Choral Directors? Knowledge Of Biological And Sociological Sex Differences In The Secondary Choral Classroom by Megan Wicks-Rudolph A disertation submited to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in Music Education Auburn, Alabama Auburn, Alabama May 4, 2013 Keywords: Choir, Sex Diferences, Male Choirs, Female Choirs Copyright 2012 by Megan Wicks-Rudolph Approved by Jane M. Kuehne, Chair, Asociate Profesor of Music Education Nancy H. Barry, Profesor of Music Education Wiliam C. Powel, Profesor of Music, Director of Choral Activities Sean A. Forbes, Asociate Profesor of Educational Psychology !ii ABSTRACT Secondary choral directors who enter the work force are expected to teach al types of choirs, including mixed-sex choirs, male choirs, and female choirs. Most undergraduate programs addres voice change diferences and literature selection for same-sex choirs. The literature would indicate that litle to anything else pertaining to biological and sociological sex diferences are discussed. Additionaly, there is no definitive research that addreses whether or not other biological and sociological sex diferences would aid in the succes of secondary choral directors. The purpose of this study was to ases choral directors? knowledge of biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. There were three null hypotheses: (1) there wil be no diferences in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based a variety of diferent variables; (2) there wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on several variables; and (3) there wil be no diference in regards to which sex choral directors prefer to work with based on several variables. Data suggest a variance in choral educators? knowledge about sex diferences. The data also indicates that the majority of survey participants knew litle to nothing about biological and sociological sex diferences that could potentialy impact the secondary choral clasroom. Based on these findings, the researcher has concluded that many of the participants have not been exposed to the literature and research stating that understanding these diferences could positively afect the succes of both the teacher and the student in the clasroom. Findings also suggest that there is a need and a !iii! desire for more knowledge and training regarding biological and sociological sex diferences as they pertain to the secondary choral clasroom. !iv! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank my wonderful husband for his support throughout this proces of birthing a disertation and three children. Thank you to Dr. Jane Kuehne, commite chair for rescuing me from the storm. I would also like to thank my commite for their patience, advice, and commitment to this project. Special note of thanks to al of my higher education friends, for always listening to the woes of this journey. This experience has taught me that persistence and tenacity are far more important than I ever imagined. !v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ............................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................1 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................1 Teacher training .....................................................................................................3 Biological sex diferences ......................................................................................3 Behavior sex diferences ........................................................................................4 Teacher atention diferences regarding behavior ..................................................4 Emotional sex diferences ......................................................................................5 Learning style diferences ......................................................................................5 Temperament .........................................................................................................6 Summary ................................................................................................................6 Ned for the study ..................................................................................................7 Purpose of the study ................................................................................................8 Asumptions ...........................................................................................................9 Definition of terms .................................................................................................9 Limitations .............................................................................................................9 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ........................................................................................11 Review of literature ................................................................................................11 !vi! History of same-sex clasroom ............................................................................12 Resurgence of same-sex public schooling ...........................................................12 Justification for same-sex clases ........................................................................13 Educational experiences for males and females ..................................................14 Same-sex clasrooms and schools .......................................................................16 Teacher-student interaction ..................................................................................16 The need for teacher training in the same-sex clasroom .....................................18 Sex of the teacher .................................................................................................22 Sex/gender isues in textbooks and teaching pedagogies ....................................23 Anatomy of the brain .............................................................................................24 Brain basics ..........................................................................................................24 Brain maturation ..................................................................................................26 Brain sex diferences: The hemispheres ..............................................................26 Hemispheres and phonological procesing ..........................................................27 Hemisphere activation and lip reading ................................................................29 Hemisphere interaction and verbal stimuli ..........................................................31 Hemisphere and language procesing ..................................................................32 Corpus calosum .....................................................................................................32 Male and female auditory diferences ...................................................................33 Emotional sex diferences .....................................................................................35 Amygdala and sex diferences ..............................................................................37 Hippocampus and sex diferences ........................................................................37 Hormonal sex diferences ....................................................................................38 !vii! Sex diferences in aggresion ...............................................................................39 Dominant male behaviors ....................................................................................40 Dominant female behaviors .................................................................................41 Temperament sex diferences ...............................................................................43 Learning style sex diferences ...............................................................................43 Music teacher atrition .........................................................................................45 Sex diferences in instrumental music .................................................................45 Sex and musical instrument selection ....................................................................46 Sex diferences in jaz improvisation ....................................................................47 Same-sex teaching within the choral clasroom ....................................................48 Summary ................................................................................................................53 Chapter 3: Method .............................................................................................................55 Method ...................................................................................................................55 Population ..............................................................................................................55 Instrument ..............................................................................................................56 Survey distribution .................................................................................................57 Survey returns ........................................................................................................58 Data analysis ..........................................................................................................58 Conclusion .............................................................................................................60 Chapter 4: Results ..............................................................................................................61 Results ....................................................................................................................61 Participants .............................................................................................................61 Survey returns ........................................................................................................62 !viii! Demographics ........................................................................................................62 Null hypothesis one ................................................................................................65 Chi-square analysis of responses ...........................................................................66 Pedagogical sociological prompts .........................................................................67 Sociological prompts .............................................................................................71 Biological prompts relating to procesing .............................................................85 Biological prompts .................................................................................................98 Null hypothesis two .............................................................................................106 Statement one: Secondary choral directors need more knowledge of sex diferences ....................................................................................107 Sex of the director, years of experience and whether or not they teach a same sex choir ............................................................................ 107 Highest degree earned ........................................................................................108 Current level teaching ........................................................................................109 Statement two: I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it was available ..................................................................110 Sex of the choir director, years of experience, and teaching same-sex choirs .....111 Highest degree earned ..........................................................................................112 Current level teaching ..........................................................................................113 Overal result ........................................................................................................114 Null hypothesis three ...........................................................................................114 Chi-square analysis of responses .........................................................................115 Summary ..............................................................................................................117 Null hypothesis one ..............................................................................................117 Pedagogical sociological prompts ........................................................................117 !ix! Other sociological prompts ..................................................................................118 Brain-procesing biological prompts ...................................................................119 Other biological prompts .....................................................................................121 Null hypothesis two .............................................................................................123 Null hypothesis three ...........................................................................................123 Chapter 5: Discussion .....................................................................................................125 Discussion ..........................................................................................................125 Pedagogical sociological prompts ........................................................................125 Clasroom Routine ...............................................................................................126 Clasroom Activity Levels ...................................................................................127 Confrontation and Clasroom Stimuli .................................................................129 Non-Academic Social Issues and Atention ........................................................130 Competition and Motivation ................................................................................132 Biological Procesing ...........................................................................................133 Biological Procesing: Further Analysis ..............................................................139 Other biological prompts .....................................................................................143 Hormones .............................................................................................................143 Voice Change Issues ............................................................................................14 Hearing and Sight ................................................................................................145 Further Analysis: Other Biological Items ............................................................147 Opportunities to Gain Sex Diferences Knowledge .............................................148 Preferred Choral Clas Types ..............................................................................149 Limitations ...........................................................................................................150 !x Summary ..............................................................................................................151 Implications for music educators .........................................................................152 Recommendations for future research .................................................................153 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................153 References ........................................................................................................................15 Appendices .......................................................................................................................165 Appendix A: Information leter and survey .........................................................165 Appendix B: Invitation to participate script .........................................................171 Appendix C: Permision email from research site ...............................................172 Appendix D: IRB approval email ........................................................................173 !xi! LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Years of teaching experience ..............................................................................63 Table 2. Level currently teaching and degrees earned ......................................................64 Table 3. Choirs taught and preferred ................................................................................65 Table 4. Respondents? answers to pedagogical sociological prompts ..............................67 Table 5. Correct answers of pedagogical sociological clusters: Total population ............69 Table 6. Statisticaly significant tests for variables relating to the pedagogical Sociological prompt: Tend to respond best to a set routine in the clasroom ........71 Table 7. Respondents? answers for remaining sociological prompts ...............................72 Table 8. Correct answers of remaining sociological cluster: Total population ................74 Table 9. Statisticaly significant variables for sociological prompts afected only by sex of the director ...................................................................................................75 Table 10. Sociological prompts with only one of two significant variables .....................76 Table 11. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to thrive in a mixed-sex clasroom ..............................................................................................79 Table 12. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasroom ............................................................................80 Table 13. Statistically significant variables for: Tend to enjoy competition as a motivation to learn .................................................................................................81 Table 14. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to speak out in the clasroom .......82 Table 15. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to not prefer competition as a motivation to learn .................................................................................................83 Table 16. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to thrive in a single-sex environment ...........................................................................................................84 !xii! Table 17. Respondent?s answers for biological procesing prompts ................................85 Table 18. Correct answers of pedagogical sociological cluster: Total population ...........87 Table 19. Statisticaly significant variables for: Biological-procesing prompts afected by one or two demographic variables ....................................................................89 Table 20. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns ...........................................................91 Table 21. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to be sensitive to both positive and negative visual stimuli .....................................................................................93 Table 22. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to have dificulty procesing lip- reading into an auditory sound ...............................................................................93 Table 23. Statisticaly significant variables for tend to proces information and emotion in both hemispheres of the brain ............................................................................94 Table 24. Statisticaly significant variables for tend to atach no emotion to the information they receive ........................................................................................95 Table 25. Statisticaly significant variables for tend to be sensitive to positive visual stimuli ....................................................................................................................96 Table 26. Respondents? answers to remaining biological prompts ..................................97 Table 27. Correct answers for remaining biological cluster: Total population ................99 Table 28. Statisticaly significant variables for remaining biological prompts afected by one or two demographic variables ..................................................................100 Table 29. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to experience hormone releases several times a day ...............................................................................................104 Table 30. Statisticaly significant variables for: Tend to be sensitive to light levels ......105 Table 31. Frequencies and valid percentages for null hypothesis two ...........................106 Table 32. One-way ANOVA for sex of the director, years of experience, and directing at least one same-sex choir ............................................................107 Table 33. One-way ANOVA for level currently teaching ..............................................108 Table 34. One-way ANOVA for highest degree earned .................................................109 !xii! Table 35. One-way ANOVA for sex of the director, years of experience, and directing at least one same-sex choir ............................................................111 Table 36. One-way ANOVA for level currently teaching ..............................................112 Table 37. One-way ANOVA for highest degree earned .................................................113 Table 38. Participants? preference of same-sex choir .....................................................114 Table 39. Statisticaly significant variables for directors who prefer teaching an al female choir .................................................................................115 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem Secondary choral directors who enter the work force are typicaly expected to teach al types of choirs, including mixed-sex choirs, male choirs, and female choirs. They may not be prepared to do so. Most undergraduate programs addres voice change diferences and literature selection for same-sex choirs. However, there is no definitive research that addreses whether or not other biological and sociological sex diferences would aid in the succes of secondary choral directors. Based on the general education literature, teachers? succes could be improved if they had more awarenes and understanding of biological and sociological sex diferences in the clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). It stands to reason that secondary choral directors could experience similar benefits of succes if they had more knowledge regarding students? biological and sociological sex diferences. Researchers and authors suggest there are numerous isues regarding sex diferences that afect learning and instruction in general education clasrooms. Most of these sex diferences can be categorized into either biological or sociological diferences. Diferences include, but are not limited to, (a) brain diferences (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Obleser, Rockstroh & Eulitz, 2004; Ruytjens, Albers, Van Dijk, Wit, & Wilemsen, 2006; Shaywitz et al., 1995; 2 Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005; Van Dyke, Zuverza, Hil, Miler, Rapport, & Whitman, 2009), (b) hearing diferences (Brizendine, 2006; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005), and (c) behavioral diferences (Cable & Spradlin 2008; Carp, 2004; Downey & Vogt, 2005; Jorgensen & Pfeiler, 2008; Pollard, 1999; Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Sax, 2009; Wilson, 2010). Educators and researchers suggest that knowledge of these sex diferences could improve instruction in the regular education clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). The researcher believes that knowledge of these biological and sociological sex diferences could potentialy benefit instruction in the secondary choral clasroom. Teacher atrition is a major problem within the field of education. Within the first three years of teaching the atrition rate for al teachers is 20% (Hancock, 2008). Specificaly, music teachers have an atrition rate betwen 11-27% (Hancock, 2009), with secondary music teachers at a 95% higher risk of atrition/migration compared to elementary music teachers (Hancock, 2008). Research suggests that teacher preparation has a great deal to do with teacher atrition (Hancock, 2008). Teacher preparation that includes a more acute awarenes of biological and sociological sex diferences could potentialy decrease teacher atrition in education. Despite the wealth of general education literature pertaining to awarenes of sex isues and succes in the clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010), there is a lack of coverage on these topics in choral methods textbooks, choral methods clases, other music education courses, profesional organizations, and profesional development opportunities. Scholars and researchers have suggested that discussions of these isues in teacher preparation clases 3 and profesional development seminars may lead to greater succes in the clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). While there is a great deal of literature about sex diferences in general education, litle has been writen pertaining to sex diferences in the choral clasroom. Further, most of this literature is not research-based. The available literature relates primarily to literature selection (Barham, 2001; Buchanan & Mehafey, 2005, Buchanan & Mehafey, 2007; Brunner, 1992) and voice change (Cooksey 1977(a); Cooksey, 1977(b); Cooksey, 1977(c); Cooksey, 1978; Gackle, 1987; Gackle, 1991). Teacher Training Researchers have indicated that training relating to biological and sociological sex diferences tends to aid instructors in making beter pedagogical choices (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Martino, Mils, & Lingard, 2005; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). Awarenes of these isues could be beneficial to teachers? succes in the clasroom, which may include beter clasroom discipline, beter understanding of how each of the sexes proceses and comprehends information, and beter pedagogical choices (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). Biological Sex Differences Biological sex diferences can greatly impact the delivery of instruction in the clasroom. These diferences have been shown to afect language procesing, language and speech development, learning style preferences, student focus, instructional preferences, pedagogical preferences (Barton & Cohen, 2004; Gurian, 2001; James, 4 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Vasich, 2005), and hearing diferences (James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005). Biological sex diferences in the brain?s structure and function are important to understanding the optimal way in which each of the sexes learns. Educators who have knowledge of the brain?s structure and function could possibly be more efective in the clasroom because of their increased knowledge of how each of the sexes learns. Structural brain diferences include, but are not limited to, diferences in hemispheric size and amount of connectors betwen the hemispheres. Functional biological sex diferences include; how each sex proceses information and communicates (Barton & Cohen, 2004; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Vasich, 2005). Behavior Sex Differences There are many behavioral diferences betwen the sexes. Scholars have suggested that gender diferences in student behavior may relate to how the brain functions. Behavior may also be impacted by sociological constructs that have been established and reinforced by society?s expectations of the diferent sexes. Based on this information, teachers may be advised to consider the ways in which they instruct and interact with their students (Pollard, 1999; Sadker, 2002; Vogt, 2005). Teacher Attention Differences Regarding Behavior The literature states that teacher atention directed at the students difers betwen the sexes (Sadker, 2002). Overal, during instruction females tend to receive les teacher atention than males. Sadker (2002) observed that this lack of teacher atention towards female students might be due to atention being redirected toward male students who are 5 disruptive to the clasroom environment. Some scholars have suggested that same-sex clases may be the answer to try and equalize teacher atention. Same-sex clases enable the teacher to focus on pedagogical practices and materials that wil be most efective for the sex being instructed (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Pollard, 1999; Sax, 2005). Emotional Sex Differences Emotional sex diferences are tied to how the brain proceses language and emotion. Acording to the literature, females proces language and emotion in the same area of the brain while males proces language and emotion in two separate areas of the brain (Cable & Spradlin, 2008). These structural diferences in the brain impact how the sexes expres emotion both betwen and among the sexes. The knowledge of structural brain diferences and its relationship to emotional expresion might be of great benefit to teachers as they prepare to instruct students. Learning Style Differences Males and females tend to have diferent learning style preferences. Males tend to be more peer-oriented, kinesthetic, and prefer peer groups rather than teacher-directed instruction (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). In contrast, another scholar wrote that males prefer the structure of teacher-centered learning as long as the clasroom is active (Sax, 2005). Females, on the other hand, tend to have greater levels of self-motivation and persistence when it comes to learning (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). In general, females tend to want to please the teacher and avoid risk taking (Sax, 2010). This trait of fear of risk taking is traditionaly not asociated with males. Males tend to like to take risks. Teachers that understand these learning style diferences could be more efective in the clasroom. 6 Temperament Researchers have identified temperament as another sociological sex diference that afects instruction in the clasroom (Else-Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006). Overal, females tend to have a more agreeable temperament and are able to deal with aggresion in les confrontational ways than males. Females tend to internalize felings while males tend to externalize felings. Researchers have reported that male?s externalization of felings can often lead to behavioral isues in the clasroom (Else- Quest, Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, 2006). Summary Researchers have identified numerous biological and sociological sex diferences that could potentialy afect student succes in the clasroom. As reported in the literature, biological sex diferences include, but are not limited to, the following: (a) the structure of the brain, (b) procesing diferences, (c) language and speech development, (d) atention diferences (Barton & Cohen, 2004; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Vasich, 2005), and (e) hearing diferences (James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005). Sociological sex diferences include behavior diferences (Pollard, 1999; Sadker, 2002; Vogt, 2005); emotional diferences (Cable & Spradlin, 2008); learning style diferences (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003); and temperament diferences (Else-Quest et al., 2006). Authors have stated that knowing about and understanding these biological and sociological sex diferences could aid student and teacher succes in the clasroom (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). 7 Ned for the Study At this time, litle has been writen pertaining to sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. Research has been conducted regarding biological and sociological sex diferences within the general education clasroom as wel as sex related isues in the instrumental music clasroom. The literature pertaining to sex related isues in the instrumental clasroom includes topics such as: (a) instrument selection (Abeles, 2009; Eros, 2011; Johnson & Stewart, 2004), (b) jaz improvisation (Wehr-Flowers, 2006), (c) participation in high school and collegiate instrumental jaz ensembles (McKeage, 2004), and (d) solo participation in jaz festivals (Steinberg, 2001). Even though there is research relating to limited isues dealing with sex diferences in the instrumental clasroom, there is a lack of research regarding sex diferences directly related to choral music. An awarenes of biological and sociological sex diferences could greatly benefit the pedagogical practices of secondary choral directors, because they could direct their instruction and preparation based on the sex diferences in their clasrooms. In addition to working with both sexes in their clasrooms, many choral directors instruct same-sex choirs throughout their school day (e.g., men?s choirs or women?s choirs). Therefore, research is needed to help secondary choral directors understand sex diferences and their implications in the same-sex clasroom. This study investigated choral directors? atitudes about and knowledge of selected student biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. An inquiry was conducted regarding choral directors? teaching preference of all-male or al-female choirs related to the variables of: sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and whether they taught a 8 same-sex choir. The survey also asked participants to respond to statements based on research-based sex diferences to check their knowledge base. Additionaly, choral directors were asked to reflect on the extent to which they believed that greater awarenes of sex diferences would improve their clasroom. Authors have demonstrated that knowledge of these sex diferences can greatly benefit the regular education clasroom (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). Further, researchers have acknowledged that the lack of information regarding sex diferences in the clasroom highlights a need for teacher training for optimal succes in the clasroom (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Martino et al., 2005; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2010). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to ases choral directors? knowledge of biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. This descriptive study was based on the following null hypotheses: (a) There wil be no diference in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not; (b) There wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not; (c) There wil be no diference in regards to which same-sex choir directors prefer to work with based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. 9 The results of this survey could be beneficial for future researchers interested in pursuing this line of inquiry; profesional music organizations in planning for future profesional development opportunities; secondary methods teachers in planning their courses; and planning future teacher training. Most importantly, this research may provide valuable insights to choral directors regarding more efective and appropriate instruction for their students in the secondary choral clasroom. Asumptions This research was conducted under the following asumptions: 1. Choral directors in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Misisippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennese, Virginia and West Virginia share similar training in regards to instructing in the choral clasroom. 2. Responses to the survey acurately reflect participant views and opinions. Definition of Terms The following terms were identified for the purpose of this study: 1. Same-sex choir: Same-sex choirs describe any choir with al-males or al-females. This does not include treble choirs with boys in them. 2. Secondary choral director: A choir director with choir students in any grades six through 12. Limitations This study had the following limitations: 1. The administration of the survey instrument was limited to the timeframe of February 29, 2012 through March 3, 2012. 10 2. Participants in this study included only choral directors atending the ACDA 2012 Southern Division Conference. 3. The researcher chose sex diferences to be examined for this study based on the literature available related to education. The sex diferences being examined are by no means a comprehensive list of male and female sex diferences. 11 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE There is litle doubt that there are diferences betwen the sexes (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Obleser, Rockstroh & Eulitz, 2004; Ruytjens, Albers, Van Dijk, Wit & Wilemsen, 2006; Shaywitz, et al., 1995; Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005; Van Dyke, Zuverza, Hil, Miler, Rapport, Whitman, 2009). Schooling once included single-sex clases to prepare each of the sexes for traditional life roles such as home economics for females and woodshop for males. Contemporary education, however, has evolved beyond this dated justification for segregating the sexes. Today, same-sex clases are used to provide individualized instruction that caters to the biological and sociological sex diferences of males and females. Based on the literature, there are many biological and sociological sex diferences that impact education. However, litle research has been conducted pertaining to sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. A more comprehensive understanding of these diferences could potentialy benefit instruction and student achievement in the choral clasroom. Currently, most of the scholarly works regarding sex diferences in the choral clasroom is limited to octavo selection (Barham, 2001; Brunner, 1992; Buchanan & Mehafey, 2005; Buchanan & Mehafey, 2007), and voice change (Cooksey 1977a; Cooksey, 1977b; Cooksey, 1978; Cooksey, 1992; Gackle, 1987; Gackle, 1991; White & White, 2001). Since these topics have been covered extensively in existing literature 12 reviews, they wil not be addresed in the current study. Instead, the literature review wil focus on the topic of sex diferences in the same-sex clasroom. The media uses the terms ?gender? and ?sex? interchangeably. Since this can be confusing for the reader, the researcher has made the following distinction within this literature review. ?Sex? wil refer to the biological diferences of males and females, and ?gender? wil relate to the behavioral and social tendencies (Jordan-Young, 2010). History of Same-Sex Classrooms Same-sex clasrooms have a longstanding tradition in the public and private educational system in the United States and abroad. The same-sex clasroom began in the United States in the middle of the 1800s when there was tremendous growth in the public educational system. It was not until the 1970s, when Title IX was introduced that same-sex clases became limited by the government. This law prohibited same-sex clasrooms in most learning environments (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; U.S. Department of Labor, 2011). Title IX (2005) stated, ?No person in the United States shal, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial asistance? (Title IX, Education Amendments of 1972, Section 1681, Sex, para. 1) Under Title IX, a few of the clasroom subjects were alowed to remain segregated by sex, including choir and sex education (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; U.S. Department of Labor, 2011). Resurgence of Same-Sex Public Schooling Same-sex public schools and clases experienced resurgence after the creation of No Child Left Behind, mandated by the federal government in 2001. This government 13 initiative included funds that were available to public school districts to implement new programs. One of these programs included same-sex clases and schools (No Child Left Behind, n.d.). Renewed interest in same-sex clasrooms and schools sems to have fueled an increase in literature regarding this topic. This inflation can be sen in the increased amount of research and scholarly articles writen pertaining to biological and sociological sex diferences. Justification for Same-Sex Classes Advocates for same-sex education have contended that separating the sexes beter fits the educational and social needs of female and male students. Pedagogues have claimed that a major benefit of separation of the sexes is higher achievement in the clasroom (Jackson, 2010; Jackson & Smith, 2000). Authors have also justified same-sex clasrooms based on the documented learning style diferences among the sexes (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003; Sadker, 2002). Males and females exhibit diferent strengths and weakneses, which need to be addresed in the clasroom. Learning style diferences and preferences are some of the isues that need to be discussed prior to instruction. Authors have reported that separating the genders into same-sex clases alows the teacher to instruct to the strengths of each of the sexes (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Martino et al., 2005; Sadker, 2002). Gender bias can influence the perception teachers have concerning each of the students. As related to gender bias, Sadker (2002) wrote, ?both boys and girls exhibited diferent strengths and had diferent needs? (p. 283). This statement pertaining to gender bias is consistent with the reporting?s of Honigsfeld and Dunn (2003) concerning the diferent needs of males and females. 14 Social isues can often impede the learning environment in a mixed-sex clasroom seting (Sax, 2001). Through their research, Cable and Spradlin (2008) questioned some of the data for same-sex schooling. As indicated by these authors, students? social tendencies could afect student achievement and succes in the clasroom. Female and male students are often distracted, or preoccupied, with non- academic isues in a mixed-sex clasroom seting because they like to socialize with the opposite sex. Further, students tend to be more interested in their reputation and appearance in a mixed-sex clasroom compared to a same-sex clasroom. Separating the sexes often reduces or eliminates the socialization isues that can impact student learning. Educational Experiences for Males and Females The educational experience could be very diferent for a male student and a female student in the same clasroom (Pollard, 1999). Students? educational experiences are afected by many diferent variables within and outside of the learning environment. These factors and socialization isues could potentialy have an impact on academic achievement and succes. Gender stereotyping and bias could adversely afect the learning environment in any clasroom seting. Gender stereotyping is the exaggeration, and often one-sided portrayal of males and females (Marshal, 1998). Scholars have stated that students may receive diferent educational experiences because of gender stereotyping and gender bias (Pollard, 1999; Sadker, 2002). Gender stereotyping originates with students, teachers, parents, and the media (Walker, n.d.). Gender stereotypes could possibly have a negative impact on the education of students (Sadker, 2002). Gender bias continues to be perpetuated by educational 15 materials, teachers, and students, while behaviors by females and males reinforce gender stereotypes. Sadker (2002) stated, ?The truth is that both boys and girls exhibit diferent strengths and have diferent needs, and gender stereotypes shortchange al of us? (p. 238). Some examples of gender stereotyping are that males are tough and never cry; females should cook and clean; and males should be the primary breadwinners in the family. Teachers who are not aware of gender isues can perpetuate these stereotypes (Marshal, 1998). Mainstream media tends to perpetuate these gender stereotypes through advertising and other mesaging because the stereotypes are socialy aceptable (Marshal, 1998). Gender bias is defined as ?A term in sociology and women's studies for bias asociated with sexual roles in society and gender terms in language? (McArthur, 1998, Gender Bias section, para. 1). An example of gender bias is ?Wel, she's supposed to be back by now but she's probably stopped off somewhere to gossip? (McArthur, 1998, Gender Bias section, para. 1). The learning environment in a clasroom may be impacted if the teacher is not aware of gender stereotypes and gender bias (Pollard, 1999; Sadker, 2002). Females have les opportunity for problem solving and receive les teacher atention than males (Pollard, 1999). They may also fel represed in a mixed-sex clasroom seting, which could lead to les clasroom participation and subsequently adversely afect females? academic performance. Regarding gender stereotyping, Sadker (2002) wrote, ?Certainly boys (like girls) confront gender stereotypes and chalenges, and teachers and parents must work hard every day to make schools work for al children? (p. 236). Therefore, males as wel as females can be impacted negatively by gender stereotyping. 16 Same-Sex Classrooms and Schools England and Australia have a large number of same-sex schools resulting in a vast body of research relating to the topic. Jackson and Smith?s (2000) research compared single-sex and mixed-sex schooling. The authors performed two studies; one investigated the perceptions of female students in England over a 10-year period, while the other was a longitudinal study conducted over a two-year period that followed students in a same-sex math clas. The first study included two Australian secondary schools which had transitioned from a single-sex to mixed-sex environment. Results of this study indicated no decline in student achievement for 15-year-olds. The first year of the transition demonstrated a slight decline in self-concept, but the years following showed no decline in self-concept. The second study was conducted over two years in a co-educational school in England. Single-sex math clases were created for one section of students. Eighty percent of the females in the study indicated a desire to remain in single-sex clases for the following year, while 72% of the males expresed a preference to return to mixed-sex math clases. Jackson and Smith (2000) reported that the high percentage of males wanting to return to a mixed-sex environment could be related to social isues that only occur when they are around the opposite sex. Teacher ? Student Interaction Authors have documented diferences regarding the amount of teacher?student interactions in the clasroom. As compared to their male counterparts, females tend to have les academic contact with the teacher during clas (Sadker, 2002). Cable and Spradlin (2008) observed that teachers cal on males eight times more often than females in the clasroom. Further, the authors reported that males tend to be rewarded rather than 17 punished for speaking out of turn in clas. Jones and Dindia (2004) conducted a meta- analysis of 32 studies that examined teacher efectivenes. The researchers were specificaly examining teacher-initiated contact with students and whether these interactions varied based on the sex of the student. Results of the meta-analysis indicated that teachers had more negative interactions with males and more interactions in general with male students compared to their interactions with female students. The gender of the teacher, which wil be discussed later in this chapter, was also found to correlate with the behaviors of the students. Females tend to respond positively to teachers who care about them even if they do not like the subject being taught. A female student who believes that the teacher cares about her wil usualy work hard in any subject so that she wil not disappoint the teacher. This is not the case for males. Males generaly do not worry about disappointing a teacher if they do not like a subject or care about their grades (Sax, 2010). Researchers have noted that teachers treat male and female students diferently for the same behavior. Males often receive more negative atention in the clasroom than females. Sadker (2002) observed that teachers tend to punish males more publicly, severely, and much more often than girls. This more severe punishment occurs even when males break the same rules as females (Sadker, 2002). However, these statements regarding the punishment of males contradict the work of Cable and Spradlin (2008), who found that males get away with more unaceptable behavior in comparison to females. 18 The Ned for Teacher Training in the Same-Sex Classroom Various authors have argued that the entire education profesion fails to emphasize the role of gender in the clasroom (Sadker, 1999; Sanders, 1997; Sanders & Campbel, 2001). One of the main determinants of failure for the same-sex clasroom is a lack of teacher training in preparing individuals to teach the separated sexes (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005). Scholars have stated that California?s unsuccesful atempt at same-sex schools was due, in part, to lack of teacher training (Campbel & Sanders, 2002; Sadker & Zitleman, 2004). Some of the failures in same-sex clasrooms can be related to lack of teacher preparation and knowledge. As reported in the literature, few of the teachers in California felt prepared to instruct in the same-sex clasroom (Gray & Wilson, 2006). Twenty-nine percent of the teachers studied believed that they needed no special training in order to teach in the same-sex clasroom. Additionaly, Gray and Wilson (2006) reported 55% of the teachers did not enjoy instructing al-male clases and 71% indicated that they would rather teach mixed-sex clases. The teachers who taught al-male clases indicated that the clases were more active. Teachers in the study also perceived that competition and bullying increased in the al-male clases (Gray & Wilson, 2006). As noted in the previous studies, teacher training can impact the efectivenes of educators in a same-sex environment. In a similar study, Gray and Leith (2004) noted that 53% of teachers received no training on gender isues prior to teaching. The authors reported that 92% of the teachers had received no training within the past five years. Teachers in this study said that they felt that more training and awarenes of teaching in 19 the same-sex clasroom were needed to help understand some of the isues involved in instructing in the same-sex clasroom. Teachers who have knowledge pertaining to sex diferences tend to be more efective in the clasroom. Researchers investigating a school in Canada discovered that many curricular-related isues were related to same-gender instruction. One of the main findings was that teacher perception of gender impacted the content being taught (Blair & Sanford, 1999). Martino et al. (2005) reported that teachers? knowledge about gender greatly impacted the way in which they instructed in the same-sex clasroom. Teacher assumptions regarding gender tend to be made pertaining to the way boys behave, respond, and learn as a group. Acordingly, asumptions occur when teachers lack training and knowledge regarding gender isues in the clasroom (Martino et al., 2005). Scholars have addresed in the literature some of the reasons that boys tend to struggle in school. Sadker (2009) reported that there are five factors asociated with boys failing in school. They were: (a) teaching methods that are not geared towards the ways in which boys learn (b) video games that separate boys from reality and real-life goals; (c) overprescribed prescription drugs for ADHD, which may be causing some damage to the motivational areas of the brain; (d) environmental estrogens from some foods as well as plastic bottles that are reducing the testosterone levels in boys; and (e) the reduction of masculine role models in society (Sax, 2009). Instructional strategies and materials based on sex diferences have been found to impact the succes of teachers and students in the same-sex clasroom. Martino et al. (2005) ??focused on developing teachers? knowledge about boys and in the ways that the teachers taking the boys? clases ought to utilize pedagogical practices and curriculum 20 materials that were connected to their perceptions of boys? interests? (p. 250). Researchers reported that male teachers were able to relate beter to boys in al-male clases as compared to female teachers (Martino et al., 2005). Conversely, Ashley (2010) noted that litle evidence exists that male teachers are beter suited for teaching boys with regards to singing. Multiple authors have argued that teachers need to receive profesional development training regarding gender isues in the clasroom (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Martino et al., 2005; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005). Gender training would enable the teacher to be more cognizant of gender-related isues when designing pedagogical methods. It has been suggested that without gender training teachers tend to make asumptions regarding how males learn, respond, and behave. Martino et al. (2005) concluded that more research is needed regarding the programs designed to inform educators about the social and educational needs of females and males in schools. Student succes in same-sex clases relies on programs for teacher training that consider pedagogical and curriculum adaptations to beter fit the educational needs of the sexes. Student/teacher interactions sem to be one of the isues adversely afecting the sexes in the mixed-sex clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Jones & Dindia, 2004; Pollard, 1999; Sadker, 2002). Hannon and Ratlife (2007) conducted a study of 67 high school physical education students. Validity isues should be noted due to the smal population of students, but the results for that population were conclusive with a 91% rate of reliability. Two diferent instructors taught the two co-educational clases. One clas remained co-educational throughout the study while the other one was divided by sex. The trained observers used a modified version of the Observational Recording Record of 21 Physical Educator?s Teaching Behavior to indicate the type and rate of verbal interactions with instructors. Researchers discovered that more teacher/student interactions occurred in the single-sex clas as compared to the co-educational clas. The correlation betwen teacher training and student and teacher succes in the same-sex clasroom has been wel documented. Rex and Chadwel (2009) examined the history of same-sex clases and the importance of teacher training for succes in the same-sex clasrooms in South Carolina. Acording to the literature, South Carolina has experienced a great deal of succes in single-sex clasrooms partly due to the teacher training programs that have been implemented. Sadker and Zitleman (2004) criticized the move towards same-sex clasrooms because most school systems put no forethought into how they should be implemented or who should be trained. Therefore, many of the same-sex clasrooms that are discussed in Sadker and Zitleman?s (2004) study failed. Sax (2005) indicated that failure in the same-sex clasroom tends to happen when there is a lack of training or profesional development. Additionaly, Sax (2010) reported that schools tend to teach to the female brain and; therefore do not addres the needs of males in the clasroom. Clas subjects must be taught specificaly with the sexes in mind for students to have optimal succes. Teachers do not always receive the training they need in order to be succesful in the same-sex clasroom. Teachers need to be trained to teach boys and to be aware of potential gender bias and gender isues in clasroom materials and textbooks (Weaver- Hightower, 2003). Additionaly, the gender of the teacher needs to be carefully considered when instructing in the same-sex environment. Campbel and Sanders (2002) found that teachers in same-sex clasrooms were not necesarily familiar with training 22 related to gender-equitable isues. This lack of training could enable traditional gender stereotypes to prevail in the clasroom. Based on the research literature, instructors who teach in both a same-sex and mixed-sex environment should not use the same pedagogical strategies or materials (Streitmater, 2002). Streitmater (2002) conducted a year long qualitative study of one high school teacher who taught both single-sex and mixed-sex math clases. The study consisted of interviews and observations of male and female students who were taught by a male teacher. The researcher wanted to know whether or not students would behave diferently in a same-sex environment as compared to the mixed-sex environment and if the instructor?s teaching style would difer based on these two clas formats. The researcher reached three conclusions. First, al of the students, regardles of sex, agreed that they were beter able to focus on clasroom work in the single-sex clases. Second, each of the sexes indicated that distractions existed in a mixed-sex seting that did not exist in the single-sex clases. Finaly, each of the sexes expresed diferent perspectives about being in a single-sex clasroom. The research concluded that girls were les inhibited in the same-sex clas. It also stated that the teacher used diferent teaching styles with them as compared to the mixed-sex clasroom (Streitmater, 2002). Sex of the Teacher Research has been conducted regarding the sex of the teacher and his/her efectivenes in the same-sex clasroom. Martino et al. (2005) suggested that it did not mater if the teacher was male or female in a same-sex clasroom. The researchers reported that one of the keys to teaching boys was, ??developing teachers? knowledge about boys and in the ways that the teachers taking the boys? clases sought to utilize 23 pedagogical practices and curriculum materials that connected to their perceptions of boys? interests? (Martino et al., 2005, p. 250). A related study concluded that male and female teachers had teacher traits that were more preferable to each of the sexes (Hutchings et al., 2008). Female students tended to like teachers who were helpful, generous, nice, and kind, while male students tended to like teachers who were authoritative, inteligent, and knowledgeable. Males also liked teachers because of the kind of work the teachers asked them to do. Therefore acording to this research, the sex of the teacher was not as important to the students as were the traits teachers possesed (Hutchings et al., 2008). Sex and Gender Isues in Textbooks and Teaching Pedagogies There is litle information in teacher education textbooks regarding how to teach females and males (Koza, 1992; Zileman & Sadker, 2006). Zitleman and Sadker (2006) examined 23 textbooks writen betwen 1998-2001 and discovered that only 3% of the textbooks addresed gender distinctions, while most had no mention of gender. Based on these findings, the researchers indicated that future teachers would gain litle to no knowledge from their methods textbooks regarding teaching in the same-sex clasroom (Zitleman & Sadker, 2006). In a related study, Campbel and Sanders (1997) documented that two-thirds of science and math methods profesors spent two hours or les during the entire college semester instructing about gender equity. Few studies have been writen regarding sex bias in music textbooks. Koza (1992) conducted a study regarding female musician equality in music textbooks. The researcher examined 3,500 ilustrations in music textbooks and hypothesized that bias existed. Even though the partiality towards males was diferent from publisher to 24 publisher, 68.9% of the ilustrations depicted male students. Koza (1992) found that either females were omited in ilustrations or the proportions were greatly in favor of males. Anatomy of the Brain In the past 20 years, a significant amount of educational, medical, and psychological research has been conducted on brain diferences betwen the sexes (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Mostafa, 2006). This abundance of research is due in part to the influx of same-sex clasrooms and schools as a result of No Child Left Behind. Some sources are writen by educators who are trying to enlighten parents and teachers on the scientific facts of brain research (Gurian, 2001; Gurian & Stevens, 2004), while others are writen by doctors whose focus is brain research (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Mostafa, 2006). Brain Basics The brain has three primary areas: (a) the cerebrum, which comprises the majority of the brain; (b) the cerebelum, which is located in the back of the head at the base of the skull; and (c) the brainstem, which is connected to the spinal cord. Within the cerebrum are four lobes, the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe (Col, 2001). The frontal lobe is located in the front of the brain and manages emotions, behavior, atention, abstract thought proceses, creative thoughts, initiative, intelect, judgment, reflection, inhibition, skiled and muscle movements, coordination of movements, sense of smel, some eye movements, generalized and mas movements, 25 physical reaction, some motor skils, and libido. The occipital lobe is located in the back of the brain and is responsible for procesing reading and vision. The parietal lobe is located just behind the frontal lobe on the top of the head. This lobe proceses some visual functions, response to internal and external stimuli, and some language and reading functions. The final of the four lobes, the temporal lobe, is located directly above the cerebelum and brainstem. The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories, some language and speech, some vision pathways, some emotions and behavior, music, some hearing, and sense of identity (Col, 2001; Moir & Jesel, 1991). The brain is divided into the left and right hemispheres. The left hemisphere is predominately used for reading, writing, and speaking. This hemisphere also controls sequential thought proceses and orderly and concrete sequences. The information that enters the right eye goes directly to the left hemisphere. The left hemisphere also controls the right side of the body (Gurian, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991). The right hemisphere is responsible for information regarding spatial relations, basic paterns, and shapes. In short, the right hemisphere proceses everything non- verbal. Objects sen by the left eye are procesed in the right hemisphere of the brain. This hemisphere also controls the left side of the body. The corpus calosum houses the fibers that connect the two halves of the brain. These fibers provide communication betwen the right and left hemispheres (Col, 2001; Guian, 2007; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991). As previously noted, the cerebelum is located in the back of the head and is responsible for coordination and motor movement. This area is also in charge of balance and posture. The brain stem is located at the base of the head and is responsible for 26 cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory centers. In addition, the brain stem is the sensory and motor pathway to the face and body (Col, 2001; Guian, 2007; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991). Within the cerebral hemispheres are raised and elevated surfaces known as gyri. In addition, insula is pyramid shaped and is located within each of the cerebral hemispheres beneath the temporal and frontal lobes. Its function is to asist with visceral functions of the autonomic nervous system. Each of these surface terms is usualy preceded by a region or area of the brain to pinpoint its location. An example would be the middle temporal gyrus would be the raised surface in the middle of the temporal lobe (The Fre Dictionary, n.d.). Brain Maturation Maturation of the brain occurs at diferent rates in males and females. De Belis et al. (n.d.) conducted a study with 118 healthy children and adolescents betwen the ages of six and 17. The researchers examined cerebral white and gray mater volumes and corpus calosal areas using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Correlations relating to these areas of the brain were examined with regards to participants? sex and age. De Belis et al. (n.d.) noted that there were sex diferences in brain maturation, with female brains tending to mature two years ahead of male brains. Brain Sex Differences: The Hemispheres In 1967, Herbert Lansdel was the first to discover major structural diferences in the female and male brain (as cited in Moir & Jesel, 1991, p. 42). Lansdel demonstrated that males and females were afected diferently when the same section of the brain was damaged. Lansdel determined that men performed poorly on instruments 27 that tested their spatial skils when they had damage to the right side of their brain, the area that is largely responsible for non-verbal information. In similar tests, the same area of the brain could be damaged in women and their ability to complete spatial skils was barely afected (Bland, 2003; Moir & Jesel, 1991). The same results proved to be true with left-side brain damage. Males whom had left-side brain damage lost most of their language skils while females with similar damage retained most of their language skils. Acording to Lansdel (as cited in Moir & Jesel, 1991, p. 42), men experienced language isues at three times the rate as females when the same section of the brain was damaged. This led to the hypothesis that spatial skils and language skils are controlled by both halves of the brain in women and are more specified to one area of the brain in men (Moir & Jesel, 1991). Numerous studies have confirmed Lansdel?s initial findings (Obleser et al., 2004; Ruytjens et al., 2006; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005; Van Dyke et al., 2009). The diferences betwen the left and right hemispheres in males and females have been wel documented (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Obleser et al., 2004; Ruytjens et al., 2006; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005; Van Dyke et al., 2009). When communicating, males tend to use mostly the left hemisphere while females tend to use both hemispheres. Hemispheres and Phonological Procesing Researchers have demonstrated sex diferences in hemispheric activation during phonological procesing. Shaywitz et al. (1995) examined 38 right-handed subjects using a functional magnetic resonance imager (fMRI). The subjects performed several tasks involving leter recognition (orthographic), rhyming (phonological), and semantic 28 categories (language meanings). During the phonological tasks, male brain activation was only in the left inferior frontal gyrus regions. During the same phonological tasks females tended to show activation on both the right and left inferior frontal gyrus (Shaywitz et al., 1995). The inferior frontal gyrus, which is mostly responsible for linguistics, is located in the frontal lobe or prefrontal cortex section of the brain. This is also where Broca?s area is located (Rice University, 2000). Broca?s area is responsible for producing words, procesing gramatical structures, and formulating speech. Broca?s area is more engaged in females and could be the reason for female dominance in verbal and communication skils (Gurian, 2001). Shaywitz et al. (1995) conducted a study in which participants completed four distinct same-diferent tasks using visual stimuli. The four tasks included leter case, line judgment, semantic category, and rhyme. The subjects had to identify which items were the same or diferent by pushing a button. One of the areas activated in the participants? brains included the extrastriate (ES), which is asociated with leter recognition or orthographic tasks. The other area activated was the inferior frontal gyrus surrounding Brodmann?s areas 44/45. This study once again confirmed that hemispheric activation was diferent for the sexes. Activation during phonological (rhyming) tasks was lateralized in the males to the left inferior frontal regions. Females had stronger activation than males in the left and right inferior frontal regions. Right hemispheric areas within the female inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann?s areas 44/45) were utilized to a greater extent than males to complete the same task (Shaywitz et al., 1995). In conclusion, the hemispheres of the brain in males and females proces information quite diferently. The male brain utilizes the right side for visual information 29 while the left side is almost entirely utilized for verbal functions. This isolation of the hemispheres is not the same for females. Females tend to communicate with both hemispheres of the brain during most activities (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Obleser et al., 2004; Ruytjens et al., 2006; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005; Van Dyke et al., 2009). Hemisphere Activation and Lip Reading Males and females have diferent areas of the brain activated during lip-reading exercises. Lip reading exercises can be directly related to most choral clasrooms as many choral directors give silent verbal cues during rehearsals and performances. Ruytjens, Albers, Van Dijk, Wit, and Wilemsen (2006) conducted a study examining neural responses to silent lip-reading. Volunters had their cerebral blood flow measured during diferent lip-reading tasks. Each of the 19 participants was scanned using a PET scan 12 times. The following areas were examined, pre-motor region of the face (precentral gyrus), motor language areas (Broca and its right homologue in the inferior frontal region), auditory-visual integration region (inferior parietal region: Brodmann?s area 7, 39, and 40) (Rhawn, 2000), and the bilateral auditory asociation areas (superior temporal region). The probability maps of Brodmann areas 44 and 45 were used to define the bilateral inferior frontal regions (Ruytjens et al., 2006). Researchers have found that male and female activation paterns were similar but not identical. Females showed many more activation clusters and larger activation clusters than males. The following areas were activated in both males and females: (a) the left inferior frontal gyrus extending to the left insula, (b) the left middle and inferior occipital gyrus, (c) the left fusiform gyrus (Brodmann?s area 37), and (d) the left and 30 right superior and middle temporal gyrus. Females had larger clusters of activation, even though these areas were activated in both sexes. The cerebelar was the only activated area in the brain during silent lip-reading that was larger for males as compared to females (Rutjens et al., 2006). Rutjens et al. (2006) concluded that there were no other areas of the brain in which males had higher activation than females. Rutjens et al. (2006) reported that there was significantly higher activation in females? brains in the following areas: (a) parietal region, (b) angular gyrus, (c) part of the middle temporal, (d) angular and inferior frontal gyri, (e) occipital gyri, and (f) temporal gyri. Males had more areas of deactivation than females. The deactivated areas of the male brain were located in the middle of the brain and the right hemisphere. Lack of female brain activation was only found in the right middle temporal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus. Female brains often show more activation in both hemispheres of the brain. The female participants in the study conducted by Rutjens et al. (2006) showed brain activation in both hemispheres in every region studied. Male participants in the study showed activation only in the left hemisphere. The researchers also reported a sex diference in the left inferior parietal region (Brodmann?s area 40, 7), where females showed more activation than males. Brodmann?s areas 40 and 7 (located in the parietal region) have been shown to be instrumental in multisensory integration. These findings support the idea that females can asociate other sensory modalities to a visual image. Based on this study, males showed a weaker connection betwen a visual image pertaining to speech and the auditory speech sound. This finding could be beneficial to conductors who are trying to show their choirs visual cues by using their mouths to form 31 vowel shapes, form words, or give silent direction during rehearsal or performance. It is suggested that males in a choir would have a harder time connecting a visual example from the director to an audible sound when they are singing. Further, females in a choir ought to be able to translate what the director is indicating into an audible sound. This information could afect the ways in which conductors provide instruction for a piece of music (Ruytjens et al. 2006). Hemisphere Interaction and Verbal Stimuli Females compared to males tend to utilize both hemispheres when procesing verbal stimuli. The Van Dyke et al. (2009) study included 40 males and 42 female participants ages 18 to 40. Participants were asked to respond as acurately and quickly as possible to a series of words on the computer screen. While completing this task, participants? chins were stabilized in a chin rest 40 cm from the screen. Words and pseudo words, which appeared on the right or left side of the screen, were presented to the participants. Participants were asked to pres a button when they saw a word. The purpose of the study was to determine if words were identified equaly correctly and quickly within each hemisphere (Van Dyke et al., 2009). The researchers determined that women used more areas of the brain from both hemispheres when identifying words on the screen. Van Dyke et al. (2009) also reported that women semed to respond faster than men to the words shown. In this study, women utilized their language procesing regions bilateraly, while men semed to utilize only their left hemisphere. This may suggest that women input verbal stimuli more eficiently than men. The concepts of speed and acuracy in word recognition could be beneficial to teachers when planning delivery of instruction. 