-
nomena.  Urban theorists typically perceive the city as 
an existing whole and view objects in the city, especially 
buildings, as the parts.  Studies often state that building 
design has little to do with the emergent behavior of a 
city and often times it is more generative of emergent 
behavior if the buildings are universal and mundane 
(Helie, 2009). 
109Apendix II:  Emergence and Landscape Architecture
 Architects tend to use the theory of emergence 
as a means to accomplish a design goal by applying it 
to the design of an object.  For the most part, architects 
view emergence as a trendy form of morphogenesis.  
This application of emergence perceives an evolutionary 
object that has a very loose correlation to its surround-
ings.  Object-based perception this is what is termed ar-
tificial emergence.  Artificial emergence occurs when a 
misunderstood version of emergence is attempted to be 
claimed as emergence.  This misunderstanding may ex-
ist because the material nature of architecture does not 
allow evolutionary change to occur.  It would probably 
be constructive if architects did not view emergence in 
an objects design, but as an evolutionary behavior that 
created objects and creates other objects (Wiscombe, 
2006).  
 The studies conducted in landscape architec-
ture have used the theory of emergence in both a con-
textual and an object-based manner.  This might be due 
to the medial positioning of landscape architecture to 
its related disciplines and its material nature?s variance 
between the fluctuating nature of urbanism and static 
nature of architecture.  Another reason for landscape ar-
chitecture?s balanced perspective could be scaling and 
the current understanding of emergent patterns.  These 
reasons could position landscape architecture to best 
apply the theory of emergence as a means to obtain a 
goal in the urban realm.      
 The balanced nature of landscape architecture 
creates two main fields of thought when it comes to the 
application of emergence to practice: emergence before 
a design and emergence after a design.  In this instance 
design is defined as the pinnacle of landscape altera-
tion and the return of ?should this be of?? designated 
goals.  With emergence before a design, emergence 
is viewed as a series of reactions that creates a situa-
tion.  Emergence after a design, emergence is viewed 
as a reaction to a situation.  Because the urban realm 
is an emergent phenomenon, either approach could 
be used as a means of creating emergence.  But only 
emergence before a design allow emergence to guide a 
design.  Therefore, emergence before a design should 
be examined further in attempting to create a public 
space.  However, because of the paradoxical nature of 
these two types of applications, it might be impossible 
to rely entirely on either one.  Instead of viewing the ap-
plications as separate, it could be more effective to use 
emergence before a design and emergence after a de-
sign in conjunction. 
110 Matthew Biesecker
APPENDIX III:
CHORA CRITICISM
   The Dutch planning, urban de-
sign, and architecture firm CHORA specializes in difficult 
urban problems that contain many stakeholders.  Cur-
rently CHORA has diverged its focus to merge energy 
planning and urban design.  CHORA?s principal, Raoul 
Bunschoten, is a Professor of Urban Systematics at the 
University of Applied Science in Dusseldorf, Germany 
and is the advisor on sustainable urbanism and urban 
energy efficiency to the German Ministry of Urbanism 
and Construction  (chora.org). Bunschoten and students 
from the Berlage Institute in Rotterdam, the Netherlands 
developed a scenario-based design methodology that 
uses mostly qualitative information based on the firm?s 
fieldwork (Ellin, 125).
 CHORA and Bunschoten use a management 
system called the Urban Gallery to guide the evolution 
of a planning project.  The Urban Gallery is a dynamic 
tool that engages stakeholders to act collaboratively 
throughout the duration of the project.  The dynamic na-
ture of the Urban Gallery is created by its diagrammati-
cal master plans, which generate project knowledge 
through its monitoring of a fluctuating and liquid design.  
The Urban Gallery consists of four main phases; data-
base, prototype, scenario game, and action plan (chora.
org).
 The first phase of the Urban Gallery collects in-
formation and creates a narrative for the dynamic proc-
esses in a certain place and time (Ellin, 125).  CHORA 
officially defines the database phase as ?a description 
of dynamic processes (chora.org).  The narrative is 
written in a qualitative fashion focusing on four basic 
processes; erasure (elements taken away), origination 
(the emergence of something new), transformation (ele-
ments that are changing), and migration (elements mov-
ing through) (Ellin, 126).  These processes are described 
in mini-scenarios, which are called ?operational fields? 
(Ellin, 126).  These operational fields create small nar-
ratives for the area along with mapping of the area?s 
dynamic processes (chora.org).  These processes are 
divided into three categories: scale, impact, and in-
volvement (Ellin, 126).  
