Phosphorusandnitrogenbudgetforinland,salinewatershrimpondsinAlabamabyWeiSun
AthesisubmitedtotheGraduateFacultyofAuburnUniversityinpartialfulfilm entoftherequirem ntsfortheDegreofMasterofScincAuburn,Alabam a
Decm ber8,2012Keywords:Inlandshrim pculture,Phosphorus,Nitrogen,Low-salinityshrim pculture
Copyright2012byWeiSunApprovedbyClaudeE.Boyd,Chair,ProfesorofFisheriesandAliedAquaculturesDavid.Rouse,rofesorofisriesali ulturs
AsheberAbe,AsociatPresorofMthem aticsandStaistics
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ABSTRACTPhosphorusandnitrogenbudgetswerpreparedforpondsinainlandlow-salinityshrim pfarm intheBlacklandPrairergionofAlabam a.Thestudywasconductedduringthe
firstcropinthrepondswhichwernewlyconstructedandhadneverbeforecontainedwater.Pondswernotfertilzed,andthem aininputofphosphorusandnitrogenifedaveraged47kg/haand208.5kg/harespectively.Theseinputsrespectivelyacountedfor98.9%and95.5%oftotalinputforphosphorusandnitrogen,otherinputsofphosphorusand
nitrogenwerpostlarvae,welater,ainfalandrunoffthatcombinedaveraged0.5kg/haforphosphorusand9.8kg/hafornitrogen.Them ajoroutputofphosphorusandnitrogenwashrim pharvestwhichaveraged5.2kg/haforphosphorusand45.7kg/hafornitrogen.Only10.9%ofphosphorusand21%of
nitrogenappliedinfedwasincorporatedintoshrim p.Otherlosseofphosphorusandnitrogenthatresultedfromwateroutflows(epageandharvestefluent)acountedfor3.2kg/haforphosphorusand7.8kg/hafornitrogen.Itwasdificultom easurethephosphorusandnitrogenincreaseinthebottomsoilover
asinglecropespecialyforthesenewponds.Phosphorusadsorptionbybottomsoilisthem ajorpathwayofphosphoruslossfrompondwater,andthediferncebetwentheinputsandoutputsithoughttoresultfromadsorptionbybottomsoils.Fornitrogen,thediscrepancybetweninputandoutputwascausedbyabsorptionbythebottomsoil,
denitrifcationandNH3volatilzation.NitrogenlosscausedbydenitrifcationandNH3volatilzationwasnotm easuredinthistudy.Reuseofthewaterem ovedfrompondsatharvestisapractialwaytoreducethenutrientloadtotheenvironmentandtosavewater.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSTheauthorwouldliketotakethischancetoexpreshisdeepestenseofgratiudetoDr.ClaudeE.Boydforhiscontinuousadviceandasitancethroughoutthecourseofthis
thesi.HeacknowledgeshisgratiudetoDr.avidB.RouseandDr.AsheberAbeforservingascomm item em bers. SpecialthankstoDr.avidTeichert-Coddingtonforthesupportom akethisthesipossible.
HeisalsogratefultoDr.NaparatPrapaiwongforherasitancethroughcollectingfielddata.ThanksalsoteverybodyinDr.Boyd?slabform akinghistayinAuburnapleasntandm em orableone.Mostim portantly,hethankshisparentsfortheirunconditionalsupport.
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TABLEOFCONTETSAbstract.........................................................................................................................................iAcknowledgments........................................................................................................................iv
ListofTables................................................................................................................................viIntroduction...................................................................................................................................1LiteratureReviw..........................................................................................................................3MaterialndMethods.................................................................................................................11
ResultsandDiscussion...............................................................................................................17LiteratureCited...........................................................................................................................28
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LISTOFTABLESTable1PrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatafortheperiod20April?2Septm ber2011inpondN-10atninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a..........................22
Table2PrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatafortheperiod20April?13Septm ber201inpondN-11atninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a..........................22Table3PrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatafortheperiod12May?10Septm ber201inpondN-12atninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a............................................23
Table4WaterbudgetsforpondsN-10,N-11andN-12.............................................................23Table5Am ountsandconcentrationsofphosphorusandnitrogen(drym aterbasi)ofpostlarvae,fedandofshrim pforthreponds(N-10,N-11andN-12)..............................24Table6Daysofstocking,am ountoffedused,stockdensity,Fedconversionratiosand
survivalrate...................................................................................................................25Table7Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfortotalphosphorusinrainfal,welater,andpondwaterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12atninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a...............................................................................................25
Table8Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfortotalnitrogenirainfal,welater,andpondwaterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12atninlandshrim pfarminAlabam a...................................................................................................................25Table9Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsforsolubleractive
phosphorusinrainfal,welater,andpondwaterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12ataninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a................................................................................26
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Table10Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfortotalm m onianitrogen(TAN)inrainfal,welater,andpondwaterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12atninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a....................................................................................26Table11Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfornitratenitrogen(NO
3)inrainfal,welater,andpondwaterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12atninlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a...............................................................................................26Table12PhosphorusandnitrogenbudgetsforpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12atninland
shrim pfarm inAlabam a...............................................................................................27Table13pH,totaldisolvedsolids,salinityandwatertem perature...........................................27
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INTRODUCTIONInlandshrim pculturehasbecomecomm oninm anyaresworldwide.Inlandpondsforshrim pcultureoftenaresuppliedwithlow-salinitywaterfromsaline
aquifers(Royetal.,2010).Mostenvironmentalconcernsofinlandshrim pculturefocusonsalinization.However,likealotherkindsofpondaquaculture,eutrophicationcausedbyphosphorusandnitrogenithedischargeefluentfrom
pondsisalsoam jorenvironmentalconcern(Boyd,2006).Comparedtonaturalwaters,aquaculturepondwatersareusualyenrichedwithphosphorusandnitrogenbecauseoftheuseoffedsandfertilzers.Nitrogenand
phosphorusarethekeynutrientsthatincreaseproductivityofaquaticplantsandleadtoeutrophication.Nitrogenisanesntialcomponentofproteinandotherconstiuentsofcelular
protoplasm .Thereisusualy7to10tim esm orenitrogenthanphosphoruscontainedinplants.However,sincephosphorusisquicklyrem ovedfromthewaterandboundinthesedim nt,anincreaseinphosphorusconcentrationusualywilcauseagreatr
responseinplantgrowththanwithanincreaseinnitrogenconcentration.Am ajorconcernofnitrogendischargeinaquaculturersultsfromnitriteandun-ionizedam m onia. Thesetwoinorganicnitrogencompoundscanbetoxictoaquaticanim lsat
relativelylowconcentrations(BoydandTucker,1998).