32 Hemispheres and Language Procesing Asumptions regarding how individuals proces speech could result from collective experiences of learning over time. Acordingly, males tend to hear males beter, and females tend to hear females beter. Therefore, males could potentialy have dificulty hearing female teachers (Obleser, Rockstroh & Eulitz, 2004). In one study, Obleser et al. (2004) investigated how the right and left hemispheres proces language. The researchers examined gender diferences in procesing sounds and specificaly asymmetry betwen the hemispheres. The researchers used magnetic source imaging to acomplish this task. Participants were tested on their response to natural syllables with varying vowel and consonant sounds as wel as non- speech noise. Participants were asked to categorize diferent syllables within the first 35miliseconds of stimuli (Obleser et al., 2004). The researchers discovered that females needed more activation of left hemisphere language areas when analyzing auditory paterns. Males in this study could acomplish the same task with the same results by activating the auditory procesing networks in both the right and left hemispheres (Obleser et al., 2004). Corpus Callosum Researchers have stated that the female brain has beter capacity to communicate betwen the hemispheres throughout almost every activity. When working on an abstract problem, for example, females use both sides of their brains while males utilize only the right side of their brains (Moir & Jesel, 1991). This could be due to the sex diferences in the corpus calosum. The corpus calosum connects the two halves of the brain and is generaly larger in females (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; Gurian & 33 Stevens, 2004; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Mostafa, 2006). Gurian (2001) and Brizendine (2006) both reported that the corpus calosum is 20% larger in the female brain. Researchers have found that the female brain communicates bilateraly due to more connectors betwen the hemispheres; therefore, bilateral communication is easier for the female brain than for the male brain (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001, Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Moir & Jesel, 1991). Brain scans have shown the female brain is as active at rest as the male brain is when engaged (Brizendine, 2006). Male and Female Auditory Differences Hearing diferences among the sexes are smal but significant (Brizendine, 2006; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005). One of the major auditory diferences betwen males and females is the size of the cochlea. The cochlea is the innermost part of the ear that tends to be slightly longer in males (James, 2007). This added length of the cochlea adds to the time it takes for sound to enter the ear and travel to the brain, therefore males have a slight hearing disadvantage compared to females. Females are more apt to hear somewhat beter than males because their cochlea is not as long (Brizendine, 2006; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005). Hearing diferences betwen the sexes could be atributed to sound taking longer to travel to the brain once it enters the male ear. Females are also more sensitive to sound than males (Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005). The average 12 year-old female has hearing at least seven times as acute as males of the same age (Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005). Due to this hearing diference, females often perceive male teachers as yeling during regular instruction while males may have dificulty hearing the teacher. Males may sem distracted in the clasroom when in reality they cannot hear what the teacher is saying (Sax, 2005). In fact, females 34 hear distracting sounds that are 10 times softer than sounds that wil distract males. This hearing diference could contribute to the reason that females tend to learn best in an environment free from extraneous distractions (Sax, 2005). Females tend to have an easier time when it comes to singing in tune and recognizing familiar tunes. They sing in tune six times more frequently than males (Moir & Jesel, 1991) and tend to have a left ear advantage when it comes to recognizing familiar sounds and melodies (Bland, 2003). Using a PET scan to investigate the activation of the cortex during auditory stimulation, Ruytjens et al. (2007) detected diferences betwen males and females. Ten males and 10 females participated in the study, and three conditions were used for this research: baseline, which was no aural stimulation; white noise at 75 decibels; and music from the movie ?The Piano? played at 75 decibels. The stimuli were randomly presented four times to both ears of the participants (Ruytjens et al., 2007). Male and female diferences were found in the primary auditory cortex (PAC), also known as Brodman area 41. Secondary auditory regions are labeled as Brodmann?s area 22 and 42 (Ruytjens et al., 2007). Sex diferences were discovered when music versus noise was presented to the participants in this study. The activation occurred for females in the secondary auditory areas while males had much larger activated clusters in both hemispheres of the brain. These areas encompased both the secondary auditory areas and the PAC (Ruytjens et al., 2007). Female and male diferences were also found when procesing noise versus the baseline. When listening to noise, males deactivated the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for atention, working memory, and cognitive control. Females had no deactivation of areas being examined and had more activation in the primary auditory 35 cortex (PAC). Deactivation only occurred in the right hemisphere of the prefrontal cortex in the female brain (Ruytjens et al., 2007). The researchers determined that auditory atention tasks engaged the prefrontal cortex. When males were presented with noise and music they activated both hemispheres of the brain in the primary and secondary auditory areas whereas females only showed activation in the secondary auditory areas. When the participants were presented with noise versus a baseline, males disengaged the prefrontal cortex while females had no deactivation of the areas examined (Ruytjens et al., 2007). These findings are consistent with Brizendine?s (2006) observation that the female brain is never at rest. Emotional Sex Differences Emotions can enhance or hinder learning in the clasroom. A solid understanding of how emotions are procesed in each of the sexes may be important for teacher and student succes in the clasroom. Males tend to lateralize emotions only in the right hemisphere, while females proces emotions in both the right and left hemispheres (Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991). Males and females proces emotional content diferently. It has been shown that males only recognize emotional content when it is shown to their left eye and, therefore, procesed in the right hemisphere. Females are able to recognize emotional content regardles of which eye receives the material. This finding further supports that females use both hemispheres when procesing emotions (Moir & Jesel, 1991). Snodgras and Harring?s (2004-2005) study investigated responses to diferent levels of stimuli. The study consisted of four experiments in which undergraduates betwen the ages of 18 and 22 were shown seven images, such as a snake, gun, knife, 36 sun, and heart. Individuals were asked to rate the objects on a scale, with one being very negative and five being very positive. Twenty-eight random drawings of lines were used as distracters throughout the experiment. Sixten neutral pictures (eight shown to the right hemisphere and eight shown to the left hemisphere) were also shown to the subjects. Participants in the first experiment were asked to place check marks next to their answers. The results of the first study showed that women were les sensitive to the negative pictures and more sensitive to the positive pictures. The second experiment involved 14 males and 27 females. The methodology was the same, except instead of placing check marks participants were instructed to point to their answers. Once again, Snodgras and Harring (2004-2005) were able to demonstrate that the right hemisphere was far superior for identifying positive and negative stimuli and having greater atention to positive pictures. Gender diferences for identifying positive and negative stimuli and for picture identification were not found. Snodgras and Harring?s (2004-2005) third experiment involved 14 male participants and 26 female participants. In this experiment, words were used to represent emotions. No gender diferences were found. These findings were consistent with the second experiment. The final experiment included 10 males and 10 females. This time participants responded verbaly to the emotional stimuli. Gender was not a consideration in this fourth experiment (Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005). Gender diferences based on emotions were not found when words or faces were used in Snodgras and Harring?s (2004-2005) study, but were evident when pictures were shown. Overal, women were les sensitive to negative stimuli and more sensitive to positive stimuli than men. Since musicians rely on symbols or pictures almost entirely to 37 proces information that pertains to music, emotionaly stimulated communication could impact the procesing of important musical information. Amygdala and Sex Differences The amygdala is an integral part of the brain for managing emotions. Larger in males, the amygdala can cause males to be more aggresive (Gurian, 2001). Increases in the size of the amygdala have also been asociated with a strong vocabulary, total estimated intelectual ability, basic arithmetic skils, and reading single words (James, 2007). Located in both hemispheres, the amygdala connects emotions with sensory information. Emotions are controlled in the right hemisphere and reactions to those emotions are controlled in the left hemisphere. Males tend to proces emotions on the right side of their brain with litle communication to the left side of their brain. The limited number of connectors betwen the hemispheres in the male brain can make expresion of emotion dificult for males (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Gurian, 2001; James, 2007). Conversely, females have dificulty separating reason from emotion because of their bilateral hemispheric communication. Bilateralism alows for more information to be shared betwen the two hemispheres. Sharing information and connections to the verbal side of the brain makes expresing emotions easier for females (Gurian, 2001; James, 2007). Hipocampus and Sex Differences The hippocampus, which is larger in females, is where memory and emotions are formed and stored (Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001; Gurian & Stevens, 2004; James 2007). The increased size of the female hippocampus tends to help foster greater memory for females than males (Gurian, 2001). Academic strengths in verbal 38 inteligence, speling, and reading are asociated with an increased size of the left hippocampus while strengths in mathematical calculations are asociated with an increased size of the right hippocampus (James, 2007). Gurian and Stevens (2004) reported that females tend to have language arts learning advantages because of the increased size of their hippocampus. Hormonal Sex Differences Hormones afect the manner in which someone acts and fels (Gurian, 2001); therefore, teachers need to understand the important function of hormones. The hypothalamus is the place in the brain where hormones are stored. The hypothalamus regulates temperature, heartbeat, and breathing (Gurian, 2001). Additionaly, it helps organize sex hormones for males and females by communicating with the pituitary gland regarding how much and how often sex hormones should be released (Moir & Jesel, 1991). The hypothalamus in heterosexual males is twice as large as the hypothalamus in females and homosexual males (Mostafa, 2006). Progesterone and estrogen are two female hormones that rise and fal with the female hormonal cycle. Hormonal changes caused by this fluctuation potentialy afect the moods and learning of females. Progesterone is the bonding and growth hormone while estrogen controls reproduction and sexual characteristics. Females tend to score beter on in-clas and standardized tests when estrogen levels are high (Gurian, 2001). Estrogen tends to have a calming efect on testosterone, the aggresion hormone (Moir & Jessel, 1991). Testosterone is the male hormone released into the body. This hormone ignites sex-drive, aggresion, and growth in males. Males have five to seven spikes of 39 testosterone daily beginning with the onset of puberty. Males tend to perform beter on exams involving spatial problems when testosterone levels are elevated in the brain. Males do not perform as wel on verbal tests when testosterone levels are low (Gurian, 2001). Sex Differences in Aggresion Sex diferences exist regarding levels of aggresion. Based on the research literature, the male brain is made for potential aggresion (Moir & Jesel, 1991) and consequently males are emotionaly more active and volatile than females (Else-Quest et al., 2006). Aggresion is fueled by rivalry and competition and tends to raise testosterone levels in males (Moir & Jesel, 1991). Conversely, females are often les aggresive than males (Coie et al, 1991). In the male brain, the amygdala tends to be larger, triggers aggresion, and registers fear. This may be the reason that male emotions can fluctuate from being calm to extremely agitate in a mater of seconds. Females, on the other hand, tend to calm situations down. Females tend to proces conflict more deeply in the brain while males are more likely to deal with the conflict and forget about it (Brizendine, 2006). The impact of testosterone on the brain not only produces asertivenes, aggresion and dominance, it also tends to encourage the release of more testosterone. This additional hormone release adds to aggresive male tendencies. Moir and Jesel (1991) stated that the more testosterone that is released into the male brain the more self- reliant, self-confident, self-asertive, competitive, and aggresive males become. The average male is more likely to show aggresive behaviors and manage social situations 40 through dominance (Gurian, 2001) while the average female tends to resist aggresive behaviors (Moir & Jesel, 1991). Dominate Male Behaviors Males and females difer in their behaviors. Experienced teachers know that keeping the clasroom loud and lively is the most efective way to motivate males to learn (Sax, 2009). Males tend to monopolize teachers? atention when they are a part of a mixed-sex clasroom (Carp, 2004; Jorgensen & Pfeiler, 2008; Pollard, 1999; Wilson, 2010), and this atention tends to be negative (Pollard, 1999). Negative atention can result in peers rewarding males for negative behavior exhibited in the clasroom (Downey & Vogt Yuan, 2005). Pollard (1999) noted that clasroom enthusiasm and behavior improved in the same-sex clasroom for both sexes. Downey and Vogt Yuan (2005) examined the National Education Longitudinal Study to determine why males and females excel in diferent subjects in school. The researchers looked at why these diferences occurred by examining sex diferences as related to out-of-school activities and clasroom behavior. Poor male behavior in school was found to be the main determinant of these achievement diferences (Downey & Vogt Yuan, 2005). Based on the research literature, placing males in a single-sex clasroom could potentialy improve their behavior (Downey & Vogt Yuan, 2005). Competition sems to be one of the motivating variables for males, and testosterone released from the brain fuels competition in males. Males are taught from a young age to be independent, active, and aggresive. Traditional schooling, however, is organized in ways that conflict with these social tendencies (Cable & Spradlin, 2008). 41 Acording to Sadker and Sadker?s (1994) book about how schools cheat girls, schools also tend to expect males to be conforming, pasive, and quiet. Teachers need to be trained in order to be succesful in dealing with the behaviors of males. Scholars have stated that teachers are more likely to succesfully addres the ways in which males learn when the sexes are separated. Knowing how to best teach students could improve clasroom behavior in any clasroom environment (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2009). Dominate Female Behaviors Compared to males, females tend to have diferent traits that could potentialy afect their succes in the clasroom. These diferences could potentialy impact the method a teacher chooses to instruct the same-sex clasroom. Females are more apt to want things orderly and quiet, and they enjoy group work and cooperative learning (Streitmater, 2002). Further, females tend to have beter grades (Barton, 2004) because of their favorable clasroom behavior (Downey & Yaun Vogt, 2005). Barton and Cohen (2004) conducted a study of children?s peer relationships as they transitioned from a mixed-sex fourth grade clasroom to a single-sex fifth and sixth grade clasroom. Several tests were administered to the children, including the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Children and the Friendship Quality questionnaire. The participants were asked to rank their clasmates acording to how much they liked them. Students also completed a task asigning diferent roles to their clasmates. The researcher reported that there are diferent results socialy for males and females in a single-sex environment. These diferences included social behaviors as wel as friendships. Males tended to have more friends while females maintained the same 42 number of friends when going from a mixed-sex environment to a single-sex environment. Males in the sixth-grade single-sex clasroom had a significant increase in aggresive behaviors while females had a significant decrease in victimization and withdrawn behaviors (Barton & Cohen, 2004). One of the goals of same-sex clasrooms is to improve clasroom participation and behavior (Pollard, 1999). Pollard (1999) reported that same-sex clases create comfortable places for females to learn, explore gender identity isues, and find their role in society. This comfortable seting could potentialy encourage more female participation in the clasroom. Same-sex clases may be particularly beneficial to females as they are going through puberty and trying to understand the maturation proces (Pollard, 1999). Females tend to be much more sensitive and have a nuanced understanding of even the subtlest forms of non-verbal communication (Barton & Cohen, 2004). Females also have a tendency to be more mature than males; therefore, same-sex clases are more likely to help females stay focused on their academics (Pollard, 1999). Based on the research literature, females often are given fewer opportunities for problem solving and learning in a mixed-sex clasroom. Additionaly, females are more likely to receive les teacher atention than males because of disruptive male behaviors (Pollard, 1999). Froese-Germain (2006) and Sadker (2002) reported that teachers tend to focus on males in a mixed-sex clasroom because of males? behavior. Females may sometimes fel constrained in mixed-sex clases; therefore, perform below their potential. Females may also have a tendency to be les wiling to participate in clasroom instruction in a mixed-sex clasroom environment (Pollard, 1999). 43 Cable and Spradlin (2008) found that collaborative learning and noncompetitive environments sem to be where females thrive. Other researchers have found that females tend to be more motivated than males in school (Martino et al., 2005), are more likely to ask adults for help, and are more likely to set goals for themselves (Cable & Spradlin, 2008). Additionaly, females tend to be more nurturing than males (Bjorklund & Bering, 2000), which in turn, creates a diferent behavioral situation in the clasroom. Temperament Sex Differences Research and other scholarly literature have documented that there are temperamental sex diferences. Else-Quest et al. (2006) completed a meta-analysis of sex diferences in temperament. The authors discovered that females tended to be beter at regulating their atention and temperament and superior at controlling inappropriate behaviors and responses. Else-Quest et al. (2006) also found that females were more apt to sense subtle diferences in their environment compared to males. As related to gender equity, Sadker (2002) noted that males tend to externalize behavior problems while girls tend to control their impulses. Else-Quest et al. (2006) produced similar results from their meta-analysis investigation. Overal, males tend to gain more pleasure than females from high-intensity stimuli and are les shy than their female counterparts (Else-Quest et. al, 2006). Learning Style Sex Differences Understanding learning style diferences has been shown to be beneficial to student and teacher succes in the clasroom (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). Honigsfeld and Dunn (2003) conducted a study investigating learning style sex diferences. The research included 1,637 adolescents from New Zealand, Sweden, Hungary, Brunei, and 44 Bermuda. Students were enrolled in grades five through 13 and were administered the LSI learning-style preference instrument. Results of the LSI were examined based on participant gender (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). The researchers detected significant gender diferences in nine of the 22 learning styles studied. These learning style diferences included: (a) temperature, (b) motivated, (c) persistent, (d) responsible, (e) alone versus peers, (f) learn several ways, (g) kinesthetic, (h) parent motivated, and (i) teacher motivated. Honigsfeld and Dunn (2003) reported that males were more peer- oriented, perceptual, and kinesthetic than females. Females tended to have higher levels than males of parent and teacher motivation, sociological variety, need for warmer temperatures, responsibility, persistence, and self-motivation. Females needed more variety in their learning, while males tended to respond beter to routine. Generaly, only a few of these students were able to listen to a 40 to 50 -minute lecture on dificult and new material and recal 75% of what they heard (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). Teacher awarenes of learning preferences can impact learning. Honigsfeld and Dunn (2003) concluded that teachers should be aware of male and female learning preferences so that improvement in learning can take place in the clasroom. Males need to move or be kinesthetic in order to think and learn. Therefore, teachers should not require that male students be stil throughout a leson. Males are also more peer-oriented than females, thus they need to be learning with their peers instead of solely teacher directed learning. Females are more apt to need varied ways of learning compared to males. Teachers of females should consider having them work in diferent types of learning groups (e.g., in large groups, with the teacher, with peers, in pairs, and in independent setings). 45 Music Teacher Attrition Teacher atrition is one of the many isues in which researchers and profesional organizations have expresed concern. Hancock (2008) discovered that 20% of teachers left the profesion within their first three years of teaching. Additionaly, 40-50% of al teachers changed profesions within the first five years. These data were gleaned from the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey, a national survey conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics. Survey respondents were drawn from schools, principals, and teachers. There has been litle research done regarding music teacher atrition. Music teachers experience 17% percent atrition after the first 10 years of teaching (Hancock, 2009). Hancock (2009) reported that betwen 11-27% of al music teachers leave the profesion every year. This fluctuation could be due to factors such as retirement, continued education, and atrition. Secondary music teachers were at a higher risk for leaving than elementary music teachers. Secondary regular education teachers did not have a high rate of atrition as compared to their elementary teacher peers (Hancock, 2008). Sex Differences in Instrumental Music While litle has been writen pertaining to sex diferences in the choral clasroom, the research literature is replete with examples for instrumental music. Literature pertaining to the instrumental clasroom addreses (a) instrument selection (Abeles, 2009; Eros, 2011; Johnson & Stewart, 2004; Walker, n.d.), (b) jaz improvisation (Wehr- Flowers, 2006), and (c) participation in high school and collegiate instrumental jazz ensembles (McKeage, 2004). Even though there are many studies dealing with sex 46 diferences in the instrumental clasroom, none of the research pertains to the topics of interest in this research study. Sex and Musical Instrument Selection Students tend to label instruments as either masculine or feminine. These stereotypes can be minimized if instruments are properly introduced and the director is aware of instrumental sex stereotypes (Walker, n.d.). In a review of the literature, Eros (2008) examined gender stereotypes and instrument selection. He examined literature after 1996 and determined that, when choosing an instrument, students are significantly influenced by gender perception of the instruments. It was also noted that students could be harased based on their instrument choice. Eros (2008) recommended that directors should be educated regarding gender stereotypes so that they can help their students se past the gender bias asociated with instrument selection. Past research has indicated that certain instruments have gender stereotypes atached with them. An example would be that the flute is feminine and the tuba is masculine. Abeles (2009) conducted a study regarding gender perceptions of diferent instruments to se if musical instrument gender asociations had remained the same or changed over time. The first portion of the study investigated 180 college students and paired the gender of a student with an instrument. The researcher demonstrated that there were fewer perceived gendered instruments in 2009 than in the 1990s. Examples of gendered instruments include: only girls play flutes and only boys play tubas. In the second portion of the study, Abeles (2009) investigated whether or not the instruments males and females were playing had changed. The researcher concluded that there were few changes in the sex division based on instrument. 