 The second phase of the Urban Gallery creates 
prototypes based on the operational fields from the first 
phase.  Bunchoten defines prototypes as;
?a programmatic condition:  it is an organization of the pro-
grams in that case is not an object in itself, it is a device in 
the form of a specific architectural configuration, an organi-
zational structure embedded in the architecture or urban 
space that links and intertwines programs in such a way as 
to give them dynamic properties.  These lead to emergent 
spatial, social, political, and other developing qualities (Bun-
choten, 2002, 5).?
 A prototype creates new conditions by inter-
twining two or more operational fields based on four ac-
tions: branding (symbolizing to distinguish), earth (land, 
water atmosphere, etc.), flow (the fluctuation of ecolo-
gies, economies, hydrology, etc.), and incorporation (the 
calibration of political and social structures) (Ellin, 126).  
 The third phase, scenario games, is a simula-
tion and a test of possible realities.  ?The dynamic proc-
esses registered in the database form the raw material 
of the scenario games and the fuel for the prototypes 
(chora.org).  The scenario game phase leads to the forth 
phase called action plan.  Action plans are strategies 
that initiate the implementation of specific prototypes, 
while also ?describing the potential interrelationships 
111Apendix III:  CHORA Criticism
between different prototypes? (chora.org).  
 Studies I have conducted found the methodo-
logical approach of CHORA?s Urban Gallery practices to 
be an attempt to create emergent behavior or extend ex-
isting emergent behavior into the design and post-con-
struction functionality of public urban spaces.  Emergent 
behavior can be seen in certain phases of Urban Gallery 
including the stakeholder feedback generated by the 
prototypes.  But as a methodology, it denies emergent 
behavior to affect the design?s outcome.  This is due to 
the design process?s attempt to forecast an outcome for 
the unpredictable future of the site.  CHORA limits the 
endless possibilities of a place to an ?action plan? which 
is essentially a time-scaled master plan.  
 It is suggested that the CHORA design meth-
odology could benefit by not attempting to predict 
the future, but instead be susceptible to the unknown 
changes that will occur.  Allowing the unpredictable to 
enter the design process and feed it would eliminate the 
need for an action plan.  CHORA?s design methodology 
could also benefit from not viewing their predictions as 
the controlling element, but use the design process it-
self.  The methodology itself could create rules to keep 
the project from becoming chaotic.  This would also 
eliminate the need for the controlling efforts of the ac-
tion plan.  Tom Wiscombe states this susceptibleness 
using the terms linear and non-linear.
?The products of emergent networks are non-linear and 
non-predictable, which is a risk, but one with exponen-
tial rewards.  Linear processes will always create prod-
ucts, which are calculable and applicable in particu-
lar, industries, but they will never exceed their inputs.  
Non-linear, emergent processes create innovation and 
newness out of proportion to their inputs, and often ap-
plications which lie outside the original trajectory (Wis-
combe, 2006, 60).?
 Because CHORA typically works in the public 
urban realm, it is necessary to distinguish the firms defi-
nition or goal of a public urban space.  Bunschoten de-
scribes public space as such; 
?Public spaces must have a prototypical character; they 
are instruments of change for a society.  They are sin-
gular, they create an identity, and they must be able to 
stimulate the evolution of all kinds of parts of society.  
The singularness of public space remains a key attractor 
for a variety of people, events, collective expressions, 
programs, but what comes out constantly changes, 
adapts to new trends, forces, desires, and it multiplies 
in its adaptations over time.   The use of a public space 
proliferates increasingly in the ways that they are used 
and the ways they give form to a society and its dy-
namic mechanisms. (Bunchoten, 2002, 5).  
 Bunschoten description of a public space is 
consistent with my own views of how a public space 
should perform.  Bunschoten concludes that public 
space is an element that is both inspired by and inspir-
ing to the evolution of societies.  The terms ?prototypi-
cal? and ?singularness? relate to the ability of a public 
space?s to be authentic and unique in its reflection of 
contextual changes.  When a public space is influenced 
by its context?s desires, it must adapt in a manner that 
creates an idiosyncratic attraction that initiates more 
desires.  In this cycle, public space can affect its dis-
tinctive uses.  This process, if viewed holistically and not 
as individual phases or cycles, is an emergent behavior.  
The question becomes whether or not CHORA?s meth-
odology is the most effective means of achieving this 
ambition of public space?