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Them aininputsofphosphorusandnitrogentopondsarefrtilzersandfed(BoydandTucker,1998).Exceptfortheportionrecoveredintheharvestoftheculturespecies,therestoftheaddedphosphorusiseitheradsorbedbypondbottom
soilordischargedinefluent(Boydetal.,2006).Nitrogenislostviathefollowingpathways:hrim pharvest;harvestefluent;denitrifcation;NH
3volatilzation;acumulationinbottomsoils(Grossetal.,2000).Thepurposeofthistudywastopreparephosphorusandnitrogenbudgetsforshrim ppondsandestim atethequantityofphosphorusandnitrogenrelasedinto
naturalwatersthroughefluents.
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LITERATUREVIEWShrim pispresntlythelargestinglecomm odity,byvalue,ininternationalfishtrade,acountingfor15%ofthetotalvalueofinternationalytradedfisheryproducts
(FAO,2008).Theshrim pindustryhasgrownexponentialyinthepastfewdecades(LeungandEngle,2006).Globalshrim pproduction,includingwildcaughtfisheriesandaquaculture,hasignificantlyincreasedfrom2.6m iliontonsin1990to6.9
m iliontonsin2010(FAO,2008).Aquacultureplaysanim portantroleinshrim pindustry,itsuppliesabout55%(3,787,706tonsforaquaculture;6,916,956tonsfortotal)ofthetotalworldsupplyofshrim pin2010(FAO,2010).
InAsia,thedominantspeciestraditionalywastheBlackTigershrim p(Penaeusmonodon)whichisnativetotropical,coastalregionsoftheIndo-Pacifcbasin.Inthewestrnhem ispheres,thedominantspecieswasthePacifcwhiteshrim p(Litopenaeus
vannamei)whichisnativetothetropicalPacifcoastofLatinAm erica.Inthelate90s,thenon-nativeSPF(specifcpathogenfre)Pacifcwhiteshrim pwasintroducedtoAsian,anditsuseinaquaculturespreadthroughSoutheastAsiarpidly.The
widespreaddoptionofPacifcwhiteshrim pcauseadram ticincreaseofAsianshrim pproduction.Pacifcwhiteshrim phasbecomethedominantspeciesculturedinThailand,ChinaandIndonesia(Wyban,2009).Them ainshrim pspeciescurrently
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producedintheshrim pcultureindustryisPacifcwhiteshrim pasithaslargelyreplacedtheBlackTigershrim pinthelastdecade(Josupeit,2009).Shrim pfarm ingwasorignatedinSoutheastAsiawherewildshrim phasbeen
raisedforcenturies.Modernshrim pfarm ingbeganithe1930swhenJapanesescientistdiscoveredthem ethodtonurtureKurumashrim p(Penaeusjaponicus)larvaetom aturationonalrgescale(WeidnerandRosenbery,1992).Shrim pwer
m ainlyculturedinlargeextnsivesytem swhichprovidedlowproductivitybeforeabundantm arineshrim psedweravailablefromhatcheriesandwild-caughtsources(Fast,1992).
Marineshrim pwertraditionalyculturedincoastalreasorestuarinewaters(Davisetal.,2004).However,withthedevelopmentofintensiveshrim pfarm ingtechnology,m anyenvironmentalisuesasociatedwithintensiveaquaculture
activitieshavearisen.Destructionofm angroveandwetlandforshrim pfarmconstructionisconsideredasm ajorcauseoflossofm angroveforestandwetland(Philipsetal.,1993).IncoastalreasofTaiwan,thePhilippinesandThailand,
salinizationoffreshwateraquiferswascausedbyusinggroundwaterforintensiveshrim pculture(Prim avera,1989).Diseasesuchaswhitespotsyndromevirusandtaurasyndromevirusbecomethe
biggestobstacleforthedevelopmentofshrim paquaculture(WickinsandLe,2002).Inordertocontroldisease,reducepollutionandpreventdam agetothecoastalecosystem ,im provedshrim pproductionm ethodshavebeendevelopedtoreducethe
dischargeofefluentandm inim izetheriskofdiseaseoutbreaks.Zerowaterxchange
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sytem usinglinedpondsandinlandshrim pfarm ingaretwoexam ples.Reducingwaterxchangeratescanm inim izetheriskofintroducingdiseasecariersintoculturesytem s,sozerowaterxchangesytem ishighlyefctivefordiseasecontrol
(Sam ochaetal.,2002).Becausetheshrim pfarm sininlandaresarem orescaterdcomparingtothoseinthecoastalreas,thewatersupplysourcesforthefarm sareisolatedandthereare
lescontam inationproblem scausedbyneighboringfarm s.Moreoverthelandpriceofinlandaresim uchlowerthanthatofcoastalreas.Theinlandecosystem isalsolessensitvetopollutionthanthecoastlecosystem .Inlandshrim pfarm ingalsoavoids
disturbanceofm angrovehabita.Asaeuryhalinespeciesthatcantolerateawiderangeofsalinities(0.5-45g/l)(MenzandBlake,1980;Brayetal.,1994),PacifcWhiteShrim pbecam eanexcelnt
candidateforinlandlowsalinityfarm ing.Thealthypost-larvaeofPacifcwhiteshrim pareusualyavailableyarround(Davisetal.,2004).SomeofthefirstreportsofraisngthePacifcwhiteshrim pininlandsalinewel
waterwerfromSm ithandLawrence(1990)inwestTexas(USA).cordingtothereport,shrim pwerraisedinearthenponds(86.7%survival)atstockingdensityof25shrim p/m 2.After120days,theshrim pgrewfrom1.2gtoabout20g(Sam ochaet