47 Additionaly, there was a study conducted with band directors and university students to se if the participants would asign instruments acording to gender bias (i.e., flutes for females and tubas for males) (Johnson and Stewart, 2004). Each of the participants went to a website to take the survey. Half of the participants were directed to a site in which they had to match the full heads of eight students to beginning band instruments. The other half was directed to a site in which they had to match beginning band instruments to pictures that only showed the lips and teth of the students. The results showed that the sex of the student did not determine the instrument the participants recommended. The respondents to the survey did not believe they had enough information to make an educated decision regarding instrument selection of students (Johnson & Stewart, 2004). Instrumental selection has traditionaly been influenced by what is perceived as a male or female instrument. One study indicated that this perception has changed somewhat from 1990 to 2009 (Abeles, 2009), while the other study reported that students sem to be choosing instruments while ignoring previous instrument stereotypes. Sex Differences in Jazz Improvisation Based on the research literature, there are sex diferences regarding jaz improvisation. In a study by Wehr-Flowers (2006), a survey was distributed to students in middle school and community jaz programs. The researcher reported that females were les confident than males with regards to learning jaz improvisation. Females also tended to lack confidence and were more anxious than their male counterparts. McKeage (2004) conducted a study with 628 undergraduate college band students in which they were asked to complete a survey to determine atitudes towards 48 participation in high school and collegiate instrumental jaz ensembles. The author reported that jaz ensembles were predominately male in both high school and college. One of the documented reasons for women quiting jaz band was that they were more comfortable in a traditional ensemble (McKeage, 2004). Women tended to be the minority in the jaz band, which tended to make them fel uncomfortable. This tended to result in a lack of wilingnes to participate. There is some research available pertaining to sex diferences and instrumental music, but it mainly pertains to instrument selection and improvisation. The research does not addres biological and sociological sex diferences. The void of research in this area indicates that there is a need for research investigating biological and sociological sex diferences in the instrumental clasroom. Same-Sex Teaching within the Choral Classroom Same-sex music clasrooms have been a part of the music curriculum for over 100 years. Koza (1993) reviewed the Music Supervisors? Journal from 1914 through, and found that single-sex as wel as mixed-sex music organizations were plentiful during this decade. This study included both instrumental and choral music organizations. There are many choral programs that offer same-sex choirs as a part of their curriculum (Carp, 2004; Jorgensen & Pfeiler, 2008; Wilson, 2010). Carp (2004) surveyed 174 members of the California Vocal Asociation and discovered that 91% of the 101 responses indicated that directors taught at least one same-sex choir. In their research, Jorgensen and Pfeiler (2008) discussed the long history and benefits of same- sex choirs. Wilson (2010) investigated choral programs that consisted of at least one al- female choir. This study wil be discussed later in the review of literature. This body of 49 literature confirms the presence of same-sex choirs in many secondary choral programs, therefore indicating a need for more research in this area. The American Choral Directors Asociation (ACDA) indicates through their many Repertoire and Standards divisions how important they fel same-sex choirs are. There are Repertoire and Standards positions representing Women?s Choirs, Men?s Choirs, and Boy?s Choirs (acda.org). These Repertoire and Standards positions are active at the state, regional, and national levels of the ACDA organization. Jorgensen and Pfeiler (2008) qualitatively investigated a choral program in which all-male and al-female clases were created because of voice change and socialization isues during instructional time. Through this investigation, the directors discovered that the male students were able to ?be themselves? in an al-male clasroom. Additionaly, the authors noted that males sang without fear when there were no distractions from the opposite sex. Additionaly, females, who tended to be intimidated by males, were no longer frightened or embarrased when they were in a same-sex clas. In general, females tended to fel more comfortable and relaxed, and both male and female students were much more likely to take risks when they were in a same-sex clasroom (Jorgensen & Pfeiler, 2008). Ashley (2006) noted that boys sem to be more confident singing in an all-male seting versus a mixed-sex environment. Other researchers in regular education same-sex clasrooms have found that students are more wiling to take risks when they are in a same-sex clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003; Pollard, 1999). Research has shown that some teachers may not have a firm understanding of vocal pedagogy. In a study of diferences in vocal development and male sensitivity to 50 the voice, videos were shown of boy singers (those whose voices had not changed), and reactions by females and males were recorded based on these videos. Through this research, Ashley (2010) demonstrated that teachers are not prepared to deal with male and female diferences as related to singing. The literature suggests that the succes of the teacher could be dependent on their awarenes of gender isues in the single-sex clasroom. Single-sex clases for singers demand that teachers addres gender isues in the clasroom and provide gender appropriate pedagogies (Ashley, 2010). Teacher training and awarenes for music educators are supported by research in the regular education seting (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Martino, 2005; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005). The literature states that teachers who have the wilingnes and subject knowledge to be aware of gender isues have a great impact on young male singers (Ashley, 2010). The author concluded that this wilingnes and knowledge of gender isues is more important than a male teacher instructing boys or the sexes being separated. Ashley (2010) argued that teachers might ignore gender isues because they have litle understanding of gender isues in the clasroom, limited expectations for boys, and a lack of knowledge pertaining to the subject taught. Recently there have been a few research studies conducted relating to same-sex choirs. Carp (2004) reviewed Southern California choral directors? practices and atitudes about single gender choral ensembles. Despite a limited literature review and simple survey design, this survey is relevant to the current investigation because it showed that many teachers observed diferences when teaching single gender choral ensembles. Carp (2004) distributed a survey to 174 members of the Southern California 51 Vocal Asociation, and 101 surveys were returned. One hundred percent of respondents indicated that they taught mixed-sex choirs, 91% taught a female choir, and 46% taught male choirs. Ninety percent of the respondents indicated that there were behavior diferences betwen single-sex choirs and mixed-sex choirs. Carp (2004) listed the behavior diferences as identified by the choir directors: (a) voice change diferences, (b) socialization diferences, (c) risk taking diferences, (d) focus diferences, (e) maturity diferences, (f) learning diferences, and (g) group enthusiasm and cohesivenes diferences. These findings are consistent studies of same-sex regular education clases (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Gray & Wilson, 2006; Hannon & Ratlif, 2007; Pollard, 1999; Sadker, 2002). The study examined the behavior of older versus younger singers. Carp (2004) investigated whether or not directors saw a change in behavior with the more advanced (older) singers. Seventy percent of the respondents saw a behavior diference as the singers became more advanced. The responses were varied and included that (a) singers semed to be more disciplined and more mature; (b) there was no change; and (c) males were stil trying to impres the opposite sex. The respondents in Carp?s study (2004) were asked if they saw behavior diferences betwen same-sex choirs and mixed-sex choirs. Fiften percent of the respondents reported that behavior was beter in mixed-sex choirs than in single-sex choirs, while 57% indicated that behavior was beter in same-sex choirs than mixed-sex choirs. Fiften percent saw no diference and 13% responded ?other? (Carp, 2004). These findings are consistent with studies in the general education seting by Gray and Wilson (2006) and Hannon and Ratlife (2007). 52 Overal, choral directors who responded to Carp?s questionnaire suggested that directing single-sex choirs created an atmosphere with fewer discipline problems and one in which students were not distracted by the opposite sex. Respondents also concluded that same-sex choirs promoted beter teamwork and a clasroom with les peer ridicule. Students in single-sex choirs were more wiling to take risks and had les self-esteem isues. Clasroom management was easier for choral directors of same-sex choirs, and the students were more motivated and tended to work harder (Carp, 2004). A mixed-method study was done utilizing a gender separate middle school choral program (Nick, 2008). The researcher interviewed, observed, and surveyed the choral directors, students, and principal at a middle school in Northwest Ohio. Observations were conducted during same-sex choral rehearsals. The purpose of the study was to identify the disadvantages and advantages of single-sex choirs in a middle school. The researcher noted that same-sex choral ensembles decreased behavior isues, promoted positive social interactions, and was developmentaly appropriate. Findings indicated that students were more wiling to participate and take risks in the single-sex choral clasroom. The students indicated that the same-sex choral clasroom was a non- threatening environment in which they felt more likely to sing out and participate in clas (Nycz, 2008). These findings are also consistent with research conducted in the regular education clasroom (Cable & Spradlin, 2008; Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003; Pollard, 1999). One research study reported that al-female ensembles felt les important than the other choral ensembles at their school (Wilson, 2010). In this mixed-methods research study, only 11% of individuals responded to the survey, which is not a good return rate. One recurring theme throughout the study was that females tried hard to impres their 53 directors. The actions by females semed to be based on making a good impresion so that they would have a beter chance of making the mixed-group (Wilson, 2010). This finding is consistent with research conclusions in the general education seting regarding females? emphasis upon pleasing the teacher (Martino et al., 2005; Pollard, 1999; Vogt, 2005). There are several studies that investigated the behavior of boys and the language used by teachers in al-male clases. One study reported that male teachers used very direct language with the male clases compared to the language used with the al-female clases (Wilson, 2010). Several of the students interviewed said that boys were more easily distracted than girls. While observing a male sectional, the researcher observed more physical energy and movement than in the al-female sectional (Wilson, 2010). Gray and Wilson (2006) reported that general education teachers believed that al-male clases created a more active environment. Research findings by Trollinger (1993), Koza (1993), and O?Toole (1998) are consistent with Wilson?s (2010) observations that male singers received more teacher atention than female singers. Jones and Dindia (2004) established similar findings within the regular education clasroom. Acording to these studies males tended to be more active and responded beter to very direct language. Summary This literature review provides a brief history of the same-sex clasroom and summarizes selected biological and sociological sex diferences of males and females. As demonstrated by this review, there are multiple authors who believe that student achievement in the clasroom can greatly be enhanced by separating the sexes. This 54 literature review also addreses the importance of teacher training pertaining to sex diferences. There sems to be a gap in the literature regarding sex diferences as related to the secondary choral clasroom. More research is needed to se if there is a necesity for more education and training pertaining to biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. The purpose of this current study is to investigate the secondary choral directors? awarenes of selected biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom in order to fil this void. 55 CHAPTER 3 METHOD The purpose of this study was to ases choral directors? knowledge of biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. This descriptive study was based on the following null hypotheses: (a) There wil be no diference in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not; (b) There wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not; (c) There wil be no diference in regards to which same-sex choir directors prefer to work with based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. Population The population surveyed was choral directors who atended the high school and middle school reading sesions and round table discussions during the ACDA 2012 Southern Division Conference in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. This site was chosen because of the asumption that choral directors present would be concerned about their knowledge and profesional development regarding choral music. Al participants at these sesions had the opportunity to complete the survey. 56 The ACDA 2012 Southern Division Conference occurred betwen February 28, and March 3, 2012. Atendees at the conference represented the following states: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Misisippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennese, Virginia and West Virginia. Choral directors who atended the reading sesions and round tables for middle school and high school were invited to participate. The researcher at the door prior to every sesion handed out the survey. The researcher was granted permision to conduct the survey during each of the above- mentioned sesions. Choral directors who participated were asked to return their completed surveys to slotted boxes located at the exits. There were no identifying indicators on the surveys therefore the person?s anonymity was maintained. This population provided the researcher with an aceptable return rate and a broad geographical sampling of choral directors. Al research procedures were conducted in compliance with the Auburn University Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research. Instrument An 80-item paper and pencil questionnaire (Appendix A) was created by the researcher based on literature pertaining to biological and sociological sex diferences related to education. Due to the limited nature of the target survey population, a pilot study was not practical, but a review of the survey by the researcher?s commite and other colleagues was employed to establish face validity. The questionnaire was used to ases choral directors? knowledge of selected biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. 57 The opening section of the questionnaire solicited background information pertaining to participants? teaching career and education as wel as how many mixed sex, all-female, and al-male choirs they taught during the school day. Scales were developed for the next two sections of the survey. The first scale was used to ases the choral director?s knowledge of biological and sociological sex diferences. Five answer choices were (a) generaly true for both sexes, (b) generaly true for females, (c) generaly true for males, (d) generaly not true for both sexes, and (e) I don?t know. Each statement had a correct answer (based upon the literature). The incorrect answers were considered distractors. These distractors were included to decrease the likelihood that a respondent could gues and answer correctly. The survey concluded with a second scale asking the respondents if they believed choral directors needed more training regarding sex diferences, would atend such training, and the type of choir they think is easier to teach. This scale included these options: (a) strongly disagree, (b) disagree, (c) neither agrees nor disagree, (d) agree, and (e) strongly agree. The author?s commite members and felow secondary choral directors reviewed the survey for content validity. Changes to the survey were made based on the commite?s and choral directors? recommendations. These revisions included wording and formating. The revised survey and other required documentation were then submited to the Auburn University Institutional Review Board for Research Involving Human Subjects for approval (Se Appendix D). Survey Distribution The survey was distributed during the ACDA Southern Division Conference betwen February 28, and March 3, 2012, at the high school and middle school reading 58 sesion as wel as the high school and middle school round tables. The surveys included an atached cover leter explaining that completing the survey implied consent to participate in the study. Additionaly, a scripted invitation (Appendix B) to participate was used to introduce the survey prior to each of the sesions. Completed surveys were returned to the slotted boxes at the exits at the conclusion of each sesion. Survey Returns Surveys (N=278) were distributed during the high school and middle school reading sesions as wel as the high school and middle school round table discussions during the ACDA Southern Division Conference. The overal return rate was 64.4% (n=179) with a 95% confidence level and 4.19 confidence interval. However, 30 surveys were determined to be invalid because seven were blank, and 23 surveys were from participants who indicated they had already completed the survey in a previous sesion at the conference. The adjusted response rate was 45% (n=149) with a confidence level of 95% and 5.19 confidence interval. In addition, response rates for some of the questions varied due to some survey participants not answering every question. Data Analysis The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPS 20.0) was employed for al quantitative data analysis. Frequencies and valid percentages were calculated for al demographic variables, including: sex of the director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and whether they taught a same-sex choir. The biological and sociological statements were separated into groups in order to addres research question one: ?What were the diferences in responses of choral directors concerning biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom 59 based on sex, years of experience, level currently teaching, degrees earned, and whether they teach single-sex choirs?? These clusters included: pedagogical sociological statements, sociological statements, biological-procesing statements, and biological statements. These groups were analyzed through frequencies and using a Chi-square to determine if each of the demographic variables were statisticaly significant. Frequencies and ANOVAs were used to addres research question two: What were the diferences in choral directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training on biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom based on sex, years of experience, level currently teaching, degrees earned, and whether they teach single-sex choirs? Each of the demographic variables was analyzed to test for statistical significance as they related to the statements: (a) secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences, and (b) I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available. Each statement had the following response options: (a) strongly disagree, (b) disagree, (c) neither agree nor disagree, (d) agree, and (e) strongly agree. These options were then re-coded due to the ambiguity betwen strongly disagree and disagree, and agree and strongly agree to create three categories: 1= strongly disagree/disagree, 3= neither agree nor disagree, and 5=agree/strongly agree. Though this data may be considered ordinal data, it can be combined to eliminate data points and get closer to a standardized distribution and thus be considered interval. However, in this case, a standard distribution was asumed. Analysis of variance was used to compare the means for these items. Acording to Rea and Parker (2005, p. 108), comparing the means for this data is becoming the norm in data analysis because it is considered more valuable to compare means for diferent variables, even though the data 60 may be considered ordinal data. Statistical significance was then analyzed to determine if the null hypothesis should be acepted or if the data indicated no statistical significance among the variables. Null hypothesis three stated: There wil be no diference in regards to which same-sex choir directors prefer to work with based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. Frequencies were conducted to determine who answered the statements correctly and who did not. Chi-square analysis was used to determine if the null hypothesis should be rejected or not. Summary This study was conducted to ases choral directors? knowledge of student biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. Sex diferences addresed in this study were selected based on the research literature and what educators have writen regarding the relevance of these diferences in the clasroom. As discussed earlier, the results of this survey may be beneficial to secondary choral directors, researchers, methods teachers, and scholars writing textbooks and creating pedagogical materials. 61 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS The goal of this chapter is to describe the population, participants, statistical analysis, and results of the survey based on the null hypotheses. The results of the survey indicated that there were many variables that were statisticaly significant for the three hypotheses. Therefore suggesting that there were some statisticaly significant diferences in participant responses regarding choral directors? knowledge of sex diferences, directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences, and which sex choir directors prefer to work with. These diferences were found when examining the variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) level currently teaching, (c) years of experience, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) preferred sex to work with. Participants The population surveyed included choral directors who atended the high school and middle school reading sesions and round table discussions during the ACDA 2012 Southern Division Conference in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Al participants at these sesions had the opportunity to complete the survey. The ACDA 2012 Southern Division Conference occurred betwen February 28, and March 3, 2012. Choral directors who atended the reading sesions and round tables for middle school and high school were invited to participate. The atendees responding to the survey represented the following states (N=148): 22 Alabama (14.9%), 6 Florida (4.1%), 11 Georgia (7.4%), 10 Kentucky (6.8%), 4 Louisiana (2.7%), 1 Misisippi ! 62 ! (0.7%), 15 North Carolina (10.1%), 12 South Carolina (8.1%), 3 Tennese (2.0%), 19 Virginia (12.8%), and 4 West Virginia (2.7%). The other 27.7% of the respondents responded that they either did not teach (1, 0.7%) or ?other? (40, 27.0%). The category of ?other? could have indicated that individuals taught in another state or they were currently enrolled as university students. Survey Returns Surveys (N=278) were distributed during the high school and middle school reading sesions and round table discussions during the ACDA Southern Division Conference. A total of 178 surveys were returned (64.0%). However, 30 surveys were determined to be invalid because seven were blank, and 23 surveys were from participants who indicated they had already completed the survey in a previous sesion at the conference. The adjusted return rate was 53.2% (N=148) with a 95% confidence level and 5.52 confidence interval. In addition, response rates for some of the questions varied due to some survey participants not answering every question. Demographics There were more females (n=87, 58.8%) than males (n=60, 40.5%). One person (0.7%) did not indicate gender on his/her survey. Other demographic information gathered included years of experience, grade currently teaching, highest degree earned, and whether or not the choir director instructs a same-sex choir during the school day (Table 1). Originaly there were more categories representing years of experience. The distribution was too widespread to facilitate statistical analysis so categories were collapsed to provide more meaningful age ranges. ! 63 ! Table 1 Years of Teaching Experience Years of Experience f % 1-5 years 32 21.6 6-15 years 27 18.2 16+ years 32 21.6 Never taught 57 38.5 Total 148 100.0 Choral directors who took the survey indicated which grade(s) they were currently teaching. Several directors taught at more than one level, which resulted in the total percent being greater than 100%. One respondent (0.7%) did not identify which level(s) he/she taught. The smalest percentage of participants taught K-5 (6.8%) while the largest percentage of participants was not teaching (34.5%). Secondary choral directors represented the following percentages, middle school (23.0%) and high school (32.4%). Post-secondary choral directors comprised the remaining 18.2% of the choral directors who completed the survey. Of the respondents, the following degree levels were reported: 29.7% Bachelor?s, 37.2% Master?s, 1.4% Educational Specialist, and 10.8% Doctorate. The respondents remaining were represented by either undergraduate students (30.4%) or graduate students (8.8%). Several of the respondents indicated what degre they had and those they were a graduate student, which again resulted in the total percentage being greater than100% (Table 2). ! 64 ! Table 2 Level Curently Teaching and Degres Earned (N=148). f % Level Curently Teaching K-5 10 6.8 Midle Schol/Junior High 34 23.0 High Schol 48 32.4 Post-Secondary 27 18.2 Not Curently Teaching 51 34.5 Total 170 114.9 Highest Degre Earned Bachelor?s 44 29.7 Master?s 55 37.2 Educational Specialist 2 1.4 Doctorate 16 10.8 Undergraduate Student 45 30.4 Graduate Student 13 8.8 Total 175 118.3 Note: Several participants answered that they taught more than one level. Several also indicated that they were graduate students as well as the highest degrees they had earned. These variables increased the total percentages to greater than 100% and the total responses more than the population (N=148). Respondents could choose more than one answer for multiple survey items. For example, several respondents had multiple answers regarding to the type of choirs they taught during the school day. 60.1% indicated that they taught at least one mixed-sex choir during the school day, 32.4% taught at least one al-female choir during the school day, and 20.9% taught at least one al-male choir during the school day. Respondents were asked to identify the type of choir they preferred to teach. Some teachers indicated that they preferred to teach more than one choir. Overwhelmingly, choral directors indicated that they preferred to teach mixed-sex choirs (72.3%) over all-female choirs (41.2%) or al-male choirs (33.1%). Survey participants were asked to identify their least favorite choir with whom to work. Again, some respondents chose more than one answer. Respondents indicated that 38.5% did not have a least favorite choir to work with while 14.2% said their least favorite choir ! 65 ! was a mixed-sex choir. Participants responded that female choirs (26.4%) more so than male choirs (29.0%) were the least favored choir to direct (Table 3). Table 3 Choirs Taught and Preferred (N=148) f % Choirs taught during the schol day. At least one mixed-sex choir 89 60.1 At least one al-female choir 48 32.4 At least one al-male choir 27 18.8 Total 164 111.3 Prefered choir to teach. Mixed-sex choir 107 72.3 All-female choir 61 41.2 All-male choir 49 33.1 Total 217 146.6 Least favorite choir to teach. None indicated 59 39.8 Mixed-sex choir 21 14.2 All-female choir 39 26.4 All-male choir 29 19.6 Total 148 100.0 Note: Respondents could identify more than one answer for each of the prompts above. Therefore, the total frequencies for each category could be greater than N=148, and the percentages for each category could be greater than 10%. Nul Hypothesis One The first null hypothesis stated there wil be no diference in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. The answer choices on the survey were created to ases choral directors? knowledge of student biological and sociological sex diferences as related to teaching in the secondary choral clasroom. ! 66 ! Chi-Square Analysis of Responses Prompts on the survey that pertained to the first nul hypothesis were grouped into four clusters: (a) pedagogical sociological prompts, (b) other sociological prompts, (c) biological diferences relating to procesing, and (d) other biological prompts. Each prompt in the survey had only one correct answer and four additional false distractor answers. The false answers were created to ensure that participants could not easily gues the correct answer. The five choices for each prompt included: (a) generaly true for both sexes, (b) generaly true for females, (c) generaly true for males, (d) generaly not true for both sexes, and (e) I am not sure. When a respondent marked the correct answer for a prompt, his/her response was recorded as a ?1.? When he/she marked any of the four false distractor answers, his/her answer was recorded as a ?0.? Each of the four clusters was analyzed for frequency and valid percent. In addition, chi-square (? 2 ) analyses were used to determine if there were any significant diferences betwen those who answered correctly and those who answered incorrectly when they were grouped by diferent demographic variables. An alpha level of .05 was adopted, which means ultimately that there would be a 95% or greater chance that a Type I error did not occur for each of the significant results. Levels of significance were obtained by analyzing specific demographic groups using chi square analysis. An example of what was compared for levels of significance were those respondents with bachelor?s degrees versus the whole group, or those teaching les than five years and those in the other years of experience categories. ! 67 ! Pedagogical Sociological Prompts Data for the first cluster, pedagogical sociological prompts, were analyzed first. Frequency and percent for each answer for each prompt are reported in Table 4 and the descriptive statistics showing the number of respondents answering each prompt correctly can be found in Table 5. Prompt two, ?tend to receive litle teacher atention for their behavior in the clasroom,? had the highest percentage (31.1%) of correct answers while prompt six ?tend to prefer varied learning activities in the clasroom? had the lowest percentage (2.3%). Table 4 Respondent?s Answers to Pedagogical Sociological Prompts Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to respond best to a set routine in the clasroom. Non-respondents 7 4.7 Generaly true for both sexes 106 71.6 Generaly true for females 21 14.2 *Generaly true for males 11 7.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 0 0.0 I am not sure 3 2.0 Total 148 100 Tend to receive litle teacher attention for their behavior in the classrom. Non-respondents 16 10.8 Generaly true for both sexes 11 7.4 *Generaly true for females 41 27.7 Generaly true for males 7 4.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 57 38.5 I am not sure 16 10.8 Total 148 100 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 4 Continues ! ! ! 68 ! Table 4 Continued ! Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to respond wel to an active classrom environment. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 87 58.8 Generaly true for females 4 2.7 *Generaly true for males 34 23.0 Generaly not true for both sexes 3 2.0 I am not sure 8 5.4 Total 148 100 Tend to prefer group work. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 63 42.6 *Generaly true for females 20 13.5 Generaly true for males 21 14.2 Generaly not true for both sexes 18 12.2 I am not sure 14 9.5 Total 148 100 Tend to respond wel to teacher- directed instruction. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 92 62.2 Generaly true for females 23 15.5 *Generaly true for males 5 3.4 Generally not true for both sexes 5 3.4 I am not sure 12 8.1 Total 148 100.0 Tend to prefer varied learning activities in the classrom. Non-respondents 18 12.2 Generaly true for both sexes 110 74.3 *Generaly true for females 3 2.0 Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 1 .7 I am not sure 10 6.8 Total 148 100.0 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Not every participant completed every question resulting in a diferent reported n for each prompt. A Chi-square (? 2 ) test was performed on each of the pedagogical sociological prompts to determine if there were any significant diferences betwen respondents? when their true/false responses were grouped by these independent variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether or not directors. This may show one group or another of respondents has more or les knowledge of pedagogical sociological sex diferences as they pertain to the secondary choral clasroom. Only the statisticaly significant (p<.05) prompts were reported in the tables. ! 69 ! Table 5 Corect Answers of Pedagogical Sociological Clusters: Total Population Pedagogical Sociological Clusters Corect Answer n f % 1. Tend to respond best to a set routine in the clasroom. Generaly true for males. 141 11 7.4 2. Tend to receive litle teacher attention for their behavior in the clasrom. Generaly true for females. 132 41 31.1 3. Tend to respond wel to an active classrom environment. Generaly true for males. 136 30 21.9 4. Tend to prefer group work. Generaly true for females. 136 20 14.7 5. Tend to respond wel to teacher-directed instruction. Generaly true for males. 137 23 16.8 6. Tend to prefer varied learning activities in the classrom. Generaly true for females. 130 3 2.3 *The number of respondents (n) is based on who actually responded to the prompt. There were no statisticaly significant diferences for prompts 2-6 (Table 5) for al of the demographic variables. However, there were some statisticaly significant diferences for the statement 1, ?tend to respond best to a set routine in the clasroom.? However, like the other statements, there were no statisticaly significant diferences found for the following variables: (a) years of experience, (b) level of teaching (high school), (c) level of teaching (post secondary), (d) highest degree earned (Masters), (e) currently a graduate student, and (f) whether they taught a same-sex choir or not. However, the null hypothesis was rejected (there were significant diferences among respondents) for the following variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) level of teaching (K-5), (c) level of teaching (middle school/junior high), (d) level of teaching (not currently teaching), (e) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s), (f) highest degree earned (Educational Specialist), (g) highest degree earned (Doctorate), and (h) currently an undergraduate student. ! 70 ! Table 6 shows the data for the statisticaly significant diferences for the statement ?tend to respond best to a set routine in the clasroom.? Overal there were a significantly higher percentage of males (8.3%) compared to females (5.7%) who answered this statement correctly. In addition, answers given by directors currently teaching K-5 showed a significant diference. Of the K-5 teachers, 20% responded correctly and 80% did not. All respondents teaching in the middle/junior high school level (n=10) and al who are not currently teaching (n=51) answered this statement incorrectly. The majority of the participants who were not currently teaching (82.2%) also answered this pedagogical statement incorrectly versus those who indicated they were teaching. Similarly, a majority of undergraduate students (80.5%) answered this statement incorrectly when compared to those who were not undergraduate students. Reponses by students currently earning their Bachelor?s degree were statisticaly significant for the prompt ?tend to respond best to a set routine.? Al of the respondents whose highest degree was Educational Specialist answered this statement incorrectly (n=2). Finaly, the majority (73.3%) of choral directors who had an earned Doctorate answered the statement incorrectly. ! 