112 Matthew Biesecker
APPENDIX IV:
?TREE CITY?  CRITICISM
 Tree City, the winning entry for the Downsview 
Park Competition, is one of the best examples of the 
application of the theory of emergence to the design 
process of a public urban space.  The competition was 
held in two-stages: one in November 1999 and one in 
May 2000.  Dutch architect Rem Koolhass and graphic 
designer Bruce Mau who entered the most unpreten-
tious presentation in terms of physical interventions 
produced the winning team.  While other teams, like 
James Corner and Stan Allen, tried to convince the jury 
on their design using a great depth of detail for the fu-
ture outcome of the site, Koolhass and Mau developed 
a strategy that allowed the park?s design to adapt its the 
ever-changing contextual situation.  Instead of propos-
ing a design at the time of the competition, in the typical 
master designer fashion, they laid out a framework for 
a design process that was designed by the emerging 
patterns that were created by the individual elements 
that created the city.  This strategy became the project?s 
design (Waldheim, 81).
 Koolhass and Mau reduced the design proc-
ess into what is essentially a formula.  This formula is 
based on the principles that urban parks are a lucra-
tive investment and at the time of the competition it 
is impossible to understand enough about the site to 
successfully produce a design.  From understanding 
those principles, Koolhass and Mau created a formula 
emerged that creates a design over time.  The formula 
is written as such: SACRIFICE AND SAVE + GROW THE 
PARK + MANUFACTURE NATURE + 1,000 PATHWAYS 
+ CURATE CULTURE + DESTINATION AND DISPER-
SAL = LOW DENSITY METROPOLITAN LIFE (85).
 When the process was applied to Downsview 
Park it created a timeline, which listed phased interac-
tions.  From 2001 to 2005 the site?s contaminated soils 
would be remediated with a succession of vegetation.  
From 2006 to 2010 programmed activities would be 
established along with a network of pathways. These 
human-based interactions would be based on the ac-
tions of the people who inhabited the site from 2001 to 
2005.  In the years between 2011 and 2015 large circu-
lar planting of trees would be established in order to dis-
tinguish the natural landscape elements form the human 
designed landscape elements (oma.eu).
 Tree City has been written about extensively 
over the last decade.  The negative criticism is generally 
focused on how the project reduces the craft of land-
scape architecture to a simple equation of pathways 
and ball fields.  The negative criticism also heavily re-
flects on how the project places an emphasis on generic 
elements in a field that is physically engaged in diverse 
systems.  The project?s positive criticism includes its 
strategic nature and its stance on public space as a rev-
enue generator (Berger, 131).   
 This thesis? criticism of Tree City is consistent 
with other criticisms, but I also feel that there is relation-
ship between Tree City and the theory of emergence, 
which could bring a different perspective on the exist-
ing criticism.  This new criticism can be broken into two 
questions; first is the formula used in Tree City emergent 
and if it is, then how could it be improved?  
 Reducing the design strategy in Tree City to its 
essentials, the formula can be read as ?when it becomes 
this date, we will do this.?  Because Koolhass and Mau 
understood that the site?s situation in 1999 was much 
different than it would be in 2015, they allowed the un-
predictable nature of the urban form to influence their 
113Apendix IV:  ?Tree City? Criticism
design.  They set forth rules that stated certain land-
scape elements will be placed based on the unpredict-
able actions of the site?s inhabitants.  This institutes a 
bottom-up design strategy.  This shows that they were 
aware of the emergent behavior and how it currently ex-
ists in low-density urban life.  Therefore, I believe the 
placement of design elements exhibits emergent behav-
ior, but the design formula lacks emergent behavior.  If 
a truly emergent formula were to be created, the pro-
grammed elements would adapt with the desires of the 
individuals.  For this reason, the emergent ability of Tree 
City is regulated.  This formula could function in a more 
emergent manner if it extended the feedback loop cre-
ated in the placement of elements into the selection of 
elements. 
114 Matthew Biesecker
APPENDIX V:
CONVERSATIONS AND 
CRITICISM:  
DISCUSSIONS FROM THE STUDENTS, 
FACULTY, AND ALUMNI OF AUBURN 
UNIVERSITY?S LANDSCAPE 
ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT 
 Feedback from several presentations and doz-
ens of conversations occurred throughout this study.  
These talks helped guide the project?s development and 
evolution.  These discussions occurred in several differ-
ent forms and sizes, but almost all of them involved the 
presence of the students, faculty, and alumni of Auburn 
University?s Landscape Architecture Department.  The 
accumulation of a year?s worth of discussions created 
noticeable patterns of positive and negative criticism.  
These patterns were created by the same question be-
ing asked consistently.  Although these patterns are dif-
ferent, they are interconnected by a similar and binding 
question.  This fundamental question asked, ?On what 
basis is a design made?? This is an account of what this 
question is asking, how it emerged, why it?s important, 
and how it has answered. 