al.,2002).Aftershrim pfarm ingnearlycollapsedasresultofdiseasethroughoutcoastalThailand,theshrim pfarm industryworldwidestartedtolookforalternativesto
m aintainproduction(Kaosa-rdandPednekar,1996).Inlandlow-salinityshrim p
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farm ingbecam equitesuccesfulinThailand.Thetechniquesusedininlandlow-salinityfarm inginThailandaresim lartothoseusedincoastalrea.However,insteadofusingseawtertofiltheponds,inlandlow-salinityfarm sm ixbrine
solutionwithfreshwater.Thebrinesolutionisobtainedfromcoastalevaporationponds.Thebrinewaterisdilutedtoaslinitylevelof3-5pptwithfreshwatertoraisetheshrim p.AstudybyLim suwan(2002)showedthatbrinewaterwithaslinityof
200ppt,whendilutedwithfreshwatertothelevelof3-5ppt,isappropriateforshrim pfarm ing.Freshwaterinputsarealsousedtoreplacethewaterlosscausedbyevaporation
andsepageduringtheproductioncyle,andthispractiecanreducethesalinitylevelstonearzerobythetim eofharvestifnom oresalinewaterorsaltareadded(Szuster,2006).
Althoughtheinlandlow-salinityfarm ingtechniquesusingbrinesolutioninThailandhasbeenquitesuccesful,producersinothercountriesareusingsalinegroundwatertoraisem arinespeciesintheinlandare.
InEcuador,therearesomearesthathavesalinegroundwaterthatisuitableforrearingm arineshrim p(Boyd,2001,2002).Andtherearerportsaboutinlandshrim pfarm ingatsitesnearPalestinaintheGuayasProvince(Boyd,2002).Therealsohave
beenreportsofshrim pcultureinsalinewaterinBrazil(NunesandLopez,2001)andotherSouthAm ericacountries,butthecurrentstausofusingwelaterforshrim pcultureinothercountriesinotweldocumentd.
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Ithasbeenstim atedthatabouttwo-thirdsofthecontinentalreainUSAareunderlainbysalinegroundwater(Feth,1970).Theinlandshrim pculturewasfirstdoneintheUSusinggroundwaterwithaslinityof28ppt.Nowadays,inlandshrim p
culturehasbecomerathercomm oninFlorida,Alabam a,Texas,Arizonaandotherstaes.However,thesalinitiesofwelaterusedinm ostaresforinlandshrim pculturearelsthan10ppt(Royetal.,2010).
Somecatfishfarm esinwest-centralAlabam astartedtoexperim entwithshrim pcultureinpondsusinggroundwaterfomwelswhichontained2to6pptsalinityin1999and2000.Actualy,somechannelcatfishfarm esinwest-centralAlabam a
(about200m ilesinland)havebeenculturingcatfishinwatersof2to6pptsalinityforyears.Therearefwerdiseaseproblem sforcatfishcultureinpondsusingsalinewaterthanthoseusingnorm alfreshwater(Boydetal.,2000).Thewaterusedforthisinland
shrim pculturewaspumpedfrombrackishwateraquifersabout1300ftbelowground(Teichert-Coddington,2002).Previousstudieshowedthatheproportionsofm ajorionsofpondwaters
preparedbydilutingbrinesolutionwithfreshwaterinThailandwersim lartothoseinnorm alseawter.However,ionicompositonofsalinegroundwaterisdiferntfromseawterdilutedtothesam esalinity(Boydetal.,2002;Royetal.,2010).
Theconcentrationsofcaliumandbicarbonatetndtobem uchhigherinsalinegroundwaterthanthatinseawter.Thehighproportionofcaliumandbicarbonateisconsideredtobedesirableforaquaculturepondwaters(BoydandTucker,1998).
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Theconcentrationsofpotasium,m agnesiumandsulfatetndtobelowerinsalinegroundwaterthanthoseinseawterdilutedtothesam esalinity.Alowproportionofsulfatealsoisdesirablebecausesulfateisthesourceofhydrogensulfide
inanaerobicpondsoils(Boyd,2001;Boydetal.,2002;BoydandThunjai,2003;Saoudetal.,2003).Lowconcentrationsofpotasiumandm agnesiumininlandlow-salinityshrim ppondsusingsalinegroundwaterwildecreaseshrim psurvivalrateand
production(Royetal.,2010).Addingpotasiumandm agnesiumfertilzerstothepondswilsignificantlyincreasesurvivalandproduction(McNevinetal.,2004;Boydetal.,2007).
Them ostcomm onm aterialusedaspotasiumfertilzerinthepondsispotasiumchloride(KCl),alsoknownasm uriateofpotash.Anotherm aterialusedasbothpotasiumandm agnesiumfertilzerisulfateofpotashm agnesia(K
2SO4?2MgSO4)whichisoldunderthetradenam eK-Mag.Potasiumandm agnesiuminpondwatersarelosthroughoverflow,sepage,
harvestefluent,shrim pharvestandsoiladsorption.Potasiumandm agnesiumbudgetswerm adeforpondsrecivingm uriateofpotashandKm agasfertilzersinAlabam a(Boydetal.,2007;PineandBoyd,2010).Bottomsoilcanfixpotasiumby
bothexchangeableandnon-exchangeableprocess,andoverhalfofthepotasiuminputswerlostotheseprocess(Boydetal.,2007).Unlikethepotasium,nearlyalofthem agnesiumisconsideredtobeexchangeable(PineandBoyd,2010).