71 ! Table 6 Statistically Significant Tests for Variables Relating to the Pedagogical Sociological Prompt: Tend to Respond Best to a Set Routine in the Clasrom Variable n Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Sex of the director 119 13.86 4 .008 Curently teaching K-5 10 6.033 2 .049 Currently teaching midle schol/junior high 34 12.985 2 .002 Curently not teaching 45 6.393 2 .041 Bachelor?s 43 7.193 3 .04 Educational Specialist 2 6.082 2 .048 Doctorate 15 7.787 2 .020 Undergraduate Student 41 7.005 2 .030 Note: **p<.05 Sociological Prompts The sociological prompts were analyzed for frequencies and valid percentages acording to the respondent?s answers (Table 7). The correct answers were indicated in the table. Al of the sociological prompts were clustered together and correct answers and total participants responding were reported for each statement (Table 8). The sociological prompts were analyzed for frequency and valid percent of correct answers for the whole population. There were three prompts in which more than 50% of the survey participants answered correctly: (a) tend to be distracted by social, non-academic isues in the clasroom (64.9%), (b) tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasroom (60.8%), (c) tend to not be distracted by social, non-academic isues in the clasroom (60.8%). The sex breakdown of the respondents answering indicated that the first statement had more females (73.6%) answer correctly than males (51.7%). More males answered correctly (71.7%) compared to females (6.9%) for the prompt ?tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasroom.? ! 72 ! Table 7 Corect Answers for Remaining Sociological Prompts Statement Answer Choices Frequency Valid Percent Tend to be distracted by social, non- academic issues in the clasrom. Non-respondents 10 6.8 *Generaly true for both sexes 96 64.9 Generaly true for females 21 14.2 Generaly true for males 15 10.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 4 2.7 I am not sure 2 1.4 Total 148 100.0 Tend to be self- motivated in the classrom. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 38 25.7 *Generaly true for females 73 25.7 Generaly true for males 5 3.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 13 8.8 I am not sure 7 4.7 Total 148 100.0 Tend to respond wel to a calm clasrom setting. Non-respondents 13 8.8 Generaly true for both sexes 90 60.8 *Generaly true for females 35 23.6 Generaly true for males 5 3.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 3 2.0 I am not sure 2 1.4 Total 148 100.0 Tend to lack self- motivation in the classrom. Non-respondents 14 9.5 Generaly true for both sexes 21 14.2 Generaly true for females 3 2.0 *Generaly true for males 58 39.2 Generaly not true for both sexes 37 25.0 I am not sure 15 10.1 Total 148 100.0 Tend to thrive in a mixed-sex environment. Non-respondents 15 10.1 Generaly true for both sexes 65 43.9 Generaly true for females 13 8.8 Generaly true for males 7 4.7 *Generaly not true for both sexes 31 20.9 I am not sure 17 11.5 Total 148 100.0 Tend to not speak out in the clasroom. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 21 14.2 *Generaly true for females 30 20.3 Generaly true for males 11 7.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 67 45.3 I am not sure 8 5.4 Total 148 100.0 Tend to prefer confrontation and high stimuli situations. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 5 3.4 Generaly true for females 11 7.4 *Generaly true for males 55 37.2 Generaly not true for both sexes 42 28.4 I am not sure 24 16.2 Total 148 100.0 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 7 Continues ! 73 ! Table 7 Continued Corect Answers for Remaining Sociological Prompts Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasrom. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 18 12.2 Generaly true for females 8 5.4 *Generaly true for males 90 60.8 Generaly not true for both sexes 11 7.4 I am not sure 9 6.1 Total 148 100.0 Tend to not be distracted by social, non-academic issues in the classrom. Non-respondents 11 7.4 *Generaly true for both sexes 20 13.5 Generaly true for females 12 8.1 Generaly true for males 8 5.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 90 60.8 I am not sure 7 4.7 Total 148 100.0 Tend to enjoy competition as a motivation to learn. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 81 54.7 Generaly true for females 4 2.7 *Generaly true for males 45 30.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 2 1.4 I am not sure 3 2.0 Total 148 100.0 Tend to not be agresive in nature. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 12 8.1 Generaly true for females 60 40.5 *Generaly true for males 13 8.8 Generaly not true for both sexes 34 23.0 I am not sure 17 11.5 Total 148 100.0 Tend to speak out in the clasrom. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 66 44.6 Generaly true for females 22 14.9 *Generaly true for males 29 19.6 Generaly not true for both sexes 8 5.4 I am not sure 11 7.4 Total 148 100.0 Tend to want to please the teacher. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 74 50.0 *Generaly true for females 49 33.1 Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 4 2.7 I am not sure 4 2.7 Tend to control their clasrom behavior. Non-respondents 17 11.5 Generaly true for both sexes 30 20.3 *Generaly true for females 68 45.9 Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 19 12.8 I am not sure 8 5.4 Total 148 100.0 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 7 Continues ! 74 ! Table 7 Continued Corect Answers for Remaining Sociological Prompts Statement Answer Choices Frequency Valid Percent Tend to not be distracted by social, non-academic issues in the classrom. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 20 13.5 Generaly true for females 12 8.1 Generaly true for males 8 5.4 *Generaly not true for both sexes 90 60.8 I am not sure 7 4.7 Total 148 100.0 Tend to not care about pleasing the teacher. Non-respondents 16 10.8 Generaly true for both sexes 9 6.1 Generaly true for females 4 2.7 *Generaly true for males 19 12.8 Generaly not true for both sexes 88 59.5 I am not sure 12 8.1 Total 148 100.0 Tend to like situations to remain calm with no confrontations. Non-respondents 18 12.2 Generaly true for both sexes 59 39.9 *Generaly true for females 52 35.1 Generaly true for males 5 3.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 7 4.7 I am not sure 7 4.7 Total 148 100.0 Tend to not prefer competition as a motivation to learn. Non-respondents 21 14.2 Generaly true for both sexes 10 6.8 *Generaly true for females 27 18.2 Generaly true for males 7 4.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 58 39.2 I am not sure 25 16.9 Total 148 100.0 Tend to thrive in a single-sex environment. Non-respondents 19 12.8 *Generaly true for both sexes 46 31.1 Generaly true for females 16 10.8 Generaly true for males 27 18.2 Generaly not true for both sexes 16 10.8 I am not sure 24 16.2 Total 148 100.0 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). ! 75 ! Table 8 Corect Answers of Remaining Sociological Cluster: Total Population Sociological prompt Corect answer n f % 1. Tend to be distracted by social, non-academic issues in the clasrom. Generaly true for both sexes. 138 21 15.2 2. Tend to be self-motivated in the clasrom. Generaly true for females. 136 73 53.7 3. Tend to respond wel to a calm clasrom seting. Generaly true for females. 135 35 25.9 4. Tend to lack self-motivation in the clasrom. Generaly true for males. 134 3 2.2 5. Tend to thrive in a mixed-sex environment. Generaly not true for either sex. 133 13 9.8 6. Tend to not speak out in the clasrom. Generaly true for females. 137 30 21.9 7. Tend to prefer confrontation and high stimuli situations. Generaly true for males. 137 11 8.0 8. Tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the classrom. Generaly true for males. 136 8 5.9 9. Tend to not be distracted by social, non-academic issues in the clasrom. Generaly not true for either sex. 137 12 8.8 10. Tend to enjoy competition as a motivation to learn. Generaly true for males. 135 4 3.0 11. Tend to not be agresive in nature. Generaly true for females. 136 60 44.1 12. Tend to speak out in the clasroom. Generaly true for males. 136 22 16.2 13. Tend to want to please the teacher. Generaly true for females. 137 49 35.8 14. Tend to receive more negative teacher atention for their behavior in the clasrom. Generaly true for males. 135 4 3.0 15. Tend to control their clasrom behavior. Generaly true for females. 131 68 51.9 16. Tend to not care about pleasing the teacher. Generaly true for males. 132 4 3.0 17. Tend to like situations to remain calm with no confrontations. Generaly true for females. 130 52 40.0 18. Tend to not prefer competition as a motivation to learn. Generaly true for females. 127 27 21.3 19. Tend to thrive in a single-sex environment. Generaly true for both sexes. 129 16 12.4 ! 76 ! Seven of 19 sociological prompts were statisticaly significant for at least one demographic variable. Five survey items were statisticaly significant for a single demographic variable, and two items were significant for sex of the choral director. Two prompts were only significant when respondents were grouped by sex of the director (Table 9). Table 9 Statistically Significant Variables for Sociological Prompts Afected by Sex of the Director. Prompt Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Tend to prefer confrontation and high stimuli situations. Sex of the director 137 11.989 2 .002 Tend to not be distracted by social, non-academic issues in the clasrom. Sex of the director 137 6.67 2 .036 Note: **p<.05 Table 10 shows the five prompts that showed significant diferences in diferent demographic areas. The two variables afected by the sex of the choral director were: (a) ?tend to prefer confrontation and high stimuli situations? and (b) ?tend to not be distracted by social, non-academic isues in the clasroom.? The responses to the first variable indicated that 30 females (n=87) out of the female population (34.5%) answered the prompt correctly and 25 males (n=60) out of the male population (41.7%) answered correctly. For the second one, 64.4% of the females answered correctly and 55.0% of the males answered correctly. These two prompts were not significantly significant for years of experience, level currently teaching, degrees earned, or whether they taught a single- sex choir. ! 77 ! Table 10 Sociological Prompts with Only One or Two Significant Variables. Prompt Variable n Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Tend to be distracted by social, non-academic issues in the classrom. Choral directors who teach at least one all-female choir during the schol day 48 4.120 1 .042 Tend to respond wel to a calm classrom setting. Choral directors who teach at least one all-male choir during the schol day 25 5.235 1 .02 Tend to receive negative teacher attention for their behavior in the clasroom. Graduate Student 12 8.61 2 .013 Tend to not care about pleasing the teacher. Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 15.27 2 .00 Tend to like situations to remain calm with no confrontations. Curently teach high schol 46 8.68 2 .013 Tend to like situations to remain calm with no confrontations. Years of experience 130 9.325 3 .025 Note: **p<.05 Statistical significance was found for the variable ?directors who taught at least one al-female choir during the school day? for the prompt ?tend to be distracted by social, non-academic isues in the clasroom.? Specificaly, just over 70% of directors who taught at least one al-female choir answered this prompt correctly; more answered it correctly than incorrectly. Similarly, ?directors who taught at least one al-male choir during the school day? was a significant variable for the sociological statement ?tend to respond wel to a calm clasroom seting? (Table 10). Eleven (44%) of the 25 directors who taught an al-male choir answered this prompt correctly, but more answered it incorrectly than correctly. The status of being a graduate student was a significant variable for the sociological prompt ?tend to receive negative teacher atention for their behavior in the ! 78 ! clasroom.? This significance indicated that there was a diference betwen participants who were graduate students and those who were not. Only two (17%) graduate students (n=12) answered the prompt correctly, indicating that more answered the prompt incorrectly than correctly. The final sociological prompt that showed statistical significance by a single demographic variable was ?tends to not care about pleasing the teacher.? One of two respondents (50%) whose highest earned degree was the Educational Specialist degree answered this item correctly which was significantly diferent statisticaly from those who had not earned the Education Specialist degree. There was no statistical significance for the following variables: (a) sex of the choir director, (b) level currently teaching (K-5, middle school/junior high, post-secondary, and currently not teaching), (c) degrees? earned (Bachelor?s, Master?s, Doctorate, undergraduate student, and graduate student), and (d) whether they taught a single-sex choir. The statement ?tends to like situations to remain calm with no confrontations? was significantly afected by two variables: (a) those who teach high school and (b) years of experience. There were 11 (23.9%) high school directors (n=46) who answered this prompt correctly, while 35 (76.1%) high school directors answered incorrectly. This statement was also significantly afected by years of teaching experience, no experience, 1-5 years, 6-15 years, and 16+ years. Those with the most teaching experience had the fewest percentage in that group who answered the question correctly; only 18.8% of answered it correctly. Conversely, the group of respondents who had no teaching experience had the highest percentage of respondents who answered this prompt correctly (43.9%). The group of respondents with 1-5 years of teaching experience had 34.4% ! 79 ! answer the prompt correctly and those with 6-15 years of experience had 37% answer it correctly. As a result, the null hypothesis was rejected these two variables (teaching high school and years of experience). Respondents? answers for the sociological prompt ?tend to thrive in a mixed-sex environment? were significantly diferent for five demographic variables related to participants? degree(s) earned, or for undergraduate or graduate students (Table 11). For each group of choir directors whose highest degree earned was a Bachelor?s, an Education Specialist, or a Doctorate, the null hypothesis was rejected. Three (7.1%) of the participants whose highest degree earned was a Bachelor?s answered this statement correctly. One (50%) of the 2 choral directors who had an Educational Specialist answered this statement correctly and only 1 (6.7%) of the 15 whose held Doctorate degrees answered this question correctly. Chi-square indicated that there was a significant diference betwen the other educational groups and those who had a doctorate. Undergraduate students and graduate students were also statisticaly significant for this statement ?tend to thrive in a mixed-sex environment.? Only three (7.9%) undergraduate students and two (16.7%) graduate students answered it correctly. Being an undergraduate or graduate student had a significant efect on how the statement was answered. There were no statisticaly significant diferences for the variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level of teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Master?s), and (e) whether or not a single sex choir was taught. ! 80 ! Table 1 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend To Thrive in a Mixed-Sex Classroom. Variable n Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 42 10.63 3 .014 Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 13.15 2 .001 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 15 9.41 2 .009 Undergraduate student 38 9.387 2 .009 Graduate student 12 10.160 2 .006 Note: **p<.05 Table 12 shows the variables that were statisticaly significant for the sociological prompt ?tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasroom.? The null hypothesis was rejected for al of the statisticaly significant variables listed in the table, indicating that there were diferences. There were only two (4.7%) correct answers given to the statements by directors with their Bachelor?s as their highest degree earned (n=43). Educational Specialists (n=2) only had 50% of their respondents answer correctly, and no directors who had earned a Doctorate answered the sociological statement correctly. Students currently working on their undergraduate degree (n=39) had only one person respond correctly, while graduate students (n=12) had two people respond correctly. The following variables were not statisticaly significant: (a) sex of the director, (b) years teaching, (c) current level teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Master?s), and (e) whether or not a same-sex choir was taught during the school day. ! 81 ! Table 12 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Have Outbursts and Be Rowdier in the Classroom Variable n Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 43 16.43 3 .001 Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 23.483 2 .00 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 2 16.93 2 .00 Undergraduate student 39 16.81 2 .00 Graduate student 12 19.26 2 .00 Note: **p<.05 Table 13 shows the statisticaly significant demographic variables for the statement ?tend to enjoy competition as a motivation to learn.? None of the participants in the following groups gave the correct answer for this statement: (a) teachers currently teaching K-5 (n=10), (b) post-secondary (n=25), (c) not teaching (n=42), (d) highest degre earned Educational Specialist (n=2), and (e) graduate student (n=12). Alternately, there were four variables in which one respondent answered correctly for the same prompt including: (a) currently teaching middle school (n=32), (b) high school (n=42), (c) not teaching (n=42), (d) highest degree earned Bachelor?s (n=43), (e) Doctorate (n=15), and (f) undergraduate student (n=39). However, there were no significant interactions for the following variables: (a) sex of director, (b) years of experience, (c) highest degree earned Master?s, and (d) whether or not they taught a same sex choir during the school day. ! 82 ! Table 13 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Enjoy Competition As a Motivation to Learn. Variable n Variable df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Curently teach K-5 7 33.12 2 .00 Curently teach midle schol/junior high 34 33.07 2 .00 Curently teach high schol 48 33.00 2 .00 Curently teach post-secondary 25 33.53 2 .00 Curently not teaching 42 33.00 2 .00 Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 43 33.09 3 .00 Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 33.03 2 .00 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 15 34.15 2 .00 Undergraduate student 39 33.02 2 .00 Graduate student 12 33.22 2 .00 Note: **p<.05 There were five demographic variables that were statisticaly significant for the prompt ?tend to speak out in the clasroom? (Table 14). Those variables were: (a) currently teaching middle school/junior high, (b) those not currently teaching, (c) participants who had only earned a Bachelor?s degree, (d) undergraduate students, and (e) graduate students. The null hypothesis was rejected for each of these. Only three of 32 respondents (9.4%) who taught middle school/junior high answered the statement correctly. Participants who indicated that they were not currently teaching also came up as a significant variable with 10 (30.0%) survey respondents answering correctly. Four of 43 of respondents (9.3%) whose highest earned degree was a Bachelor?s answered the prompt correctly. Finaly, within each of the following demographic areas eight (25%) undergraduate students answered correctly and three (40%) graduate students answered correctly. There were no statisticaly significant diferences for the variables: (a) sex of ! 83 ! the director, (b) years of experience, (c) current level teaching (K-5, high school, and post- secondary), (d) highest degree earned (Master?s, Educational Specialist, and Doctorate), and (e) whether they taught a same-sex choir. Table 14 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Speak Out in the Classroom Variable n Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Curently teach midle schol/junior high 34 6.74 2 .034 Currently not teaching 43 7.98 2 .019 Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 43 8.85 3 .031 Undergraduate student 40 6.05 2 .049 Graduate student 12 6.09 2 .048 Note: **p<.05 There were six statisticaly significant demographic variables for ?tend to not prefer competition as a motivation to learn? (Table 15). The null hypothesis was rejected for the following variables. Years of experience (n =127) were significant with 27 survey respondents answering this prompt correctly. Two (6.3%) participants who taught middle school/junior high (n=32) answered the statement correctly. Of the survey respondents who taught high school (n=45), four (8.9%) individuals answered the prompt correctly. ! 84 ! Table 15 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Not Prefer Competition as a Motivation to Learn Variable n Variable df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Curently teach midle schol/junior high 32 6.18 2 .046 Curently teach high schol 45 6.85 2 .03 Highest degre earned: Master?s 46 4.65 1 .031 Undergraduate student 39 7.34 2 .026 Years of experience 127 8.87 3 .031 Direct at least one al-female choir during the schol day 45 4.288 1 .038 Note: **p<.05 The prompt ?tend to thrive in a single-sex environment? had six demographic variables that were statisticaly significant (Table 16). There was failure to acept the null hypothesis for those listed variables. For the variable of sex of the director, 13.3% of the females (n=75) and 9.4% males of the males (n=53) responded to the prompt correctly. Ten percent of K-5 teachers (n=10) and 12.5% of the middle school/junior high teachers (n=32) responded correctly. High school teachers (n=45) only had 8.9% of their respondents answer the statement correctly. Respondents who taught at the post- secondary level (n=23) only had 8.7% respond correctly. Of the respondents who were currently not teaching (n=41), only two (4.9%) people answered correctly. The null hypothesis was acepted for these remaining variables: (a) years of experience, (b) highest degree earned, and (c) whether they taught a single-sex choir. ! 85 ! Table 16 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Thrive in a Single-Sex Environment Variable n Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Sex of the director 129 7.55 2 .023 Curently teach K-5 8 7.12 2 .028 Curently teach midle schol/junior high 32 7.14 2 .028 Curently teach high schol 45 7.63 2 .02 Curently teach post secondary 23 7.35 2 .025 Curently not teaching 41 12.93 2 .002 Note: **p<.05 Biological Prompts Relating to Processing There were 17 survey items related to how the brain proceses information. The frequency, percent, and correct answers are indicated in Table 17. As stated earlier, data were re-coded into nominal data (0 for false answers and 1 for true answers from respondents). The n, frequency, and valid percentage for each correct answer for each prompt are reported in Table 18. As a reminder, the number of people responding varied from question to question. For this cluster, there were only two statements in which more than half of the participants responded correctly: (a) ?tend to expres felings verbaly? and (b) ?tend to proces writen words faster.? ! 86 ! Table 17 Respondents Answers for Biological-procesing Prompts. Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory sounds. Non-respondents 15 10.1 Generaly true for both sexes 29 19.6 Generaly true for females 8 5.4 *Generaly true for males 9 6.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 2 14.9 I am not sure 65 43.9 Tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound. Non-respondents 14 9.5 Generaly true for both sexes 67 45.3 *Generaly true for females 29 19.6 Generaly true for males 3 2 Generaly not true for both sexes 9 6.1 I am not sure 26 17.6 Tend to have more areas of the brain activated when at rest. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 12 8.1 *Generaly true for females 29 19.6 Generaly true for males 15 10.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 11 7.4 I am not sure 69 46.6 Tend to atach emotion to information they receive. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 31 20.9 *Generaly true for females 89 60.1 Generaly true for males 3 2 Generaly not true for both sexes 3 2 I am not sure 11 7.4 Tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 11 7.4 Generaly true for females 21 14.2 *Generaly true for males 17 11.5 Generaly not true for both sexes 12 8.1 I am not sure 75 50.7 Tend to be sensitive to both positive and negative visual stimuli. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 83 56.1 *Generaly true for females 15 10.1 Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generally not true for both sexes 3 2 I am not sure 29 19.6 Tend to expres feling verbaly. Non-respondents 14 9.3 Generaly true for both sexes 38 25.7 *Generaly true for females 81 54.7 Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 4 2.7 I am not sure 5 3.4 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 17 Continues ! 87 ! Table 17 Continued Respondents Answers for Biological-procesing Prompts. Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to proces writen words faster. Non-respondents 17 11.5 Generaly true for both sexes 12 8.1 *Generaly true for females 70 47.3 Generaly true for males 7 4.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 5 3.4 I am not sure 37 25 Tend to have dificulty procesing lip-reading into and auditory sound. Non-respondents 16 10.8 Generaly true for both sexes 11 7.4 Generaly true for females 4 2.7 *Generaly true for males 18 12.2 Generaly not true for both sexes 47 31.8 I am not sure 52 35.1 Tend to utilize language and auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory patterns. Non-respondents 19 12.8 Generaly true for both sexes 32 21.6 *Generaly true for females 22 14.9 Generaly true for males 4 2.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 2 1.4 I am not sure 69 46.6 Tend to refrain from expresing feling verbaly. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 20 13.5 Generaly true for females 7 4.7 *Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 71 48 I am not sure 32 21.6 Tend to proces information and emotion in both hemispheres of the brain. Non-respondents 19 12.8 Generaly true for both sexes 26 17.6 *Generaly true for females 16 10.8 Generaly true for males 5 3.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 3 2 I am not sure 79 53.4 Tend to have no brain activity during verbal stimuli that they deem not important. Non-respondents 19 12.8 Generaly true for both sexes 20 13.5 Generaly true for females 4 2.7 *Generaly true for males 24 16.2 Generaly not true for both sexes 23 15.5 I am not sure 58 39.2 Tend to atach no emotion to the information they receive. Non-respondents 19 12.8 Generaly true for both sexes 4 2.7 Generaly true for females 1 0.7 *Generaly true for males 50 33.8 Generally not true for both sexes 55 37.2 I am not sure 19 12.8 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 17 Continues ! 88 ! Table 17 Continued Respondents Answers for Biological-procesing Prompts. Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to be sensitive to positive visual stimuli. Non-respondents 21 14.2 Generaly true for both sexes 80 54.1 *Generaly true for females 11 7.4 Generaly true for males 8 5.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 2 1.4 I am not sure 26 17.6 Tend to show brain activity even when they deem the verbal stimuli not important. Non-respondents 19 12.8 Generaly true for both sexes 28 18.9 *Generaly true for females 21 14.2 Generaly true for males 3 2 Generaly not true for both sexes 11 7.4 I am not sure 66 44.6 Tend to have more areas of the brain activated when they proces information. Non-respondents 19 12.8 Generaly true for both sexes 33 22.3 *Generaly true for females 28 18.9 Generaly true for males 2 1.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 4 2.7 I am not sure 62 41.9 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 18 Corect Answers of Pedagogical Sociological Cluster: Total Population Prompt Corect Answer n f % 1. Tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns. Generaly true for males. 133 8 6.0 2. Tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound. Generaly true for females. 134 29 21.6 3. Tend to have more areas of the brain activated when they are resting. Generaly true for females. 136 29 21.3 4. Tend to atach emotion to information they receive. Generaly true for females. 137 89 65.0 5. Tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain. Generaly true for males. 136 17 12.5 6. Tend to be sensitive to both positive and negative visual stimuli. Generaly true for males. 126 6 4.8 7. Tend to expres felings verbaly. Generaly true for females. 134 81 60.4 8. Tend to proces writen words faster. Generaly true for females. 131 70 53.4 9. Tend to have dificulty procesing lip-reading into an auditory sound. Generaly true for males. 132 18 13.6 10. Tend to utilize language and auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns. Generaly true for females. 129 2 17.1 Note: **p<.05 Table 18 continues ! 89 ! Table 18 Continued Corect Answers of Pedagogical Sociological Cluster: Total Population Prompt Corect Answer n f % 11. Tend to refrain from expresing felings verbaly. Generaly true for males. 128 71 55.4 12. Tend to proces information and emotion in both hemispheres of the brain. Generaly true for females. 129 16 12.4 13. Tend to have no brain activity during verbal stimuli that they dem not important. Generaly true for males. 129 24 18.6 14. Tend to atach no emotion to the information they receive. Generaly true for males. 129 50 38.8 15. Tend to be sensitive to positive visual stimuli. Generaly true for both sexes. 127 11 8.7 16. Tend to show brain activity even when they dem the verbal stimuli not important. Generaly true for females. 129 21 16.3 17. Tend to have more areas of the brain activated when they proces information. Generaly true for females. 129 28 21.7 Note: **p<.05 Various demographic variables were statisticaly significant for 10 of the 17 statements. Demographic variables that significantly afected four of the biological prompts included: (a) ?tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound,? (b) ?tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain,? (c) ?tend to proces writen words faster,? and (d) ?tend to refrain from expresing felings verbaly? (Table 19). ! 90 ! Table 19 Statistically Significant Variables for: Biological-procesing Prompts Afected by One or Two Demographic Variables Prompts Variables n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound. Directors who teach at least one all-male choir during the schol day 27 3.931 1 .047 Tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain. Sex of the director 135 7.117 2 .028 Tend to proces writen words faster. Highest Earned Degre: Master?s 47 4.138 1 .042 Tend to refrain from expresing felings verbaly. Curently teaching high schol 44 6.312 2 .043 Tend to refrain from expressing feelings verbaly. Highest degre earned: Master?s 46 9.962 1 .002 Note: **p<.05 The null hypothesis was rejected for the statement ?tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound? for directors who taught at least one male choir during the day. Only two (7.4%) directors that taught at least one male choir a day (n=27) answered correctly. There were no statisticaly significant diferences found for the following remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they taught an al-female choir. Sex of the director was statisticaly significant for the statement ?tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain.? Nine of 80 females (11.3%) and seven of 55 males (12.7%) answered correctly. The data indicated that there was no statistical significance found for the remaining following variables: (a) years of experience, (b) level currently teaching, (c) highest degree earned, and (d) whether they taught a same-sex choir. ! 91 ! The prompt ?tend to proces writen words faster? was significantly afected by the variable of highest degree earned: Master?s. There were no respondents who answered this statement correctly; therefore the null hypothesis was rejected. There was no statistical significance found for the following remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s, Educational Specialist, Doctorate, undergraduate student, and graduate student) and (e) whether they taught a same-sex choir. The final statement that was significantly significant in regards to the demographic variables was ?tend to refrain from expresing felings verbaly.? Of the 44 participants who were currently teaching high school, 18 (40.9%) responded correctly, while directors whose highest degree earned was a Master?s had 17 of the total 46 (37.0%) people answer correctly. The null hypothesis was rejected overal for this variable indicating there was a diference betwen respondents who currently teach high school and those who do not, and for those who had a Master?s degree and those who did not (or who had a higher level degree). There was were no statisticaly significant diferences found for the following remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching (K-5, middle school/junior high, post- secondary, and currently not teaching), (d) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s, Educational Specialist, Doctorate, undergraduate student, and graduate student), and (e) whether they taught a same-sex choir. The prompt ?tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns? was statisticaly significant for six demographic variables, which can be found in Table 20. The null hypothesis was rejected for each of the variables listed. ! 92 ! Directors with the Bachelor?s as the highest degree earned (n=43) was a statisticaly significant variable. Four (9.3%) directors answered this prompt correctly. None of the directors whose highest degree was Educational Specialist (n=2), answered the statement correctly. Table 20 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Utilize Only Auditory Areas of the Brain When Analyzing Auditory Paterns Variable N value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 43 16.963 3 .001 Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 14.000 2 .001 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 14 14.794 2 .001 Undergraduate student 39 14.116 2 .001 Graduate student 12 13.990 2 .001 Directors who teach at least one al-female choir during the day 47 4.146 1 .042 Note: **p<.05 Respondents who had their Doctorate (n=14) and undergraduate students (n=39) had statisticaly significant responses to the variables for the prompt ?tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns.? There were no individuals with an earned Doctorate who answered this prompt correctly and three (7.7%) undergraduate students who answered it correctly. One (8.3%) graduate student (n=12) answered the statement correctly. Only six choral directors who currently teach at least one al-female choir (n=47, 12.8%) responded correctly to the statement. There were no significant for the following remaining variables related to this statement: (a) sex of the ! 