 What does it mean to question the basis of a 
design?  Essentially, this is questioning what is the ra-
tionale or logic behind the decisions that lead to the 
creation of a design.  What made the designed product 
and what it is?  Of course, this could ask several differ-
ent variations of the same question depending on the 
design under consideration.  In order for this thesis?s 
design test ask this question, a further definition of what 
this question is asking is needed.
 If this question were inquiring the rational be-
hind design maneuvers of this thesis, it would be logi-
cal to apply the question to the part of the project that 
requires a rationale.  This could be established as the 
transformation from recording feedback data to the 
creation of design goals that reflect that data.  This is 
the analysis phase of the project, and it is the backbone 
of the feedback loop.  In this section of the feedback 
loop, the landscape architect has to interpret the infor-
mation found in the responses of the site?s inhabitants.  
To reduce this problem to a formula, the basis would 
be the information or data recorded as a response from 
the site?s inhabitants, and the ?rationale? would be the 
landscape architect?s interpretation of the data.  At the 
surface, this formulaic expression seems to answer the 
question, but the answer had a much deeper under-
standing that needed to be further explored.  
 When this study was in its early developmen-
tal stages, several instances arose where the audi-
ence could not perceive the feedback loops during the 
presentation.  This was due to poor oral and graphic 
representations of the information found by the feed-
back mechanisms.  This poor representation led to a 
misunderstanding of not only the information found by 
the feedback mechanisms and what mechanisms were 
being used, but the function of the mechanisms them-
selves.  As the project advanced, better visual and au-
dible representations were constructed.  This created 
a better understanding of the information found by the 
feedback mechanism, but the questions of why it is im-
portant and how it is used remained.  
 The main significance of the feedback loops is 
that it allows the possibility for the site?s inhabitants to 
react to a situation and then have that reaction reflected 
in the design. This reflection of the site?s inhabitants de-
sires is what divides this design methodology from top-
115Appendix V:  Conversations and Criticism
down methodologies, which rarely offers the chance for 
the site?s inhabitance desires to be reflected in an adap-
tive manner.  The feedback is also what makes this de-
sign methodology different than CHORA?s approach or 
the approach found in ?Tree City.?  If the feedback were 
not taken into consideration, the adaptive quality of the 
design methodology would diminish, if not completely 
be removed.
 Questioning how the feedback is used is very 
interesting because it cannot be answered universally.  
The type of response a landscape architect can give is 
based on the type of feedback data recorded.  For in-
stance, a design that yields feedback that is qualitative 
in nature will produce an evaluation that uses qualitative 
methods.  If a design produces feedback that is quanti-
tative in nature, the feedback data is measurable, there-
fore able to be reacted to in a quantitative manner.  
 With that stated, I believe the feedback pro-
duced in the design test of this thesis is interpreted by 
the person controlling the project?s process.  That is, of 
course, only if the landscape architect is willing to be 
humble and allow the feedback to dictate the outcome 
of the project.  Although the landscape architect is sup-
posed to reflect the desires of the site?s inhabitants, an 
injection of professional responsibility has to underlie 
the landscape architect?s reaction to feedback data 
in order to keep the design in check.  In other words, 
someone has to regulate the ideas in order to respect 
the goals of good urban form.  
 This explanation may seem as though it gives 
responsibilities to the landscape architect that are broad 
and undefined, but I believe this is the section of the 
feedback loop where personal creativity and grassroots 
programming can converge.  For example, if this design 
methodology was tested using the same site, but with 
different landscape architects, different designs would 
emerge.  This is because each landscape architect 
would interpret what their responsibilities are differently.  
This seems to be a unique position where the program-
ming of a site is bottom-up and the design reaction is 
top-down.  
 This rationale also has many negative criticisms. 
The main critique is the looseness or openness of the 
landscape architect?s ability to decide what feedback 
is important.  Ironically, this is the same element of the 
feedback loop that hinges the entire project together, 
allowing a unique design based on the landscape ar-
chitect?s interpretation.  This criticism is both functional 
and ethical in nature and should be answered with fur-
ther research.  But for now, it should be concluded that 
the programming in this project is bottom-up and the 
means to address the programming is top-down.  
 In conclusion, the basis or rationale behind the 
design is located within the feedback.  The type of in-
formation that can be recorded as feedback determines 
the type of feedback data produced.  This then dictates 
the type of assessment that can be given, which guides 
the goals of the design. Essentially, the type of informa-
tion that can be extracted from the situation determines 
the type of design.  
116 Matthew Biesecker
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