Comparedtoshrim pcultureincoastalreas,inlandfarm inghaseveraladvantagesam entionedbefore.Thewatersupplyisnotsharedwithotherfarm sand
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thecontroloverwateruseism ucheasier.Thediseaseproblem alsocanbegreatlyreduced.Theuseoflandandwateresourcesim oreeficentbecauseinlandshrim pfarm ingtendstobem oreintensivethancoastalshrim pfarm ing(Boyd,2001).
However,withtherapidgrowthofinlandlow-salinityshrim paquacultureindustry,therehavebeenm oreandm oreconcernsabouttheenvironmentalim pactsofthisindustry.Mostconcernsfocusonsalinationofstream s,aquifersandsoilscausedby
ponddischarge(Royetal.,2010).Inothertypesofaquaculture,therearealsoenvironmentalconcernsabouteutrophicationcausedbydischargeofnutrients,organicm aterandsuspendedsolids.Althoughsalinationisthem ajorconcerni
inlandshrim pculture,utrophicationisalsoaproblem .Thereasonthatpeoplepaym oreatentiontosalinationisthathepotentialforsalinationism oreobviousandefortoreducesaltdischargewilalsolesnrelaseofotherpollutants(Prapaiwong
andBoyd,2012).Efluentsfrompondaquaculturetypicalyarenrichedinsuspendedsolids,nutrients,chlorophylandbiochem icaloxygendem and(BOD).Elevated
concentrationsofphosphorusandnitrogenipondefluentsalsowilstim ulatethegrowthofalgaeandcauseutrophicationproblem inrecivingwaters(SchwartzandBoyd,1994).
Inthecatfishindustry,fedisthem ajorsourceofphosphorustochannelcatfishponds(Boyd,1985).Phosphorusbudgetshadbeenm adeforchannelcatfishpondsrecivingdietswithdiferntphosphorusconcentrationsinAuburn,Alabam aby
Grossetal.(1998).Thatstudyrevealedthatphosphoruslevelsindietsdidnothave
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significantinfluenceonphosphorusconcentrationsinpondwaterandphytoplanktonactivity.Theuptakeofphosphorusbybottomsoiladsorptionprocesswasthem ajorfactorcontrollingphosphorusdynam icsinponds.Bottomsoilsusualyhavealrge
capacitytoabsorbphosphorus,butthecapacityhaslim ts(MasudaandBoyd,1994;BoydandMunsir,1996).Itusualywiltake20yearsorm etosaturatebottomsoilswithphosphorusatnorm alfedingratesincatfishcultureinthesoutheastern
UnitedStaes(Boyd,1995).Therefore,reducingphosphorusinputstopondsinfedcanextndthetim etosaturatepondsoils(Grossetal.,1998).Fedisalsothem ajorinputofphosphorusandnitrogenitheshrim paquaculture
industry.Someappliedphosphorusisrecoveredintheharvestoftheculturespecies,andtherestislosthroughadsorbingbypondbottomsoilandharvestefluent(Boydetal.,2006).Nitrogenwaslostviathefollowingways:hrim pharvest;harvest
efluent;denitrifcation;NH3volatilzation;acumulationinbottomsoils(Grossetal.,2000).Methodssuchasreducingfedingrates,m anagingpondstom inim izeefluents
anddischargingefluentthroughsetlingpondscanreducethenutritonloadtotheenvironment(SchwartzandBoyd,1996).
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MATERIALNDMETHODPondsandm anagem entThistudywasconductedinpondslocatedonacomm ercial inlandshrim pfarm
nextoAlabam aHighway43about5kmnorthofForklandintheBlacklandPraireregionofwest-centralAlabam a.Threnewlyconstructed,em bankmentpondswerselctedinthestudy.Thesepondshadnotcontainedwaterbefore.Pondwatersurface
areswerasfollows:N-10,1.62ha;N-11,1.53ha;N-12,1.92ha.TheaveragedepthforthrepondsN-10,N-11andN-12wer1.11m ,0.95m and0.95m ,respectivelyWhenwaterlevelsare10cm belowthetopofoverflowpipes,watershedareswer
asfollows:N-10,2075m 2;N-11,2509m 2;N-12,2718m 2.PondsN-10andN-11werstockedwithpostlarvalshrim pat20/m 2and21/m 2on20AprilandN-12werstockedwithpostlarvalshrim pat21/m 2on12May.Fed
containing35%crudeproteinwasusedthroughouttheproductioncyle.Pondswernottreatdwithnitrogenandphosphorusfertilzers.Eachpondwasequippedwithanelctricaly?powerdpaddlewheelaertortoavoidlowdisolvedoxygen
concentration.Pondswerfiledwithsalinegroundwaterfomawel.Thedrop-filpractiewasim plem ntedtoprovidestoragecapacityofrainfalandpreventoverflowafter
norm alrainfalevents(Boyd,1982;Cathcartetal.,1999).Theinitialwaterlevelsin
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thepondswerabout10cm belowthetopsoftheoverflowpipeswhenshrim pwerstocked,andpumpedwaterwasddedtothepondstoreplacevaporationandsepage.Waterlevelswerm aintained10-15cm belowthetoptheoverflowpipe.