93 ! director, (b) years of experience, (c) highest degree earned (Master?s), and (d) whether they taught an al-male choir. There were six demographic variables that were statisticaly significant for the biological-procesing statement ?tend to be sensitive to both positive and negative visual stimuli? (Table 21). The first, sex of the director, had two (2.5%) females (n=81) and three (5.6%) males (n=54) who answered correctly. No one answered the prompt correctly of the directors who indicated they taught K-5 (n=8). Middle school/junior high directors (n=34) had only one person (2.9%) respond with the correct answer and high school directors (n=48) had only one person (2.1%) respond correctly. Respondents who were currently teaching post-secondary (n=24) had two (8.3%) people answer correctly, and those not teaching (n=43) had three (7.0%) people answer correctly. There were no statisticaly significant diferences found for the following remaining variables: (a) years of experience, (b) highest degree earned, and (c) whether or not they teach a single-sex choir. The prompt ?tend to have dificulty procesing lip-reading into an auditory sound? had four demographic variables that showed statistical significance (Table 22). Of the survey respondents who indicated their highest degree was an Educational Specialist (n=2), no one responded correctly to the statement. Individuals whose highest degree was a Doctorate (n=14) had only two (14.3%) correct answers. Undergraduate and graduate students comprised the final two variables in which the null hypothesis was rejected for this statement. Undergraduate students (n=40) only had seven (17.5%) people respond correctly, while none of the graduate students (n=12) answered the statement correctly. The following remaining demographic variables showed no statistical significance: (a) ! 94 ! sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s and Master?s), and (e) whether they taught a same-sex choir. Table 21 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to be Sensitive to Both Positive and Negative Visual Stimuli Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Sex of the director 135 22.559 2 .00 Curently teaching K-5 8 22.104 2 .00 Curently teaching midle schol/junior high 34 21.890 2 .00 Curently teaching high schol 48 22.291 2 .00 Curently teaching post secondary 24 23.311 2 .00 Curently not teaching 43 23.430 2 .00 Note: **p<.05 Table 2 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Have Dificulty Procesing Lip-Reading into an Auditory Sound Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 6.672 2 .036 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 14 6.404 2 .041 Undergraduate student 40 7.382 2 .081 Graduate student 12 8.271 2 .016 Note: **p<.05 The statement ?tend to proces information and emotion in both hemispheres of the brain? had five demographic variables that were statisticaly significant (Table 23) and the null hypothesis was rejected for each of them. Responses given by those ! 95 ! respondents whose highest degree was a Bachelor?s (n=40) was the first statisticaly significant variable. There were only three (7.5%) individuals who correctly responded to this statement. There were no correct answers given by respondents who indicated that their highest degree was an Educational Specialist (n=2) and Doctorate (n=14). Undergraduate students (n=40, 2.5%) and graduate students (n=12, 8.3%) had only one person who answered the statement correctly, The following remaining demographic variables were not statisticaly significant: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) current level teaching, and (d) highest degree earned (Master?s), and (e) whether they taught a same-sex choir. Table 23 Statistically Significant Variables for Tend to Proces Information and Emotion in Both Hemispheres of the Brain Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 40 22.997 3 .00 Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 25.047 2 .00 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 14 25.406 2 .00 Undergraduate student 40 25.055 2 .00 Graduate student 12 25.958 2 .00 Note: **p<.05 There were five demographic variables that were statisticaly significant for the statement ?tend to atach no emotion to the information they receive? (Table 24) and the null hypothesis was rejected. The first variable was years of experience. For directors who had 1-5 years of secondary choral experience (n=30), eight (26.7%) individuals ! 96 ! responded correctly, 6-15 years of experience (n=22) seven (31.8%) individuals answered correctly, 16+ years of experience (n=30) nine (30%) individuals answered correctly, and those with no years of secondary choral experience (n=47) 26 (55.3%) individuals answered correctly. There were 24 (58.5%) correct responses given by directors currently not teaching (n=41). Table 24 Statistically Significant Variables for Tend to Atach No Emotion to the Information They Receive Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Years of experience 129 8.694 3 .034 Curently teaching: Not curently teaching 41 12.019 2 .002 Highest degre earned: Master?s 47 5.450 1 .020 Undergraduate student 40 10.646 3 .005 Teach at least one al-female choir during the schol day 45 4.258 1 .039 Note: *p<.05 The following variables in the category ?highest degree earned? were statisticaly significant. Survey participants who indicated that their highest degree was a Master?s (n=47) had 12 (35.5%) people who answered correctly. Undergraduate students (n=40) had 23 (57.5%) individuals who answered correctly. The final demographic variable afecting this statement was directors who taught at least one al-female choir (n=45) during the school day. There were 12 (26.7%) individuals who answered this prompt correctly. The data indicated there were no statisticaly significant diferences for the following remaining demographic variables: (a) sex of director, (b) level currently teaching (K-5, middle school/junior high, high school, and post-secondary), (c) highest ! 97 ! degree earned (Bachelor?s, Educational Specialist, Doctorate, and graduate student), and (d) whether they taught an al-male choir during the school day. The prompt ?tend to be sensitive to positive visual stimuli? was significantly afected by five demographic variables (Table 25). The null hypothesis was rejected for al of these demographic variables (currently teaching: k-5, middle school/Jr. high, high school, post secondary, not teaching). The following three demographic variables had only a person answer correctly: directors currently teaching K-5 (n=8, 12.5%), directors currently teaching middle school/junior high (n=31, 3.2%), and directors currently teaching post-secondary (n=23, 4.3%). There were three correct answers given by directors teaching high school (n=45, 6.7%) and two correct answers given by individuals not currently teaching (n=40, 5%). There were no statisticaly significant diferences found for the following demographic variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) highest degree earned, and (d) whether they taught a same sex choir. Table 25 Statistically Significant Variables for Tend to Be Sensitive to Positive Visual Stimuli Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Curently teaching: K-5 8 15.691 2 .00 Curently teaching: Midle schol/junior high 31 15.371 2 .00 Curently teaching: High schol 45 15.129 2 .001 Curently teaching: Post-secondary 23 15.463 2 .00 Curently not teaching 40 15.024 2 .001 Note: **p<.05 ! 98 ! Biological Prompts Al of the other remaining biological prompts were categorized together. Statistics and correct answers for those prompts were reported in Table 26. Table 27 shows the frequency and percent for the population for those who answered correctly. There were five statements in which more than half of the participants responded correctly. The other biological prompts were analyzed for the frequency and valid percent of correct answers for the entire surveyed population. As a reminder, the n is not constant because not every survey respondent answered every statement. There were six prompts in which more than 50% of the survey participants answered correctly: (a) ?tend to experience voice change isues,? (b) ?tend to experience drastic voice change isues during puberty,? (c) ?tend to have high levels of testosterone,? (d) ?tend to have no voice change isues,? (e) ?tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty,? and ?tend to have high levels of estrogen.? Table 26 Respondents? Answers to Remaining Biological Prompts (N=148) Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to experience voice change issues. Non-respondents 7 4.7 *Generaly true for both sexes 88 59.5 Generaly true for females 2 1.4 Generaly true for males 45 30.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 3 2.0 I am not sure 3 2.0 Tend to have no dificulty hearing female teachers. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 56 37.8 *Generaly true for females 23 15.5 Generaly true for males 4 2.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 12 8.1 I am not sure 42 28.4 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 26 Continues ! 99 ! Table 26 Continued Respondents? Answers to Remaining Biological Prompts (N=148) Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to have a weaker sense of hearing. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 8 5.4 Generaly true for females 6 4.1 *Generaly true for males 32 21.6 Generaly not true for both sexes 47 31.8 I am not sure 43 29.1 Tend to be sensitive to light levels. Non-respondents 16 10.8 Generaly true for both sexes 15 10.1 Generaly true for females 10 6.8 *Generaly true for males 6 4.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 36 24.3 I am not sure 65 43.9 Tend to experience drastic voice change issues during puberty. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 11 7.4 Generaly true for females 0 0.0 *Generaly true for males 120 81.1 Generaly not true for both sexes 0 0.0 I am not sure 6 4.1 Tend to have high levels of testosterone. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 6 4.1 Generaly true for females 3 2.0 *Generally true for males 119 80.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 0 0.0 I am not sure 9 6.1 Tend to have dificulty hearing female teachers. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 4 2.7 Generaly true for females 2 1.4 *Generaly true for males 29 19.6 Generaly not true for both sexes 49 33.1 I am not sure 52 35.1 Tend to have no voice change issues. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 2 4.1 Generaly true for females 28 18.9 Generaly true for males 1 .7 *Generaly not true for both sexes 98 66.2 I am not sure 8 5.4 Tend to experience minimal voice change issues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 6 4.1 *Generaly true for females 69 46.6 Generaly true for males 5 3.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 45 30.4 I am not sure 12 8.1 Tend to have high levels of estrogen. Non-respondents 12 8.1 Generaly true for both sexes 3 2.0 *Generaly true for females 120 81.1 Generaly true for males 0 0.0 Generaly not true for both sexes 4 2.7 I am not sure 9 6.1 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 26 Continues ! 100 ! Table 26 Continued Respondents? Answers to Remaining Biological Prompts (N=148) Statement Answer Choices f % Tend to be sensitive to light levels. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 19 12.8 Generaly true for females 5 3.4 *Generaly true for males 7 4.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 24 16.2 I am not sure 82 55.4 Tend to experience hormone releases several times a day. Non-respondents 11 7.4 Generaly true for both sexes 53 35.8 Generaly true for females 14 9.5 *Generaly true for males 4 2.7 Generaly not true for both sexes 0 0.0 I am not sure 6 44.6 Tend to have a stronger sense of hearing. Non-respondents 16 10.8 Generaly true for both sexes 24 16.2 *Generaly true for females 48 32.4 Generaly true for males 2 1.4 Generaly not true for both sexes 9 6.1 I am not sure 48 32.4 Note: Corect answers are marked with an asterisk (*). Table 27 Corect Answers For Remaining Biological Cluster: Total Population Prompt Corect Answer n f % 1. Tend to experience voice change isues. Generaly true for both sexes. 141 88 62.4 2. Tend to have no difficulty hearing female teachers. Generaly true for females. 137 23 16.8 3. Tend to have a weaker sense of hearing. Generaly true for males. 136 32 23.5 4. Tend to be sensitive to light levels. Generaly true for males. 132 6 4.5 5. Tend to experience drastic voice change issues during puberty. Generaly true for males. 137 120 87.6 6. Tend to have high levels of testosterone. Generaly true for males. 137 119 86.9 7. Tend to have dificulty hearing female teachers. Generaly true for males. 136 29 21.3 8. Tend to have no voice change isues. Generaly not true for either sex. 137 98 71.5 9. Tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty. Generaly true for females. 137 69 50.4 10. Tend to have high levels of estrogen. Generaly true for females. 136 120 81.1 11. Tend to be sensitive to light levels. Generaly true for males. 137 7 4.7 12. Tend to experience hormone releases several times a day. Generaly true for males. 137 4 2.7 13. Tend to have a strong sense of hearing. Generaly true for females. 131 48 32.4 ! 101 ! A Chi-square analysis was conducted for each of the biological prompts. Seven of the prompts were significantly afected by one or two diferent demographic variables. The null hypothesis was rejected for these prompts (Table 28). Table 28 Statistically Significant Variables for Remaining Biological Prompts Afected by One or Two Demographic Variables Prompts n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Tend to have higher levels of testosterone. Directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the schol day. 48 5.687 1 .017 Tend to have no voice change issues. Directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the schol day. 48 4.563 1 .03 Tend to have dificulty hearing female teachers. Teachers curently teaching K-5 8 7.140 2 .028 Tend to have a weaker sense of hearing. Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 10.037 2 .007 Tend to experience voice change issues. Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 3.931 2 .00 Directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the schol day. 48 34.247 2 .00 Tend to experience minimal voice change issues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty. Directors who teach at least one all- female choir during the schol day. 48 4.892 1 .027 Directors who teach at least one al- male choir during the schol day. 27 3.936 1 .047 Tend to have high levels of testosterone. Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 21.671 2 .00 Directors who teach at least one al- male choir during the schol day. 27 4.078 1 .043 Note. **p<.05 With regard to the statement ?tend to have high levels of testosterone,? three (6.3%) directors teaching at least one al-female choir during the school day (n=48) responded correctly. The data showed no statistical significance for the following ! 102 ! remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they taught an all-male choir. Directing an al-female choir and highest degree earned: Educational Specialist were statisticaly significant for the statement ?tend to experience voice change isues.? Two respondents who direct an al-female choir answered this prompt correctly (n=48, 4.2%). There were no statistical diferences found for the following remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they taught an al-male choir. Highest degree earned: Educational Specialist was the other demographic variable that was statisticaly significant (50%, n=2). There was a 100% chance that a Type I error did not occur for this variable; therefore the null hypothesis was rejected. There were no statistical diferences found for the following variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s, Master?s, Doctorate, undergraduate student, and graduate student), and (e) directors who taught an all-male choir. Eighten of 48 (38.0%) respondents who indicated they taught at least one al- female choir, and nine (33.0%) of the 27 participants who indicated they taught an al- male choir correctly answered the prompt ?tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth through puberty.? There were no statisticaly significant diferences for the following remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) current level teaching, and (d) highest degree earned. The variable, ?directors who taught at least one female choir? was shown to be statisticaly significant for the statement ?tend to have no voice change isues.? Five ! 103 ! (10%, n=48) respondents answered the prompt correctly. The data for this statement indicated that there were no statisticaly significant diferences for the following remaining demographic variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) directors who taught at least one male choir. The prompt ?tend to have high levels of testosterone? showed statistical significance for teachers whose highest degree was Educational Specialist. Half (50%, n=2) of the respondents answered the statements correctly. Teachers who taught an al- male choir demonstrated statistical significance for this prompt. Two participants (7.4%, n=27) answered this statement correctly. There were no statisticaly significant diferences found for the following remaining variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s, Master?s, Doctorate, undergraduate student, and graduate student), and (e) whether they taught an al-female choir. The demographic characteristic of currently teaching K-5 was a statisticaly significant variable for the statement, ?tend to have dificulty hearing female teachers.? There was one correct response (12.5%, n=8) to this prompt. There was a lack of statistical significance for the following remaining demographic variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching (middle school/junior high, high school, post-secondary, and currently not teaching), (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they taught a same-sex choir. The biological prompt ?tend to have a weaker sense of hearing? was statisticaly significant for the variable of sex of the director. Females (5.0%, n=80) tended to have a ! 104 ! slightly higher percentage of correct answers than males (3.6%, n=55). There was a lack of statistical significance for the following remaining variables: (a) years of experience, (b) level currently teaching, (c) highest degree earned, and (d) whether they taught a same-sex choir. The statement ?tend to experience hormone releases several times a day? had six demographic variables that were statisticaly significant (Table 29). The first statisticaly significant variable was years of experience (n=137). Teachers who indicated that they have been teaching for 1-5 years had one respondent who answered the prompt correctly (3.2%, n=31), those teaching 6-15 years had no one who answered the statement correctly (n=26), teachers with 16+ years had four people who responded correctly (12.5%, n=32), and participants who are not currently teaching had nine people who responded with the right answer (18.8%, n=48). There was one correct answer given by respondents who indicated their highest degree was a Bachelor?s (2.3%, n=2). There were no correct answers for the respondents who held an Educational Specialist as their highest degree (n=2). Respondents whose highest degree was a Doctorate (n=15) also had no one who answered the prompt correctly. Undergraduate students (n=40) had eight people (20.0%) answer the statement correctly. Graduate students (n=12) only had one respondent (8.3%) answer the prompt correctly. There was a lack of statistical significance for the following remaining demographic variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) currently level teaching, (c) highest degree earned (Master?s), and (d) whether they taught a same-sex choir. ! 105 ! Table 29 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Experience Hormone Releases Several Times a Day Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Years of experience 137 8.601 3 .035 Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 43 12.726 3 .005 Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 9.052 2 .01 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 15 10.529 2 .005 Undergraduate student 40 15.584 2 .00 Graduate student 12 8.872 2 .012 Note: **p<.05 The final remaining biological prompt to be analyzed was ?tend to be sensitive to light levels.? There were four demographic variables that were statisticaly significant for this statement which are listed in Table 30. The null hypothesis was rejected for each of these. There were no correct responses given by participants whose highest degree were an Educational Specialist (n=2). Additionaly, there were two correct responses given by respondents whose highest degree was a Doctorate (13.3%, n=15), and respondents who were undergraduate students (5.4%, n=37). Furthermore there were no correct answers given by respondents who were graduate students (n=10). There was a lack of statistical significance for the following remaining demographic variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned (Bachelor?s and Master?s), and (d) whether they taught a same-sex choir. ! 106 ! Table 30 Statistically Significant Variables for: Tend to Be Sensitive to Light Levels Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Highest degre earned: Educational Specialist 2 12.430 2 .002 Highest degre earned: Doctorate 15 13.304 2 .001 Undergraduate student 37 12.451 2 .002 Graduate student 10 13.023 2 .001 Note: **p<.05 Nul Hypothesis Two Null Hypothesis two stated there wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) whether or not they teach a same-sex choir (male and/or female), (d) highest degree earned, and (e) current teaching level. There were two statements at the end of the survey that pertained specificaly to this research question: ?secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences,? and ?I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available.? Each statement had the following answer choices: (a) strongly disagree, (b) disagree, (c) neither agree nor disagree, (d) agree, and (e) strongly agree which were then recoded to create three categories: 1= disagree, 3= neutral, and 5= agree. Table 31 has the frequencies and valid percentages for each of the statements showing that over half of the respondents agreed with both statements. To determine whether or not the null hypothesis would be rejected, one-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of sex of the director, years of experience, and whether or not they teach a same-sex choir to respondents? answers for each statement. Those results are reported below. ! 107 ! Table 31 Frequencies and Valid Percentages for Nul Hypothesis Two Statements Answer N f % Secondary choral teachers ned more knowledge about sex diferences. Non-respondents 148 18 12.2 Disagre 148 11 7.5 Neutral 148 26 17.6 Agre 148 99 62.8 I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available. Non-respondents 148 21 14.2 Disagre 148 21 14.2 Neutral 148 18 12.2 Agre 148 88 59.4 Statement One: Secondary Choral Directors Ned More Knowledge of Sex Differences As previously mentioned, respondents had 5 answer choices that were then recoded into three categories disagree, neutral, and agree. One-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of three variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) whether or not they teach a same-sex choir (male and/or female), (d) highest degree earned, and (e) current teaching level to respondents? answers to the statement ?Secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences.? The alpha level adopted for these analyses was .05. Sex of director, years of experience, and teaching same-sex choir(s). Table 32 shows the ANOVA data for sex of the director, years experience, and teaching same-sex choirs. Data indicated there were no significant diferences betwen participants for their agreement levels (disagree, neutral, agree) and sex of the director [F(5, 142)=1.572, p=.172], or years of experience [F(5, 142)=.445, p=.861]. Similarly, there were no significant diferences betwen participants for their agreement levels (disagree, neutral, agree) and teaching at least one al-female choir [F(5, 142)=1.126, p=.349], and teaching ! 108 ! at least one al-male choir [F(5, 142)=.831, p=.530]. The null hypothesis was acepted for these variables and statement one. Table 32 ANOVA for Secondary Choral Directors Need More Knowledge About Sex Diferences and the Variables Sex of Director, Years of Experience, Teach at Least One Al-female Choir, and Teach at Least One All-male Choir Variable SS df MS F P Sex of the Director Betwen Groups 1.966 5 .393 1.572 .172 Within Groups 35.514 142 .250 Total 37.480 147 Years of Experience Betwen Groups 3.152 5 .630 .445 .816 Within Groups 201.038 142 1.416 Total 204.189 147 All-female Choir Betwen Groups 1.237 5 .247 1.126 .349 Within Groups 31.196 142 .220 Total 32.432 147 All-male Choir Betwen Groups .641 5 .128 .831 .530 Within Groups 21.296 138 .154 Total 21.938 143 Note **p<.05 Highest degre earned. One-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of highest degree earned to respondents? answers to the statement ?secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences? (Table 33). There were no significant efects at the p<.05 level betwen respondents? agreement levels (disagree, neutral, agree) and the following variables: highest degree earned: Bachelor?s, [F(5, 142)=.730, p=.602], highest degree earned: Master?s [F(5, 142)=.1.291, p=.271], highest degree earned: Educational Specialist [F(5, 142)=.390, p=.855], and Doctorate [F(5, 142)=1.030, p=.403]. Likewise, there were no significant efects at the p<.05 level for undergraduate students [F(5, 142)=.170, p=.973] or graduate students ! 109 ! [F(5, 142)=.411, p=.841] for the three answers for this statement. The null hypothesis was acepted for these variables and statement one. Table 3 ANOVA for Secondary Choral Teachers Need More Knowledge About Sex Diferences and the Variable Highest Degre Earned Variable SS df MS F p Bachelors Betwen Groups 1.043 5 0.209 0.73 0.602 Within Groups 40.599 142 0.286 Total 41.642 147 Masters Betwen Groups 1.503 5 0.301 1.291 0.271 Within Groups 33.058 142 0.233 Total 24.561 147 Educational Specialist Betwen Groups 0.08 5 0.016 0.39 0.855 Within Groups 5.812 142 0.041 Total 5.892 147 Doctorate Betwen Groups 0.623 5 0.125 1.03 0.403 Within Groups 17.188 142 0.121 Total 17.811 147 Undergraduate Betwen Groups 0.203 5 0.041 0.17 0.973 Within Groups 33.872 142 0.239 Total 34.074 147 Graduate Betwen Groups 0.221 5 0.044 0.411 0.841 Within Groups 15.259 142 0.107 Total 15.48 147 Note. p<.05 significance level. Curent level teaching. A one-way betwen subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare the efect of current level teaching to respondents? answers to the statement ?secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences? (Table 33). Data revealed no significant efects at the p<.05 level betwen respondents? agreement levels ! 110 ! (disagree, neutral, agree) and the following variables: (a) current level teaching: K-5 when considering agreement level (disagree, neutral, or agree) [F(5, 142)=.417, p=.417], (b) current level teaching: middle school/junior high [F(5, 142)=.943, p=.455], current level teaching: high school [F(5, 142)=1.316, p=.261], (c) current level teaching: post- secondary [F(5, 142)=.314, p=.904], and (d) current level teaching: not teaching [F(5, 142)=.810, p=.545]. Table 34 ANOVA for Secondary Choral Teachers Ned More Knowledge About Sex Diferences and Curent Level Teaching Variable SS df MS F p K-5 Betwen Groups .445 5 .089 .417 .417 Within Groups 12.582 142 .089 Total 13.027 147 Midle/Jr. High Betwen Groups .939 5 .18 .943 .45 Within Groups 28.304 142 .19 Total 29.243 147 High Schol Betwen Groups 1.554 5 .31 1.316 .261 Within Groups 33.554 142 .236 Total 35.108 147 Post Secondary Betwen Groups .276 5 .05 .314 .904 Within Groups 25.041 142 .176 Total 25.318 147 Not Teaching Betwen Groups .998 5 .20 .810 .545 Within Groups 35.022 142 .247 Total 36.020 147 Note: *p<.05 Statement Two: I Would Attend Profesional Development Regarding Sex Differences if it was Available As previously mentioned, respondents had 5 answer choices that were then recoded into three categories disagree, neutral, and agree. One-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of three variables: (a) sex of the director, ! 111 ! (b) years of experience, (c) whether or not they teach a same-sex choir (male and/or female), (d) highest degree earned, and (e) current teaching level to respondents? answers to the statement ?I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available.? The alpha level adopted for these analyses was .05. Sex of director, years of experience, and teaching same-sex choir(s). One-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of sex of the director, years of experience, and whether or not choral directors teach a same-sex choir to respondents? answers to the statement, ?I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available? (Table 35). Data showed no significant efects at the p<.05 level betwen respondents? agreement levels (disagree, neutral, agree) and the following variables: (a) sex of the director, [F(5, 142)=.574, p=.719], (b) years of experience [F(5, 142)=1.105, p=.360], (c) directors who taught at least one al-female clas during their school day [F(5, 142)=1.587, p=.167], and (d) directors who taught at least one al-male choir during their school day [F(5, 142)=1.278, p=.277). ! 112 ! Table 35 ANOVA for I Would Attend Profesional Development Regarding Sex Diferences if it were Available and the Variables Sex of the Director, Years of Experience, and Directing at Least One Same-Sex Choir Variable SS df MS F p Sex of the Director Betwen Groups 0.743 5 0.149 0.574 0.719 Within Groups 36.737 142 0.259 Total 37.48 147 Years of Experience Betwen Groups 7.647 5 1.529 1.105 0.36 Within Groups 199.542 142 1.384 Total 204.189 147 All-female Choir Betwen Groups 1.717 5 0.343 1.587 0.167 Within Groups 30.716 142 0.216 Total 32.432 147 All-male Choir Betwen Groups 0.971 5 0.194 1.278 0.277 Within Groups 20.966 138 0.152 Total 21.938 143 Note: **p<.05 Highest degre earned. One-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of highest degree earned to respondents? answers to the statement ?I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available? (Table 36). There were no significant efects at the p<.05 level betwen respondents? agreement levels (disagree, neutral, agree) and the following variables: (a) highest degree earned: Bachelor?s when considering agreement level (disagree, neutral, or agree) [F(5, 142)=.673, p=.644], (b) highest degree earned: Master?s [F(5, 142)=.402, p=.847], (c) highest degree earned: Educational Specialist [F(5, 142)=.430, p=.827], (d) highest degree earned: Doctorate [F(5, 142)=.997, p=.422], (e) undergraduate students [F(5, 142)=.407, p=.843], and (f) graduate student [F(5, 142)=1.389, p=.232]. Therefore, the null hypothesis fails to be rejected for each of these variables. ! 113 ! Table 36 ANOVA for I Would Attend Profesional Development Regarding Sex Diferences if it were Available and the Variable Highest Degre Earned Variable SS df MS F p Bachelors Betwen Groups 0.964 5 0.193 0.673 0.644 Within Groups 40.678 142 0.286 Total 41.642 147 Masters Betwen Groups 0.482 5 0.096 0.402 0.847 Within Groups 34.079 142 0.24 Total 24.561 147 Educational Specialist Betwen Groups 0.088 5 0.018 0.43 0.827 Within Groups 5.804 142 0.041 Total 5.892 147 Doctorate Betwen Groups 0.604 5 0.121 0.997 0.422 Within Groups 17.207 142 0.121 Total 17.811 147 Undergraduate Betwen Groups 0.481 5 0.096 0.407 0.843 Within Groups 33.593 142 0.237 Total 34.074 147 Graduate Betwen Groups 0.722 5 0.144 1.389 0.232 Within Groups 14.758 142 0.104 Total 15.48 147 Note: **p<.05 Curent teaching level. One-way betwen subjects ANOVAs were conducted to compare the efect of current level teaching to respondents? answers to the statement ?I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available? (Table 37). There were no significant efects at the p<.05 level betwen respondents? agreement levels (disagree, neutral, agree) and the following variables: current level teaching: K-5 when considering agreement level (disagree, neutral, or agree) [F(5, 142)=.376, p=.864], current level teaching: middle school/junior high, [F(5, 142)=1.067, p=.382], current level teaching: high school [F(5, 142)=.1.007, p=.416], current level teaching: post-secondary [F(5, 142)=.898, p=.484], and current level teaching: not ! 114 ! teaching [F(5, 142)=1.384, p=.234]. Therefore, there was a lack of statistical significance for each of these variables. Table 37 ANOVA for I Would Attend Profesional Development Regarding Sex Diferences if it were Available and the Variable Curent Level Teaching Variable SS df MS F p K-5 Betwen Groups 0.17 5 0.034 0.376 0.864 Within Groups 12.857 142 0.091 Total 13.027 147 Midle/Jr. High Betwen Groups 1.058 5 0.212 1.067 0.382 Within Groups 28.185 142 0.198 Total 29.243 147 High Schol Betwen Groups 1.202 5 0.24 1.007 0.416 Within Groups 33.906 142 0.239 Total 35.108 147 Post Secondary Betwen Groups 0.776 5 0.155 0.898 0.484 Within Groups 24.542 142 0.173 Total 25.318 147 Not Teaching Betwen Groups 1.674 5 0.335 1.384 0.234 Within Groups 34.346 142 0.242 Total 36.02 147 Note: *p<.05 Overall Result The majority of the participants? agreed with each of the statements regarding the need for more training and more knowledge regarding sex diferences. Furthermore, there was a lack of statistical significance for any of the demographic variables. Nul Hypothesis Thre The final null hypothesis stated there wil be no diference in regards to which sex directors prefer to work with based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs ! 115 ! and those who do not. Participants had the option of choosing which choir they preferred to work with. The options were mixed sex choir, al-female choir, or al-male choir. There were 148 people who responded to the question with 13 (8.8%) who chose not to indicate if they preferred al-female choirs, and 14 (9.5%) choosing not to indicate if they preferred al-male choirs. There were 61 (41.2%) survey respondents who indicated they preferred teaching an al-female choir, while 49 (33.1%) preferred teaching an al-male choir (Table 37). Table 38 Participants Preference of Same-Sex Choirs (N=148) Prompt Responses n % Prefer to work with an al-female choir Non-respondents 13 8.8 Yes 61 41.2 No 74 50.0 Prefer to work with an al-male choir. Non-respondents 14 9.5 Yes 49 33.1 No 85 57.4 Chi-Square Analysis of Responses Chi-square analysis was conducted for al of the demographic variables and preference for teaching an al-female choir. Demographic variables included the following: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they teach a single-sex choir. For these analyses, an alpha level of .05 was adopted which indicates that for each significant result, there was a 95% chance that a Type I error did not occur. There were six variables that were statisticaly significant (Table 38). Years of experience were a statisticaly significant variable. Teachers who had been teaching 1-5 years (n=32) had 13 (40.6%) directors who responded that they preferred to teach an al- ! 116 ! female choir, 6-15 years (n=27) had 18 (66.7%) directors respond that they preferred teaching an al-female choir, 16+ years (n=32) had 16 (50%) directors who responded that they preferred to teach an al-female choir, and those not currently teaching (n=57) had 14 (24.6%) who responded that they preferred to teach an al-female choir. Thirten (25.5%) participants who are not currently teaching responded that they preferred to teach an al-female choir. Answers given by respondents whose highest degree was a Bachelor?s degree were statisticaly significant with 28 (63.7%) preferring to teach an al- female choir. There were eight undergraduates (17.8%) who responded that they would rather teach an al-female choir. Directors who teach at least one al-female choir had 29 (60%) respondents answer that they preferred an al-female choir while directors who teach at least one al-male choir had 18 (66.7%) answer that they preferred teaching an all-female choir over an al-male or mixed sex choir. The null hypothesis was rejected for al of the above variables. There were no statistical significances found for the following variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) current level teaching (K-5, middle school/junior high, high school, and post-secondary), and (c) highest degree earned (Master?s, Educational Specialist, Doctorate, and graduate student). Table 39 Statistically Significant Variables for Directors Who Prefer Teaching an Al-female Choir Variable n value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)* Not teaching 51 13.562 4 .009 Highest degre earned: Bachelor?s 44 19.788 6 .003 Highest degre earned: Undergraduate student 45 18.261 4 .001 Years of experience 148 21.786 6 .001 Teach at least one al-female choir during the school day 48 10.820 2 .004 Teach at least one al-male choir during the schol day 27 8.765 2 .012 Note: **p<.05 ! 117 ! A Chi-square analysis was conducted for the survey item inquiring which directors prefer to teach an al-male choir. There were no statisticaly significant efects for the item regarding directors who prefer to teach an al-male choir and the following variables: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they teach a single-sex choir. Summary The following is a summary of the results. It is organized by the same or similar headings that were used in the results section for consistency. Nul Hypothesis One The first null hypothesis stated ?there wil be no diference in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not.? Chi-square (? 2 ) analyses revealed some significant diferences in how participants responded to questionnaire items. Specificaly, these significant diferences showed whether or not directors answered correctly or incorrectly acording the various variables. Pedagogical sociological prompts. The sociological prompts were divided into ?pedagogical sociological prompts? and ?other sociological prompts.? For al of the prompts in these two areas, a majority of the respondents in each of the following grouping variables answered incorrectly. However, there were significant diferences found betwen respondents for the statement ?tend to respond best to a set routine in the clasroom? for the variables (a) sex of the director (a higher percentage of males answered correctly), (b) currently teaching K-5, middle school/junior high, or not ! 118 ! teaching (for each, a majority answered incorrectly), and (c) highest degree earned, Bachelor?s, Educational Specialist, Doctorate, and undergraduate students (a majority answered incorrectly) Other sociological prompts. The data indicated that some of the remaining sociological prompts were influenced by variables that were statisticaly significant. Two of the statements were answered correctly by over 50% of the respondents: (a) tend to be distracted by social, non-academic isues in the clasroom and (b) tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasroom. These two statements were statisticaly significant for the variable ?sex of the director.? Additionaly the data showed that the first statement was statisticaly significant for the variable ?choral directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the school day.? There were statisticaly significant variables that related to some of the remaining statements. These statements and variables were: (a) tend to respond wel to a calm clasroom seting (choral directors who teach at least one all-male choir during the school day), (b) tend to receive negative teacher atention for their behavior in the clasroom (graduate students), (c) tend to not care about pleasing the teacher (highest degree earned Educational Specialist), and (d) tend to like situations to remain clam with no confrontations (currently teaching high school and years of experience). There were statisticaly significant variables for the sociological prompts ?tend to thrive in a mixed-sex clasroom? and ?tend to have outbursts and be rowdier in the clasroom.? The statisticaly significant variables were highest degree earned: (a) Bachelor?s, (b) Educational Specialist, (c) Doctorate, (d) undergraduate student, and (e) graduate student. The following variables: (a) currently teaching K-5, (b) currently ! 119 ! teaching middle school/junior high, (c) currently teaching high school, (d) currently teaching post-secondary, (e) currently not teaching, (f) highest degree earned Bachelor?s, (g) highest degree earned Educational Specialist, (h) highest degree earned Doctorate, (i) undergraduate student, and (j) graduate student were statisticaly significant for the statement ?tend to enjoy competition as a motivation to learn.? There were a number of variables that were statisticaly significant for the prompt ?tend to speak out in the clasroom.? They were: (a) currently teaching middle school/junior high, (b) currently not teaching, (c) highest degree earned Bachelor?s, (d) undergraduate student, and (e) graduate student. Additionaly, there were six statisticaly significant variables for ?tend to not prefer competition as a motivation to learn.? They were: (a) currently teaching middle school/junior high, (b) currently teaching high school, (c) highest degree earned Master?s, (d) undergraduate student, (e) years of experience, and (f) direct at least one al-female choir during the school day. Six variables also were statisticaly significant for the sociological statement ?tend to thrive in a single-sex environment.? They were: (a) sex of the director, (b) currently teaching K-5, (c) currently teaching middle school/junior high, (d) currently teaching high school, (e) currently teaching post secondary, and (f) currently not teaching. Brain-procesing biological prompts. The biological prompts were also divided into those that related to brain procesing and other biological prompts. There were only two statements in which more than half of the participants responded correctly. Those were ?tend to expres felings verbaly? and ?tend to proces writen words faster.? Chi- square (c 2 ) analyses revealed some statisticaly significant diferences in how participants responded to questionnaire items. Various demographic variables were statisticaly ! 120 ! significant for 10 of the 17 statements. Demographic variables revealed statistical significance for four of the biological prompts, including: (a) ?tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound? (directors who teach at least one al-male choir during the school day), (b) ?tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain? (sex of the director), (c) ?tend to proces writen words faster? (highest degree earned Master?s), and (d) ?tend to refrain from expresing felings verbaly? (currently teaching high school and highest degree earned Master?s). Nine females (n=80) and seven males (n=55) answered the statement correctly ?tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain.? The prompt ?tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns? was statisticaly significant and afected by six demographic variables. The statisticaly significant variables were: (a) highest degree earned Bachelor?s, (b) highest degree earned Educational Specialist, (c) highest degree earned Doctorate, (d) undergraduate student, (e) graduate student, and (f) directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the day. There were six demographic variables that were statisticaly significant for the biological-procesing statement ?tend to be sensitive to both positive and negative visual stimuli.? The first, sex of the director, had two (2.5%) females (n=81) and three (5.6%) males (n=54) who answered correctly. Statisticaly significant prompts were: (a) currently teaching K-5, (b) currently teaching middle school/junior high, (c) currently teaching high school, (d) currently teaching post secondary, and (e) currently not teaching. The biological prompt ?tend to have dificulty procesing lip-reading into an auditory sound? had four significant variables. They were: (a) highest degree earned ! 121 ! Educational Specialist, (b) highest degree earned Doctorate, (c) undergraduate student, and (d) graduate student. The statement ?tend to proces information and emotion in both hemispheres of the brain? was significantly afected by: (a) highest degree earned Bachelor?s, (b) highest degree earned Educational Specialist, (c) highest degree earned Doctorate, (d) undergraduate student, and (e) graduate student. There were five demographic variables that showed statistical significance for the prompt ?tend to atach no emotion to the information they receive. The first variable was years of experience. The remaining statisticaly significant variables were: (a) not currently teaching, (b) highest degree earned Master?s, (c) undergraduate student, and (d) those directors that teach at least one al-female choir during the school day. The data for ?tend to be sensitive to positive visual stimuli? indicated statistical significance for the following variables: (a) currently teaching K-5, (b) currently teaching middle school/ junior high, (c) currently teaching high school, (d) currently teaching post-secondary, and (e) currently not teaching. Other Biological Prompts. Statistical significance was found for the remaining biological prompts. There were six prompts in which more than 50% of the survey participants answered correctly, including: (a) ?tend to experience voice change isues,? (b) ?tend to experience drastic voice change isues during puberty,? (c) ?tend to have high levels of testosterone,? (d) ?tend to have no voice change isues,? (e) ?tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty,? and ?tend to have high levels of estrogen.? A Chi-square analysis was conducted for each of the biological prompts. There were one or two variables that exhibited statistical significance for seven of the biological ! 122 ! prompts. These included: (a) ?tend to have high levels of testosterone? (directors who teach at least one al-female choir during the school day), (b) ?tend to experience voice change isues? (highest degree earned Educational Specialist and directors who teach at least one al-female choir during the school day), (c) ?tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty? (directors who teach at least one al-female choir and directors who teach at least one al-male choir during the school day), (d) ?tend to have no voice change isues? (directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the school day), (e) ?tend to have high levels of testosterone? (highest degree earned Educational Specialist and directors who teach at least one al- female choir during the school day), (f) ?tend to have dificulty hearing female teachers? (currently teaching K-5), and (g) ?tend to have a weaker sense of hearing? (highest degree earned Educational Specialist). There were six statisticaly significant variables for the prompt ?tend to experience hormone releases several times a day.? The first statisticaly significant variable was years of experience (n=137). The remaining statisticaly significant variables were: (a) highest degree earned Bachelor?s, (b) highest degree earned Educational Specialist, (c) highest degree earned Doctorate, (d) undergraduate student, and (e) graduate student. The final biological prompt to show statistical significance was ?tend to be sensitive to light levels.? The demographic variables statisticaly significant were: (a) highest degree earned Educational Specialist, (b) highest degree earned Doctorate, (c) undergraduate student, (d) graduate student. The data indicated that at least one of the demographic variables were statisticaly significant for the above-mentioned prompts. Therefore, null hypothesis one (There wil ! 123 ! be no diference in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not.) was rejected for al of the variables discussed above. Nul Hypothesis Two Null Hypothesis two stated there wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. There were two statements at the end of the survey that pertained to this research question. The first was ?Secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences,? and the second was ?I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available.? Over half of the respondents for each question answered that they agreed with the statement. One-way ANOVA analysis was conducted for each of the above statements. There were no demographic variables that were statisticaly significant for either statement. Nul Hypothesis Thre The final null hypothesis stated there wil be no diference in regards to which sex directors prefer to work with based on sex of the choral director, years of experience, level currently teaching, highest degree earned, and directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. Participants had the option of choosing which choir they preferred to work with. The options were mixed sex choir, al-female choir, or al-male choir. There were 61 (41.2%) survey respondents who indicated they preferred an al-female ! 124 ! choir, while 49 (33.1%) preferred to teach an al-male choir. Chi-square analysis was conducted for al of the demographic variables and preference for teaching an al-female choir. Demographic variables included the following: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they teach a single-sex choir. There were six variables that were statisticaly significant. The statisticaly significant variables afecting directors who prefer teaching an all-female choir were: (a) currently not teaching, (b) highest degree earned Bachelor?s, (c) undergraduate student, (d) years of experience, (e) teach at least one al-female choir during the school day, and (f) teach at least one al-male choir during the school day. Teachers who had been teaching 1-5 years (n=32) had 13 (40.6%) directors who responded that they preferred to teach an al-female choir, 6-15 years (n=27) had 18 (66.7%) directors respond that they preferred teaching an al-female choir, 16+ years (n=32) had 16 (50%) directors who responded that they preferred to teach an al-female choir, and those not currently teaching (n=57) had 14 (24.6%) who responded that they preferred to teach an al-female choir. The null hypothesis was rejected for al above- mentioned variables. A Chi-square analysis was conducted for al demographic variables against which directors preferred to teach an al-male choir. There were no statisticaly significant variables for the item regarding directors who prefer to teach an al-male choir. Non- statisticaly significant variables included: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they teach a single-sex choir. ! 125 ! CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to ases choral directors? knowledge of biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. There were three null hypotheses: (1) there would be no diferences in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based a variety of diferent variables; (2) there wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on several variables; and (3) there wil be no diference in regards to which sex choral directors prefer to work with based on several variables. The following chapter is a discussion of results, conclusions, limitations of this study, and suggestions for additional research. This section is organized by subject area to further clarify the results and draw some overal conclusions from the data. Pedagogical Sociological Proceses There were several areas of interest when considering the social and pedagogical situations teachers and students face each day in the choral clasroom. This section is organized to further clarify the discussion and potential implications of the results from the study. The sections include: (a) clasroom routine, (b) clasroom activity levels, (c) confrontation and clasroom stimuli, (d) non-academic social isues and atention, and (e) competition and motivation. ! 126 ! Classroom Routine Based on the same-sex literature, males tend to respond beter to a set routine in the clasroom (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). Over 70% of the directors indicated that both sexes benefit from a set routine. This could suggest that choral directors are encouraged in their education and methods clases to consistently have a set routine, which is generaly good teaching practice. However, the participant responses indicate that the sex of the student may rarely be discussed in regards to set routine. Another potential reason for this is the evaluation of teaching they go through, sometimes as often as four times per year. They have been trained to begin each leson in a certain way (i.e. state your objectives, etc.). This could certainly have an efect on what teachers believe. In addition, those who are not currently teaching, or those who have only earned a Bachelor?s degree may not have had a specific secondary choral methods course. Respondents who were in the midst of their Bachelor?s degree may not have taken the course yet. Alternately, those with just a Bachelors degree may not actualy have a degree in music education. Through alternative certification programs, sometimes offered through educational service centers, teachers can become certified by completing a minimal number general teaching methods courses and pasing certification tests. Of course, that data was not collected in this study, so this is only a potential reason. Furthermore, though this is not as common, some teachers whose music education degree was geared only for elementary-level students may be teaching in a high school and yet would not have secondary-level music education methods clases. Finaly, respondents who have their Educational Specialist or Doctorate degrees may have been exposed to many clases stresing the need for set routine in the secondary ! 127 ! clasroom. They also may have more experience in the clasroom then other respondents. As a result, their answers may have been significant because of their amount of knowledge concerning the need for a set routine. Classroom Activity Levels Acording to the literature, males tend to respond wel to an active clasroom environment (Sax, 2009) and they need lots of movement to think and learn (Honigsfeld and Dunn, 2003). Close to 60% of the participants indicated that having an active clasroom was good for both sexes. As the literature suggests, succesfully teaching boys would entail a clasroom that is full of activity and directors who teach an al-male choir should keep the clasroom full of movement and energy. A possible reason for the large number of respondents answering incorrectly on the statements about activity level and sex is that they confused the idea of ?active clasroom? with a clasroom that has a lot of activities. Though another potential, and maybe more serious, reason is that there is no diferentiation betwen the sexes in collegiate methods courses; perhaps methods teachers are indicating that active clasrooms are positive, while not considering the diferences betwen male and female learners. Research suggests that female learners tend to prefer varied learning activities in the clasroom and that teachers should consider having females work in diferent types of learning groups (e.g., in large groups, with the teacher, with peers, in pairs, and in independent setings) (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2003). However almost 75% of the survey participants said both male and female learners preferred varied learning activities. Streitmater?s (2002) research supports that females tend to respond wel to a calm clasroom seting. Al of the directors in this study (regardles of their own gender) who ! 128 ! taught an al male choir knew that males do not prefer a calm clasroom, indicating that possibly through their experiences working with al-male choirs they have found that a calm clasroom seting is not the best for males, which mirrors several researchers? findings (Gray & Wilson, 2006; Jones & Dindia, 2004; Wilson, 2010). In addition, those who did not teach an al male choir had a lower percentage of correct responses regarding female preference for a calm clasroom. It is unclear the reason for this discrepancy. Perhaps, since they do not teach their males in a separate clas they do not consider that there is a diference betwen the sexes regarding clasroom atmosphere. Often, teachers are faced with 50 or more students in a mixed choir seting and they may force their own teaching style and preferences on the learners, regardles of the research-supported best practices. Finaly, it would sem logical that females who teach al female choirs would know that female students prefer a calmer clasroom seting. However, in this study, that was not the case; only about a quarter of them knew this. Again, perhaps teachers are more focused on teaching, reaching a certain performance level, and are les aware of learning atmosphere preferences by students of diferent genders, or perhaps they are unaware of the diferences, as stated before, because of lack of training during their degree program(s) or other training opportunities. The overwhelming choice of the same wrong answers respondents provided for the prompts that focus on clasroom activity levels may mean that that practitioners often generalize available research literature/knowledge regarding the mixed-sex clasroom to both sexes; they do not distinguish betwen the sexes when teaching. Furthermore, it is possible that the majority of participants had litle to no exposure to pedagogical isues ! 129 ! pertaining to the same-sex clasroom as part of course textbooks. Zitleman?s & Sadker?s (2006) review of textbook materials supports this; only 3% of textbooks they reviewed addresed gender diferences. However, it could be also that respondents received training but do not remember or did not take the training seriously. Additionaly, perhaps music methods teachers are spending two or les hours on this topic during a typical semester-long course, like most of the math and science teachers did in Campbel?s and Sanders? study (1997). Textbook authors may find it beneficial include sex diferences and their potential impact in the secondary choral clasroom. Training in general education clases, music methods instructors, and conducting profesors may also se the benefit of instructing their students regarding the diferences betwen the sexes and its impact in the choral clasroom. Ultimately, this could also afect teacher retention levels among secondary music educators. Research has stated that retention rates are 95% higher for elementary music teachers compared to secondary music teachers (Hancock, 2008). Confrontation and Classroom Stimuli Just fewer than 38% of all respondents knew that males prefer confrontation and high stimuli situations. The ratio of correct versus incorrect answers betwen male and female respondents is interesting. In general, a larger percentage of male respondents knew the answer, while female respondents answered correctly and incorrectly in about equal amounts. Males could have had a higher number of correct responses because they are male, understand this about themselves, and think this is applicable to their male students. However, this does not mean they necesarily know the reasons behind this preference. For females, those who answered correctly may have more experience ! 130 ! teaching males and understand the best ways to approach teaching them. Those who answered incorrectly may not be as experienced, may not prefer confrontation themselves, or as stated several times previously, may not have had the education necesary to understand gender diferences. One might also consider the types of people who become, and remain, choral directors in secondary schools. Could the smal percentage of correct responses in this area be indicative of the type of people who become choral directors? Choral directors generaly are expected to be leaders with significant personal experiences as choral members in high school and collegiate music program. They are not typicaly confrontational in the way they lead, but generaly work in a more cooperative way with students. Both director and students work together to achieve desired performance results. Furthermore, choral directors, music educators in general, are familiar with high stimuli situations, such as constantly preparing for concerts and programs. As a result, they may not se them as high stimuli situations, but a normal part of their occupation. Non-Academic Social Isues and Attention Research showed that social, non-academic isues in the clasroom could be limited for students (Carp, 2004). Just over 60% of the respondents knew their students (both male and female) tend to be distracted by non-academic and/or social isues. Almost 25% more of female respondents verses male respondents answered this correctly. Interestingly, when male teachers taught al-female groups, they had a beter chance of knowing this information; about 15% more of them knew this answer versus those who got it wrong. This could indicate that males are not as in tune as females with al of the social distractions that take place. Additionaly, males who teach an al-female ! 131 ! group may understand the social distractions that take place in the clasroom. Unlike male directors, there was very litle diference betwen the number of female directors who taught an al female choir and those who did not (overal about 70% correct). Is it possible that females inherently understand that non-academic isues are distractions? Or, perhaps, as females, they understand from their own experiences. Sadker (2002) found that males receive more negative teacher atention as compared to females. Les than 20% of graduate students got this correct, but almost 60% of those who were not graduate students got the answer right. This is somewhat boggling since it sems that graduate students may know this. However, perhaps these students have not taught yet while those who are not graduate students were teaching or in the midst of their undergraduate degrees. Given typical graduate program coursework, it sems logical that sex diferences in the clasroom may never be taught, especialy given that graduate students have more flexibility in their course choices. Additionaly, perhaps undergraduates got this right because they remember or have clases where males receive more negative atention; many practicing teachers got it right because they have male students who receive more of their negative atention. Even though schools expect males to be conforming, pasive, and quiet, the literature supports that this is not the best learning environment for males (Sax, 2005). Furthermore, though research indicates that females prefer one learning environment and males prefer a diferent type of environment (Sadker, 1995; Sax, 2005; Streitmater, 2002), it appears that schools and/or teachers expect females and males to learn in the same types of environments. Choral directors could benefit from knowing such ! 132 ! information considering that they are trained to teach al-female, al-male choirs, and mixed choirs. Competition and Motivation Collaborative learning and noncompetitive environments sem to be the types of clasrooms in which females thrive, while competition sems to be one of the motivating variables for males (Cable & Spradlin, 2008). However, around 55% of the respondents said that both males and females ?tend to enjoy competition as a motivation to learn.? This supports Cable?s And Spradlin?s (2008) research that says traditional schools are structured in ways that discourage males? tendencies to be independent, active, and aggresive. It appears teachers are either unaware of the research, or are trying to create a clasroom based on their personal teaching styles or based on the ways teachers are typicaly advised to teach. Furthermore, les than one third of male respondents and female respondents (each) got this answer correct, that males prefer competition. Perhaps these respondents are familiar with the research, or they have learned through their own teaching experiences about the diferences betwen males and females. Sax (2010) found that male students generaly do not care about pleasing their teacher if they do not like the subject or care about their grades, but females do want to please the teacher as long as they fel the teacher cares about them. Fewer than 5% of the respondents in this study knew that male students do not generaly care about pleasing the teacher. That leaves over 95 of respondents that did not know this; clearly for most of these respondents, this area has been non-existent in their training either as college students or during in-services experiences. Choral directors need to understand that in general males do not care about pleasing the teacher unles they like the subject. There ! 133 ! are a multitude of situations in which students may be placed in choir or students sign up for choir just to get their fine arts credit. Based on the literature writen pertaining to general education, choral directors who can win over the male students in their clasrooms could be more succesful because the boys may care about pleasing them. In addition, choral directors would benefit from knowing that girls want to please a teacher they know cares about them. As a result, an al-female clas may need to be taught diferently than an al-male clas. One might consider that choral students tend to be diferent from the general population (those not in choir). They may be more extraverted, conscientious, tend to be more outspoken in the clasroom, and more. Considering that these traits may be true for choral students, responses to the sociological prompts could be skewed because of the population (choral students) that choral directors were asked to consider. Biological Procesing Several of the biological-procesing prompts were statisticaly significant based on a number of demographic variables. The first statement that had any demographic variables that were statisticaly significant was ?tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound.? Directors who teach at least one al-male choir during the school day (n=31) was a statisticaly significant variable for the prompt ?tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound.? The majority of the participants answered this statement incorrectly (n=130). This trend was true for directors who teach at least one al-male choir as wel. There were only seven correct answers given by directors who teach an all-male choir. There were two female directors who teach an al male choir (n=16) who answered correctly and five male directors who teach an al male choir (n=15) who ! 134 ! answered correctly for the statement ?tend to proces lip-reading into an auditory sound.? The research indicates that females have an easier time procesing lip-reading into auditory sounds (Ruytjens et al., 2006) and interestingly in this research, it was the male choral directors who teach an al-male choir who had more correct responses than the females who direct an al-male choir. There was no statistical significance for al other demographic variables, including: (a) sex of the director, (b) years of experience, (c) current level teaching, (d) highest degree earned, and (e) whether they taught an al- female choir. Research indicates that males tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain due to lack of communication betwen the hemispheres (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001, Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Rutjens et al., 2006; Van Dyke et al., 2009). Around 50% of the respondents were not sure of the correct answer in this area; they did not know if this was true for males, females or both. When separated by male and female, a larger percentage of male respondents knew this. This is strong evidence that the majority of the respondents in this study had litle to no knowledge of sex diferences in the hemispheres of the brain. This knowledge could asist secondary choral directors in their questioning of students, their expectations of students, and the content they teach to students. This would especialy be true in a same-sex clas where the teacher can tailor questions, expectations, and content to each of the sexes. Research supports that females tend to proces writen words faster than males (Van Dyke et al., 2009). In this study, a majority of those with a Masters degree answered this correctly and a larger percentage of males who had earned a Masters ! 