Shrim pwerharvestedduringSeptm ber.PondN-12washarvestedarlieron10Septm berafter128daysofcultureduetothelowsurvivalrate.PondsN-10andN-1werharvestedon22Septm berand13Septm berafter155daysand146days
ofculture,respectively.Duringtheharvest,waterdrainedfromthepondswaspumpedtothenextpondsthathadalreadybeenharvestosavewaterforreuse.Waterbudget
aterbudgetforthethrepondsarebasedonthem ethodproposedbyBoyd(1982),whichusesthehydrologicequationasfollow:Inflows=Outflows?Changeinstorage
Inflowsincludedwelater,precipitaionandrunoff.Outflowswerevaporation,sepage,overflowanddrainingforharvest.Precipitaionandevaporationwerm easuredbyastandardraingaugeanda
clasAevaporationpanthatwerinstaledneartheponds.Thepancoeficentof0.81wasusedinestim atingpondevaporation(Boyd,1985).Theequationforpondevaporationwas
E=pan(0.81)whereEpanisclasApanevaporation.
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Stafgaugesweratchedtothepiersofeachpondtom easurethewaterlevel.Dischargefromthewelcouldnotbem easureddirectly,anditwascalulated(Boyd,1982)bythefollowingequation:
W=(E+SO+H)?(P+R)where=waterfomwel,E=evaporation,O=overflows,H=pondwaterdepth,P=precipitaion,R=run-off.
Acordingtothecurvenumberm ethod(YooandBoyd,1994),approxim ately67%rainfalingonthewatershedwouldentrthepondsinrun-off.Theequationforcalulationrun-offorapondwas:
R=0.67(a/A)Pwherea=watershedare(m 2)andA=pondsurfaceare(m 2).Sepagewasetim atedduringdryperiodswhentherewernoinflowstothe
ponds(Boyd,1982).Thedifernceinthedeclineinwaterlevelandevaporationissepage:S=?H?E
Thewaterlevelswerm aintained10cm belowthetoptheoverflowpipetoavoidoverflow,butstafgaugeswerreadwithinafewhoursafterthem ajorrainfaleventtocheckifthewaterlevelexcededthetopofthestandpipe.Overflowwas
estim atedasO=H?TwhereT=elvationoftopofdrainpipe.
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PhosphorusandNitrogendeterm inationsThefedsam pleswerobtainedduringtheproductioncyleandshrim psam pleswercollectdatharvest.Thesam pleswerdriedat60?Cinam echanical
convectionovenadpulverizedwithanIKAEconomicAnalyticalMil(Cole-Parm e,VernonHils,IL,USA).Thepulverizedsam pleswersenttotheAuburnUniversitySoilTestingLaboratoryfortotalnitrogendeterm ination.
Analyseforphosphoruswerm adeacordingtothem ethodproposedbyBoydandTeichert-Coddington(1995).Portionsof1geachwerincineratedat500?Cfor8hinam ufflefurnace.A2.0Nacidsolutionwaspreparedbym ixingequalvolumesof
1NHO3and1NHCL.Fivem ililtersofthisolutionweraddedtotheash.Them ixturewasthenrubbedwitharubberpolicem anandputonahotplateuntilnearlydry.Theresidualwasdisolvedandtransferdtoa100-m lvolumetricflaskand
dilutedtovolumewiththe2.0Nacidsolution.TheresultingsolutionwasfilterdthroughWhatm anNumber42filterpapertogethefinalsolution.Thefinalsolutionwasenttothesoiltestinglaboratoryfordeterm inationoftheconcentrationoftotal
phosphorus.A30-cm diam etrplasticfunnelwasplacedina2-Lplasticbottletocollectrainwatersam ples.Watersam pleswercollectdfrompondsevery2weks
throughouttheproductioncyleandatharvest.Sam plesofwelaterwercollectdwhenwelaterwaspumpedintotheponds.Althewatersam pleswerputinto2-Lplasticbottles,toredininsulatedicehestandtransportedtoAuburnUniversityfor
analysi.Thesam pleswersubjectdtopersulfatedigestioninalkaline
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environment(Eatonetal.,1995).Inthisprocedure,10m lofwatersam plewerpipeteinto30-m Ltestubes,5m Lof0.075NNaOHand0.1gofpotasiumpersulfatewasddedtothetestubes.Cappedtestubeswerm ixedbyinvertingtwiceand
autoclavedat110Cfor30m in.Afterthesam plescooledtoroomtem perature,1m Lofboratebuffer(61.8gboricaidH3BO3and8gNaOHin1,000m Lofdistiledwater)weradded.Afterdigestion,5m lofresultingsolutionwastransferdto
anothersetoftubestoanalyzetotalphosphorusbytheascorbicaidm ethod(GrossandBoyd,1998).Therem ainingsolutioninthetubeswasreadbyultravioletspectrophotometryfordeterm inationoftotalnitrogenconcentration.Filterdwater
sam pleswerm easuredforsolubleractivephosphorusingm em branefiltrationandtheascorbicaidm ethod(GrossandBoyd,1998).Watersam plesweralsofilterdandanalyzedforNO
3-NwiththeNASreagentm ethod(GrossandBoyd,1998)andforTANwiththesalicylate-hypochloritem thod(BowerandHolm -ansen,1980).
Soilsam pleswercollectdatninelocationsinaS-shapedpaternieachpondbottombeforepondswerfiledwithwater.Sam pleswertakenwithashoveltodepthof15cm .Theninesam pleswerthoroughlym ixedtoprovideasingle
compositesam pleforanalysi.PondswercompletlydrainedforharvestinSeptm ber.Afterpondswerdrained,18sedim ntsam plesfrompondsN-10andN-11wercollectdasdescribedabove.Sincewaterdrainedfromthepondswas
pumpedtothenextpondsthathadalreadybeenharvestosavewaterforreuse,pondN-12stilcontainedwaterwhenthebottomsoilsam pleswercollectd.Coreswer
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takenwitha5-cm coresam pletubes.Becausetheavyclaysoilwasosticky,thetubecoretubecouldnotbeforcedm orethan10cm intothesoil.Onlysam plesof0-10cm layerswerobtainedfrompondN-12.Thesam pleswerdriedat60?Cina
m echanicalconvectionovenandpulverizedwitham echanicalsoilcrusher(CustomLaboratoryEquipment,OrangeCity,Florida,USA)topasa40-m eshscren.Methodsusedfordeterm inationoftotalphosphorusandtotalnitrogenconcentration
insoilsam pleswerthesam eastheonesusedforfedandshrim psam ples.PhosphorusandNitrogenbudgetPhosphorusandnitrogenbudgetswerpreparedforeachpondbysumm ingthe
inputsandoutputsofphosphorusandnitrogen.Forphosphorus,theinputswerpostlarvalshrim p,fed,welater,ainfalandrun-off.Theoutputswershrim pharvest,overflow,sepage,andsedim ntacumulation.Fornitrogen,theinputswerpost
larvalshrim p,fed,welater,ainfal,run-offandN2fixation.Theoutputswershrim pharvest,overflow,sepage,sedim ntacumulation,NH3volatilzation,anddenitrifcation.Thequantitesofthepostlarvae,fedandweightofharvestedshrim p
werobtainedfromtheproductionrecordprovidedbytheowner.Volumesofwelwater,ainfal,run-off,sepage,overflow,anddraingeefluentwerobtainedbym ultiplyingthedepthofwaterm asuredinwaterbudgetsbypondares.Quantitesof
inputsandoutputsofphosphorusandnitrogenwerobtainedbym ultiplyingthequantitesofinputsandoutputsofwaterbytheirphosphorusandnitrogenconcentrations.
17
RESULTANDSICUSIONPrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatacollectdatheshrim pfarm andobtainedfromanNationalWeatherService(NWS)gaugingstaionatDem opolis
LockandDam about30kmsoutheastofthefarm areprovidedinTable1,Table2andTable3.Forevaporation,onlynorm alvalueswerobtainedfromtheNWSgaugingstaion.TotalrainfalforMayndJulywaslightlyhigherathestaionthan
athefarm andthetotalrainfalthroughouttheproductioncylewashigherathefarm thanathestaion.Thenorm alvalueforevaporationwashigherathestaionthanathefarm exceptpondN-12whichhadashorterproductioncylethanN-10
andN-11becauseofthelowsurvivalrate.Boththewaterbudgetm thodandthebucketm ethodwerusedtoestim atethesepageofpondsinthistudy.Forthewaterbudgetm thod,sepagewascalulated
onlyduringthedryperiodwhentherewernoinflowsoroutflowsotherthansepageandevaporation(Boyd,1982).Sepagewasm easuredthretim esforeachpondandtheaveragevaluesandstandarddeviationsforthrepondswerasfollows:N-10,
0.128?0.10cm /day;N-11,0.139?0.09cm /day;N-12,0.09?0.08cm /day.Theresultsofthebucketm ethodwerinconsistentandconsideredlesacuratethanthewaterbudget-basedstim ates.Thus,theywernotused.
Waterfomthewelasthem ajorinflowduringthebudgetcyle(Table4).
18
Precipitaionandrunoffreplacedabout70%ofwaterlossecausedbyevaporationandsepage.Overfloweventswernotobservedthroughouttheproductioncyle.Theefluentdischargeduringharvestwasthelargestlossofwater.Evaporationwas
m ajorlossfrompondsandsepagewasm uchsm alerlossacomparedtoharvestefluentandevaporation.Theam ountofpostlarvalshrim p,fedusedduringtheproductioncyle,and
harvestedshrim pareprovidedinTable5.Table5alsoprovidesthephosphorusandnitrogenconcentrationsofthepostlarvalshrim p,fedandharvestedshrim p.ThesurvivalratesandtheFCRwernotparticularlygoodforalthreponds.PondN-12
hadthelowesturvivalrate(Table6).Only10.9%ofphosphorusand21%ofnitrogenofthefedappliedwasincorporatedintoshrim p.Therecoveryofappliedphosphorusinharvestedshrim pwasm uchlesthanthe
recoveryofappliednitrogen.However,therecoveryofthesetwoelm ntsisaboutequalinfishculture(BoydandTucker,1998).Them ajorreasonthatcausesthisdifernceisthatfishhaveboneswhichontaincaliumphosphatebutshrim pdonot
havebones.Livefishusualycontainabout0.5-0.75%phosphorus(Boydetal.,2007),whilethelivePacifcwhiteshrim pinthistudyonlycontained0.36%phosphorus.Moltingofshrim pcouldalsobeareasoncausesthelownutrientrecoverybecausethe
m oltedshelsalsocontainphosphorusandnitrogen.Thephosphorusandnitrogenconcentrationsinrainfal,welaterandpondwaterareprovidedinTable7andTable8.Althoughthewelasthem ajorsourceof
waterfortheponds,welaterwasnotam jorinputofphosphorusbecausethetotal
19
phosphorusconcentrationinthewelaterwaslow.Theaverageconcentrationsoftotalphosphorusandtotalnitrogenipondwaterm easuredatintervalsduringthegrow-outperiod(Table7andTable8)werusedto
estim atethequantitesofphosphorusandnitrogenlostinsepageandoverflow.Theconcentrationsofphosphorusandnitrogenithepondwateratharvest(Table7andTable8)werm easuredforestim atingtheam ountofthesetwoelm ntsinthe
harvestefluent.Theaverageconcentrationsofsolubleractivephosphorus,totalam m onianitrogenandnitratenitrogenirainfal,welaterandpondwaterareprovidedinTable9,Table10andTable11.
Theharvestedshrim pwasthelargestnutrientoutputacountingforabout61%ofthetotaloutputforphosphorusand85%ofthetotaloutputfornitrogen(Table12).Thediferncebetwentheaverageinputsandoutputswer39.1kg/hafor
phosphorusand164.8kg/hafornitrogen.Thediscrepancyforphosphoruswasasumedtohaveresultedfromabsorptionbythebottomsoils,butitwasnotpossibletom easuretheincreaseofphosphorusinthebottomsoilduringasinglecrop.Since
althrepondsinthistudywernewpondsthatnevercontainedwaterbeforeandthedurationofthistudywasjustonesinglecrop,thephosphorusconcentrationofsoilsacrossthepondbottomhadwidevariation(MasudaandBoyd,1994)andtheincrease
ofphosphorusconcentrationinpondbottomsoilduringonesinglecropwasm al.Moreover,theprecisonoftotalphosphorusanalysiforpondsoilsarerlativelylow(TavaresandBoyd,2003).Boyd(1985)reportedthesam eproblem indem onstrating
achangeonphosphorusconcentrationinchannelcatfishpondsoilsduringasingle
20
crop.However,whenconsideredoverm anycrops,ithasbeenshownthatabouttwo-thirdofphosphorusappliedinfedtocatfishponds(MasudaandBoyd,1994)andshrim ppondsacumulatesinbottomsoil(Boydetal.,2006).
Botomsedim ntofpondstronglyadsorbsphosphorusthroughvariousprocess.Phosphorusisboundinacidicsoilm ainlyasluminumphosphate,butsomealsoisboundasironphosphate.Insoilneutralorbasicreaction,phosphorusisboundin
caliumphosphate.Clayparticlesinsoilalsocandsorbphosphorus(Boyd,2000).PhosphorusavailabilityinwaterdependsonthepHofwaterandm ud(MasudaandBoyd,1994).Underacidiconditions,phosphorusconcentrationinwateriscontrolled
bysolubilitesofironandaluminumphosphates.Innear-neutralndhighalkalinitycondition,phosphorusconcentrationinwaterisdeterm inedbysolubilitesofcaliumandironphosphorus(MooreandReddy,1994).Thepreviouslym entionedstudyby
MasudaandBoyd(1994)showedthatalthoughabouttwo-thirdsofphosphorusappliedtopondsinfedsandfertilzersacumulateinbottomsoils,thisphosphoruswastightlyboundandonlyasm lam ountwasatersoluble.Bottomsoilsusualy
havealrgecapacitytoabsorbphosphorus,butthecapacityhaslim ts(MasudaandBoyd,1994;BoydandMunsir,1996).Itusualywiltake20yearsorm etosaturatebottomsoilswithphosphorusatnorm alfedingratesincatfishcultureinthe
southeasternUnitedStaes(Boyd,1995).Therefore,reducingphosphorusinputstopondsinfedcanextndthetim etosaturatepondsoils(Grossetal.,1998).Nitrogenislostfrompondsviathefollowingpathways:hrim pharvest;harvest
efluent;denitrifcation;NH3volatilzation;acumulationinbottomsoils(Grossetal.,
21
2000).Thediferncebetweninputandoutputfornitrogenwascausedbydepositoninthebottomsoil,denitrifcationandNH3volatilzation.NitrogenlosscausedbydenitrifcationandNH
3volatilzationwasnotm easuredinthistudy.Itisalsodificultom easurethenitrogenincreaseinthebottomsoiloverasinglecropforthesam ereasonm entionedearlierforphosphorus.
ThepHvaluesofthrepondsarequiteclose.Thevaluesoftotaldisolvedsolids,salinity,andconductivityinpondN-12arehigherthanthoseinN-10andN-11(Table13).
Sepageisnoteasytocontrol,anditisunavoidableunlesim perm eablelinersareinstaled.Thehighcostofpondlinersinotaceptableatheintensityofcultureem ployedininlandshrim ppondsinAlabam a.However,sepageratesinthe
BlacklandPraireusualyarenotverylargebecauseoftheavyclaysoilsinm ostplaces(YooandBoyd,1994).Moreover,sepagecanbereducedbycarefullyselctingthesitesandusinggoodconstructionm ethods(Boydetal.,2004).Overflow
shouldbecontrolledbyprovidingstoragevolumeforrainfalingintopondsaswasdoneinpondsofthepresntstudy.HarvestefluentshouldberecyledtoconservewaterasdescribebyBoydetal.(2006).Reusingthewatercanreducelossofnutrients
totheenvironmentandreducepollution.
22
Table1:PrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatafortheperiod20April?2Septm ber2011inpondN-10atinlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a:Month Precipitation(cm)ClassApanevaporation(cm)Farm NWSFarm Norm al20-30April 4.64.64.75.4
May4.67.517.316.5June 4.72.318.217.7ly 13.616.317.118.2August 4.72.415.717.11-22September21.114.810.410.3
Total53.347.983.485.2NWS:2011,Dem opolisLockandDam StaionNorm al:1956-2002,Dem opolisLockandDam Staion
Table2:PrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatafortheperiod20April?13Septm ber201inpondN-11atinlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a:MonthPrecipitation(cm)ClassApanevaporation(cm)Farm NWSFarm Norm al20-30April 4.64.64.75.4
May4.67.517.316.5June 4.72.318.217.7ly 13.616.317.118.2August 4.72.415.717.11-13September17.710.85.96.3
Total49.943.978.981.2NWS:2011,Dem opolisLockandDam StaionNorm al:1956-2002,Dem opolisLockandDam Staion
23
Table3:PrecipitaionandclasApanevaporationdatafortheperiod12May?10Septm ber2011inpondN-12atinlandshrim pfarm inAlabam a:MonthPrecipitation(cm)ClassApanevaporation(cm)Farm NWSFarm Norm al12-31May3.75.617.311
June 3.82.318.217.7ly 13.616.317.118.2August 6.22.415.717.11-10September13.510.84.14.8Total40.837.472.468.8
NWS:2011,Dem opolisLockandDam StaionNorm al:1956-2002,Dem opolisLockandDam Staion
Table4:WaterbudgetsforpondsN-10,N-11andN-12:Variable N-10 N-11 N-12Meanvolume?S.D.(3/ha)Depth(cm )Volume(m 3)Depth(cm )Volume(m 3)Depth(cm )Volume(m 3)InflowsWel 137.822302.2121.918653.4113.421750.812436.5?1237.1
Precipitation53.3 8621.449.9 7672.145.3 8681.84956403Run-off 7.5740.67 838.2 6.4824.2 478?62O utflowsO O OH arvestH H H efluent111.117994.194.514466.894.918205.210021?948Evaporation67.610938.563.99779.358.611249.16338449Sepage 19.83205.120.33105.311.52205.91719.9?494.2
O vrflowO O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
24
Table5:Am ountsandconcentrationsofphosphorusandnitrogen(drym aterbasi)ofpostlarvae,fedandofshrim pforthreponds(N-10,N-11andN-12):VariableDrymatter(%weteight)Phosphorus(%)Nitrogen(%) N-10(kg)N-11(kg)N-12(kg) Mean?S.D(kg/ha)Postlarvae25 1.2910.93 3 4 2?0.1
Fed 91.41.3886.166572561664793703?342Shrimp 29 1.24410.893568233911701448?800
25
Table6:Daysofstocking,am ountoffedused,stockdensity,Fedconversionratiosandsurvivalrteduringproductioncyl:DaysofstockingFed(kg)Stockdensity(postlarvae/m
2) FCR(FedConversionratios) Survival(%)N-101556572.4 20 1.8430.1-111465615.9 21 2.4018.9N-121286479.1 5.549.2
Table7:Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfortotalphosphorusinrainfal,wlater,ndpondwatrinpondsN-10,N-11,ndN-12taninlandshrim pfarm iAlbam :Varible N-10 N-1 N-12Rinfal 0.8?.10.8?0.10.8?0.1Welwter.320.34.32.34.32.34
PondwaterAveragefocop0.281?0.3100.25?0.1490.285?0.318thrvest 0.25 0.27 0.29
Table8:Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfortotalnitrogenirainfal,wlater,ndpondwatrinpondsN-10,N-11,ndN-12taninlandshrim pfarm inAlbam a:Varible N-10 N-1 N-12Rinfal 0.649?.3620.649?0.3620.649?0.362Welwter .0.8. .8. .8
PondwaterAveragefocop0.427?0.2350.519?0.380.421?0.257thrvest 0.68 0.72 0.78
26
Table9:Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsforsolubleractivephosphorus(SRP)inrainfl,welter,ndpondwterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12tninlandshrim pfarm iAlbam a: Varible N-10 N-1 N-12Rinfal 0.?.60.?0.60.?0.6
Welwter.190.19.19.19.19.19PondwaterAveragefocop0.51?0.610.6?0.630.6?0.61thrvest 0.72 .1 .172
Table10:Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfortotalm m onianitrogen(AN)inrainfl,weltr,ndpondwterinpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12tninlandshrim pfarm iAlbam : Varible N-10 N-1 N-12Rinfal 0.179?.630.179?0.630.179?0.63
Welwter.850.859.85.859.85.859PondwaterAveragefocop0.16?0.190.17?0.270.16?0.192thrvest .382 0.39 0.542
Table11:Averageconcentrations(m g/L)andstandarddeviationsfornitratenitrogen(NO3)inrinfal,welter,andpondwaterinpondsN-10,N-11,ndN-12atninlndshrim pfarm iAlbam : Varible N-10 N-1 N-12Rinfal 0.394?.3810.394?0.3810.394?0.381
Welwter. 0.7. .7. .7PondwaterAveragefocop0.468?0.350.48?0.3210.56?0.368thrvest .24 0.37 0.35
27
Table12:PhosphorusandnitrogenbudgetsforpondsN-10,N-11,andN-12atninlandshrim pfrm inAlabam aVarible N-10(kg) N-1(kg) N-12(kg) Mean?S.D.(kg/ha)PNPNPNP NInputs
Postlarvae 0.40.40.40.40.50.40.3?0.080.2?0.3Fed 83.4370.171.2316.282. 364.847?4. 208.5?19.3Rainfal&Run-of0.26.10.25. 0.26.20.1?0.13.5?0.3Welwater 0.710.90.69.10.710.70.40.36.10.6Sum84.3387.572.0431.283.15382.147.5?4. 218?20
O utptsO O O Sepage 0.91.40.81.30.60.90.5?0.10.7?0.2Drainig 4.51.341.55.313. 2.7?0.17.1?0.4Shrimpharvest12.912.78.473.94.236.95.2?.945.7?29.3Su 18.3125.413.286.710. 50.98.4?353.6?25.6
Difernce6.0426.158.424.573.0531.239.1?.5164.8?6.9Table13:pH,totaldisolvedsolids,salinityandwatertem perature:
N-10N-11N-12pH (surface)H H H 8.7?0.58.9?0.68.6?0.4H (Bottom)H H H 8.40.5 8.40.58.20.3TDS(mg/l) 3883?3633796?3364602?370alinity 3.20.33.10.33.90.3Conductivity(us/cm) 6280?12426130?11887523?1393Temperature(?)(surface) 3.40.533.70.433.10.7
eeratre(?c)(bottom) 1.6?1.3 31.7?1.431.5?1.2Althewaterparam etrswerm easuredduring2:00p.m-3:00p.m.
28
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