135 ! answered this correctly (almost 70%) than females (almost 55%). Perhaps male respondents inherently know this about themselves, or have more experience or exposure to the research in this area, which may explain the larger number for female respondents. However, it is not completely clear why participants with their Masters were statisticaly significant over the other demographic variables. Again, perhaps it is because they have studied this in their graduate work, or perhaps through becoming researchers themselves (through graduate work), they are more thoughtful and curious about teaching beter or reaching their students in the best ways possible. Males tend to refrain from expresing felings verbaly (Gurain, 2001; James (2007). In general, about half of the respondents knew this. However, only around a third of respondents who teach high school and a third of those with Masters degree got this right. It sems strange that those who teach high school and those with a Masters would not intuitively know that males do not typicaly expres their felings verbaly, especialy considering the stereotypes of male and females in this area. Perhaps these respondents were trying to eliminate their thoughts about stereotyping. Alternately, as stated before, it is very possible that brain sex diferences are not addresed in most collegiate programs and/or profesional development opportunities. A secondary choral director who understands it is dificult for males to expres themselves verbaly hopefully would question their male students diferently than someone who does not understand this sex diference. Ultimately, for succesful clasroom teaching, the choral director needs to understand the diferences betwen males and females, regardles of the type(s) of choir(s) they teach. ! 136 ! Males tend to utilize more auditory areas of their brains when analyzing sound, while females utilize les auditory areas (Rutjens et al., 2007). Most participants whose highest degree was Bachelors or Doctorate, current undergraduate and graduate students, and those who taught at least one al female choir indicated they were not sure about this information. These findings further solidify the researcher?s asumption that sex diferences in the brain are not being addresed during collegiate work at either the undergraduate or graduate levels. Females generaly tend to be sensitive to both positive and negative visual stimuli (Snodgras & Harring, 2004-2005). Over 56% of al respondents in this study thought (incorrectly) this was true for both males and females. Conversely, only 10% knew this was true for females. Interestingly, a larger percentage of female respondents versus male respondents did not know this information. This is further evidence that the participants in this study have not been exposed to brain sex diferences that could potentialy make a diference in their clasroom. Directors who believe that motivation can be acomplished through a tyrant and yeling may want to reconsider their approach, especialy when instructing female singers. Males in a choir would have a harder time connecting a visual example from the director to an audible sound when they are singing (Ruytjens et al. 2006). Around 12% of respondents knew this was true for males and around 31% were not sure about this information. This finding could be beneficial to conductors who are trying to show their choirs visual cues by using their mouths to form vowel shapes, form words, or give silent direction during rehearsal or performance. Directors of all male choirs or choirs with males in them need to understand that much of the preparatory work must be done ! 137 ! verbaly or visualy prior to their singing or after their singing. This result is further indication that many biological and sociological sex diferences are not discussed in education, music education clases, or profesional development. Researchers have found that the female brains more than male brains communicate bilateraly due to more connectors betwen the hemispheres (Bland, 2003; Brizendine, 2006; Gurian, 2001, Gurian & Stevens, 2004; Moir & Jesel, 1991). Furthermore, female brains tend to communicate bilateraly al of the time, even when females are not thinking of anything. Brain scans have shown the female brain is as active at rest as the male brain is when engaged (Brizendine, 2006). Just over 50% of all respondents were unsure of the correct information for this area. Because the male brain does not communicate bilateraly, it is potentialy more eficient in procesing certain types of information; males may have a harder time ataching emotion to information they receive. When choral directors realize that the female brain is ?constantly in motion? and procesing even while at rest, there are certain techniques that could be used. Perhaps listening at night, during rest, would benefit females either in learning music or help with auditory procesing. Conversely, those directors that understand males are more straightforward may realize that a more direct approach for learning is necesary. Males tend to lateralize emotions only in the right hemisphere while females proces emotions in both the right and left hemispheres (Gurian, 2001; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991). As a result, males may not be able to expres emotions as readily as females. One third of the respondents knew this information while around 37% thought it was true for both sexes. This may be the reason that males can separate emotions from logic but in females, emotion is connected to logic. This information is helpful to know ! 138 ! for choral directors when questions pertain to creativity. Most of the creativity questions would be procesed in the right hemisphere of the brain. Males would not be able to expres emotions as easily as females when trying to proces creative or subjective questions. Consequently, using correct terminology with males is important. Simply asking them to explain how music makes them fel would lead to some initial discord. Asking males to connect the musical devices used and perhaps the composer?s emotional intent may lead to a more productive discussion. Snodgras and Harring (2004-2005) were able to demonstrate that the right hemisphere was far superior for identifying positive and negative stimuli and having greater atention to positive pictures. Women were les sensitive to the negative pictures and more sensitive to the positive pictures. Only 7.4% of al respondents knew females tend to be sensitive to positive visual stimuli. The remaining respondents answered incorrectly on this question. The result of this again shows there is litle information about this area either taught or retained from collegiate work or profesional development. Furthermore, understanding this diference can help with bridging the education gap betwen the teacher and students. For example, choral directors who enter their clasroom like a dril sergeant, and/or who rarely use positive visual images or stimuli may not be as appealing to female students. Considering al that is learned in traditional conducting clases and music methods courses, that teachers need to provide appropriate situational verbal and nonverbal information, leaving out the positive part of this either in teaching or conducting is tantamount to providing a disconnect for female singers. ! 139 ! Biological Procesing: Further Analysis The study?s results show a variety of diferent things. Some inferences and observations can be made from the respondents? answers to the questions in this study. The following paragraphs wil addres some critical observations based on the knowledge of the survey participants. For seven of the biological-procesing statements, a range of 40% to 50% of respondents indicated that they were not sure of the correct answer. Those prompts were: (a) tend to utilize only auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory sounds, (b) tend to have more areas of the brain activated when at rest, (c) tend to proces information and emotion in one hemisphere of the brain, (d) tend to utilize language and auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory paterns, (e) tend to proces information and emotion in both hemispheres of the brain, (f) tend to show brain activity even when they deem the verbal stimuli not important, and (g) tend to have more areas of the brain activated when they proces information. It is not reasonable to think that 40% to 50% of these respondents are ?bad? teachers. Most likely they are very succesful choral directors who, regardles of the type(s) of choir(s) they teach, could increase their efectivenes and eficiency by understanding more about the diferences betwen the ways males and females proces information. Conversely, there were three prompts in which at least 45% of the participants answered correctly: (a) tend to atach emotion to information they receive, (b) tend to expres felings verbaly, and (c) tend to proces writen words faster. Al of these statements had the same correct answer: generaly true for females. At minimum, the answers to the first two of these (a and b) could be deduced through basic understanding ! 140 ! and experiences teaching females. Many teachers may also have experience working with females who proces the writen word much faster than males and so they were able to answer this correctly from experiential knowledge. Although 45% knew this information, the majority (over half) did not know it. Knowledge of the fact that females tend to atach emotion to information they receive, expres felings verbaly, and proces writen words faster should dictate the methods in which choral directors question their students, the time given to students to formulate answers, and the responses to those questions. When choral directors understand that females are more emotion-based students whose writen verbal capacity is higher than males, they may realize that they could be more efective teachers who help al students reach their full potential. The researcher chose these biological-procesing statements because they al have to do with the way in which the brain proceses information. Understanding how the brain works for each of the sexes could be very beneficial to every teacher, especialy choral directors. These prompts might be important to understand in order for teachers and students to achieve optimal succes in the clasroom. The information pertaining to utilizing auditory areas of the brain when analyzing auditory sounds is important for the secondary choral director to understand based on their subject mater. Since males tend to utilized more auditory areas of their brains when analyzing sound while females utilize les auditory areas, the ways we run rehearsals should reflect this. A typical technique for sectional rehearsal is to tel the sections not rehearsing to hum, think through, or audiate (hear it internaly) while the teacher is working with the other section(s). Females may have a harder time procesing their own part while another section is rehearsing alone since most sound wil be procesed. ! 141 ! However, males may have less trouble as they may proces their own ?sound? and block out the other section. Understanding this is key for directors. They would need to teach their female students the ability to focus their thoughts and hearing on a single item rather than a ?room full? of sound. Additionaly, male singers need training to focus on ?the whole? instead of just their own part. Blocking out al other parts can be detrimental to blend and balance in a choir. Furthermore, helping males to focus is important when providing instructions or examples. They must be able to hear it as something important rather than just ?noise.? Vice versa, females may very wel be able to multi-task auraly. They may b able to look at music, sing it internaly, and proces instructions simultaneously. As stated before, males wil disengage if they do not care about the subject and/or they do not like the instructor. This makes it crucial for choral teachers to connect in some meaningful, educational way to their male students. As Martino et al indicated (2005, p. 250) one of the keys to teaching boys is, ??developing teachers? knowledge about boys and in the ways that the teachers taking the boys? clases sought to utilize pedagogical practices and curriculum materials that connected to their perceptions of boys? interests.? Profesional development for current teachers and providing additional information to pre-service teachers would be beneficial. Should teachers use the same verbiage to question males and females? Some common advice to pre-service teachers is to make sure they can say the same thing in multiple ways and from multiple perspectives. Perhaps teachers do this as ?good practice? without realizing the reason. Asking a male how something makes him fel is not a ?fair? question because his brain does not necesarily communicate that way. There ! 142 ! seems to be a disconnect; Around 60% knew females tend to atach emotion to the information they receive, but 50% were not sure that males tend to proces information and information in one hemisphere of the brain. How is it that a large number knew females were emotional and connect that emotion to several parts of their learning and lives, but did not know that males compartmentalize their emotions versus their logical thought? This result is perplexing because it sems logical that these two are opposite in nature. However, it appears that respondents were not as familiar with thinking about their students? brain diferences. They deduce the correct answer because they can se/experience that females react with generaly more thoughtful and emotional responses, they connect their actions and memories to emotion. However, they cannot se male brains procesing only one hemisphere. To get that answer correct, they would have to know the biological proceses. Over 40% of respondents knew that females tend to proces writen words faster. Singers proces writen words. This is an inherent part of choral singing; text is almost always present in some way. The writen music and words are a road map with a variety of symbols that have to be procesed simultaneously. Though it is unclear if music reading and word reading are closely related in procesing, one could infer that words and musical notation can be procesed in similar ways, since both are often consumed simultaneously from choral sheet music. On the other hand, males proces this kind of information diferently, and perhaps more ?slowly? than females. The result of knowing this could be that a choral director has male students focus on words first, then the rhythms, followed by the pitches. Alternately, female students may be able to proces words and rhythm together, or rhythm and melody together, or al three (or more) of ! 143 ! these simultaneously because they proces each faster. Choral directors who have a greater understanding of what each of the sexes? brains is doing improve their students? succes in choral rehearsals. Statements regarding lip-reading could be beneficial to many choral directors who tend to mouth cues to their choirs in rehearsals and concerts would benefit from knowing that males generaly have harder time turning these cues into an auditory sound. Understanding this and that females proces verbal stimuli faster could eliminate some frustrations for students and teachers alike and explain why in some cases males sem to not be ?geting it? as fast as their female peers. Other Biological Items The statements in this area center around three main areas: (a) hormones, (b) voice change isues, and (c) sight and hearing. The following section is divided into these three areas to beter facilitate the discussion. Hormones A larger number of the respondents (78% of females and 83% of males) knew that males generaly have higher levels of testosterone. The diference in the number of female versus male respondents (more females) shows that les females knew this answer (though it was stil a large number who knew the correct answer). This sems to be somewhat common knowledge so that does not explain why over 20% of female and 17% of male respondents did not know this information. Perhaps the diference is that these numbers represent younger respondents (undergraduates and younger teachers) who simply are not aware that testosterone is primarily asociated with male biology. ! 144 ! The demographic variables highest degree earned (Educational Specialist), and those directors who taught at least one male choir during the school day significantly afected ?Tend to have high levels of testosterone.? Based on the statistical significance of the two variables, the null hypothesis was rejected. The demographic variables years of experience and highest degree earned (Bachelor?s, Educational Specialist, Doctorate, undergraduate student, and graduate student) were statisticaly significant for the statement ?tend to experience hormone releases several times a day.? The null hypothesis was rejected regarding no diference in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on the variables of: (a) sex of the choral director, (b) years of experience, (c) level currently teaching, (c) highest degree earned, and (d) directors who teach single-sex choirs and those who do not. Voice Change Isues Two-thirds of al respondents knew that both males and females could have voice change isues. That leaves around 33% who did not know this. In addition, almost 69% knew that both males and females tend to experience voice change isues. So, around the same percentage answered correctly for both of these statements. When looking that the data breakdown by certain demographic variables, however, there are some perplexing results. Three quarters (75%) of directors who teach an al female choir indicated that both sexes generaly tend to have no voice change isues. Is the reason for this because they do not have experience teaching males, or that they do not ?hear? the change in the female voice, or ultimately, perhaps because they do not have the education they need? Furthermore, the fact that 20% of female respondents and 17% of male respondents ! 145 ! indicated that females tend to have no voice change isues leads one to wonder about these respondents. The results for these two statements (tends to have no voice change isues, tends to have voice change isues) could be a direct reflection on the lack of teaching and/or awarenes of the changing female voice. Choral methods clases focus heavily on the male changing voice, but perhaps neglect the female changing voice. On the whole, a fairly large percentage of participants indicated the wrong answer. Considering that the majority of participants are either currently studying the field of choral music or working in the field of choral music, it does not sem logical that they would get this wrong, and it is a litle shocking that a higher percentage of these musicians did not answer these two statements correctly. Obviously based on the answers given by this population more time is needed on voice change isues. Directors who direct an al-female choir or an al-male choir during school day showed statistical significance with regards to the prompt ?tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty tend to experience minimal voice change isues and vocal cord growth throughout puberty.? Hearing and Sight Research has shown (a) the male cochlea tends to be longer than the female cochlea (Brizendine, 2006; James, 2007; Moir & Jesel, 1991; Sax, 2005), (b) males generaly hear male voices beter than female voices, and vice versa for females, and (c) males male sem distracted, but in reality just cannot hear what the teacher is saying (Sax, 2005). Just under 20% of the choral directors in this study knew that male students tend to have dificulty hearing female teachers, which means that over 80% did not know ! 146 ! this. Furthermore, around 60% of the respondents did not know that males tend to have a weaker sense of hearing; they answered that it was generaly not true for both sexes, or they indicated they were not sure of the answer. Secondary choral directors who understand these auditory diferences could be more efective in the clasroom. Female choral directors should be more aware that the males in their clases could have dificulty hearing their voices. Placing males in the back of the room or to the far sides may not the best place for them to hear the female teacher. In addition, considering the acoustics of a room, it may be more efective for female directors to use some kind of microphone and amplifier to ensure students hear clearly. These results reiterate that hearing diferences among the sexes is either not taught or discussed in clases required for music education degrees, not represented in profesional development opportunities, or that respondents do not remember the information from these two learning sources. Only 4.1% of respondents knew that males tend to be sensitive to light levels. There were some significant diferences betwen respondents with diferent levels of college degrees, but given that over 95% of the respondents got this wrong, those significant diferences exist betwen those who most likely answered incorrectly. Clearly this is an isue that needs to be addresed, not just in the choral clasroom, but also in other educational setings, and it needs to be addresed in methods and other education courses as wel as profesional development. Knowing this could help male students learn faster or beter, or it could afect the way male students act in the clasroom. Furthermore, since this is not inherently true for females, it is important to explore a variety of lighting setings when teaching for students? best learning environments. ! 147 ! Further Analysis: Other Biological Items The demographic variables that are statisticaly significant (p<.05) for the above- mentioned biological prompts do not reveal much about the data. Statistical significance only tels us that the answers probably did not occur by chance (Type I error). When examining the answers to the remaining biological prompts it is interesting to note which statements had the most respondents answering correctly. There were two statements in which 60% to 66% answered correctly: (a) tend to experience voice change isues, and (b) tend to have no voice change isues. There were three in which 80% to 81% of respondents answered correctly (a) tend to experience drastic voice change isues during puberty, (b) tend to high levels of testosterone, and (c) tend to have high levels of estrogen. Three of these questions are related to adolescent voice change, which is one of the topics that should be covered in most undergraduate music education program. Even though this topic should be discussed in music education clases, there were low percentages considering that most music education students should have gotten these answers correct. Finaly, the percentages ranged from 60% to 81%. Potentialy 19% of the population did not know the correct answer for several of the statements corresponding to the voice change, though it is unclear which specific respondents represented that 19% (could be diferent respondents for each question). The questions pertaining to male and female hormones were also answered correctly. However, respondents did not have a clear sense of which sex tends to release hormones several times a day. The answer to this statement is generaly true for males. Males have five to seven spikes of testosterone daily beginning with the onset of puberty (Gurian, 2001). Testosterone not only produces asertivenes, aggresion and ! 148 ! dominance, it also tends to encourage the release of more testosterone. This additional hormone release adds to aggresive male tendencies. The more testosterone that is released into the male brain the more self-reliant, self-confident, self-asertive, competitive, and aggresive males become (Moir & Jesel, 1991). The average male is more likely to show aggresive behaviors and manage social situations through dominance (Gurian, 2001) while the average female tends to resist aggresive behaviors (Moir & Jesel, 1991). Understanding how testosterone can afect males and their behavior can only improve the pedagogies of teachers. The rest of the biological statements had a wide range of answers. These statements were related to light levels and sense of hearing. For the purposes of this study, the hearing isue is probably the most important. Hearing diferences betwen the sexes could be atributed to the sound taking longer to travel to the brain once it enters the male ear. Therefore, teachers might find it helpful to move the males closer to the front of the room or make sure that the level of the instructor?s voice is loud enough for everyone to sufficiently hear. Oportunities to Gain Sex Differences Knowledge There were two statements at the end of the survey that focused on choral directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences: (a) secondary choral teachers need more knowledge about sex diferences, and (b) I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available. Around 70% of respondents indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed with both of these statements. Though there were no significant results when considering a variety of variables, it is important to note that either before, or as a result of this study, survey ! 149 ! respondents obviously se the value in receiving more knowledge and training. So, it would be wise to include this information in a more prominent way in undergraduate or graduate music education programs and provide other profesional development opportunities in this area for choral directors. Prefered Choral Class Types Finaly, the last part of the survey focused on respondents preferred choral clas types: (a) al male, and/or (b) al female. While some participants indicated they did not prefer to work with either al male or al female choirs, around 40% said they preferred al female choirs and around 33% preferred al male choirs. Working with an al-male choir may have a lower percentage because there are, in general, more al female than all male choirs. In addition, only 18.8% of these respondents taught at least one male choir during the school day versus around 33% who taught an al female choir during the school day. Flipping these numbers shows that most of the respondents do not teach al male or al female choirs; over 81% do not currently work with al male choirs, and around 66% do not currently work with al female choirs. It is possible that many choir directors do not have as many opportunities to work with single sex choirs. In addition, it may be that they prefer not working with these types of groups because they have had no experience doing that and lack the knowledge or understanding to se these setings as valuable ways to teaching students. Alternately, those that have had the opportunity to work with single sex choirs may have had negative teaching and learning experiences because they lacked the knowledge necesary for succes. ! 150 ! From this one could infer that most choral programs have a mixed choir that is their top group, or perhaps their only choral group. An al female choir, when available, is sometimes a lower ranking group in the program. Typicaly, a women?s group is usualy made up of females who did not make the mixed group. Wilson?s research (2010) supports this; women?s choirs were usualy not the top ensembles. There may be a perception among choral directors that a mixed choir is beter or more prestigious and thus they should aspire to work with these types of choirs. This perception would help to explain the low percentage of choral directors who prefer to work with an al-female or an al-male choir. General education research and scholars support that instructors must be given tools in order to succesfully teach boys, to be able to manage the myriad of behaviors they display each day. In choral teaching, many advocate that separating the sexes into al male and al female groups alows for much more teaching and learning succes. Furthermore knowing how to best teach students could improve clasroom behavior in any clasroom environment (Hannon & Ratlife, 2007; Rex & Chadwel, 2009; Sax, 2005; Sax, 2009). Limitations Several limitations should be taken into acount when reviewing the data and results of this study. 1. Participants were chosen based on their atendance at the middle school and high school reading sesions and round table discussions at the 2012 ACDA Southern Division Conference. Results may not be applied to al choral directors or even al choral directors who atend ACDA divisional conferences. ! 151 ! 2. Participants may have more basic knowledge than the general population because they atended at an ACDA divisional conference. 3. The survey was lengthy and therefore may have inhibited a higher return rate. 4. There were a high percentage of students and full-time church musicians who responded to the survey. 5. The survey was not piloted; therefore, there were no statistics with which to compare the results. 6. The survey was created for the purpose of this study. 7. Sex diferences being examined were by no means a comprehensive list of al male and female sex diferences. Summary The purpose of this study was to ases choral directors? knowledge of biological and sociological sex diferences in the secondary choral clasroom. There were three null hypotheses: (1) there would be no diferences in directors? knowledge of sex diferences based on sex a variety of diferent variables; (2) there wil be no diferences in directors? expresed need for more knowledge and training of sex diferences based on several variables; and (3) there wil be no diference in regards to which sex choral directors prefer to work with based on several variables. Based on the results of this study, multiple demographic variables were statisticaly significant as related to the biological and sociological prompts. Therefore, many of the answers to the statements did not occur by chance for many of the demographic variables. There was also an overwhelming response for the need for more knowledge and training regarding biological and sociological sex isues. Further, survey ! 152 ! respondents (71%) indicated that they would atend profesional development opportunities regarding sex diferences if it were available. There were no demographic variables that statisticaly afected participants who preferred to teach an al-female choir while several demographic variables were statisticaly significant for those respondents who preferred to teach an al-male choir. Based on these findings, the researcher has concluded that many of the participants do not know the answers to biological and sociological statements that pertain to the clasroom. Findings also suggest that there is a need and a desire for more knowledge and training regarding biological and sociological sex diferences. Finaly, survey respondents overwhelmingly responded that they would atend more training regarding sex diferences. Profesional organizations, school districts, and venues offering profesional development need to consider the need and desire for further instruction and profesional development opportunities. Succes regarding training in biological and sociological sex diferences has been documented in regular education literature, so there is no reason that this type of training would not greatly benefit secondary choral directors; especialy those directors who teach same-sex choirs. Implications for Music Educators The results of this study may yield these implications for music educators: 1. Sex diferences may afect secondary choral clasrooms. 2. Teaching pedagogies in the secondary choral clasroom may be enhanced if they are paterned after knowledge pertaining to sex diferences. ! 153 ! 3. Institutions of higher learning might consider knowledge of sex diferences as an important tool for future music educators to help them be succesful in the clasroom. 4. Based on perceived needs, profesional organizations may wish to offer more training opportunities regarding the topic of sex diferences in the choral clasroom. Recommendations for Future Research The following recommendations are suggested for future research: 1. A replication of this study with a larger population. 2. A quantitative investigation of the questioning and language used when teaching same-sex choirs versus mixed-sex choirs. 3. A study that examines the pacing of the choral director when teaching same- sex choirs versus mixed-sex choirs. 4. A qualitative study investigating the preferences of male and female choral directors about teaching same-sex choirs versus mixed-sex choirs. 5. A study investigating whether or not the sexuality of the choral director afects the outcome of pacing, language used in the choral clasroom, and the preferences of which type of choir they prefer to direct. Conclusion Sex diferences have been a topic of research and discussion in the regular education clasroom since the inception of No Child Left Behind, yet there is litle research regarding sex diferences in the choral clasroom. This sems counterintuitive since many choir directors instruct same-sex choirs, and al choir directors exit their ! 154 ! undergraduate programs prepared to teach same-sex choirs. ACDA also sems to place value on same-sex choirs based on the national, divisional, and state chairs for both male choirs and female choirs. Yet, few sem to be instructing or providing profesional development opportunities beyond the changing voice and literature selection. Based on a review of the literature and the results of this research it sems likely that increased knowledge pertaining to sex diferences could positively impact teacher retention. This would be consistent with the literature on the regular education clasroom pertaining to this isue. The literature in the regular education seting has indicated that teachers are more succesful because of sex diference knowledge. Perhaps the results of this survey will be beneficial for future researchers interested in pursuing this line of inquiry; profesional music organizations in planning for future profesional development opportunities; secondary methods teachers in planning their courses; and the planning of future teacher training. Most importantly, this research may provide valuable insights for secondary choral directors and their students in the choral clasroom. Based on the responses from choral directors who were surveyed for this research, there sems to be a strong desire for more information pertaining to this topic as wel as a wilingnes to atend profesional development opportunities regarding sex diferences. ! 155 ! REFERENCES Abeles, H. (2009). Are musical instrument gender asociations changing? Journal of Research in Music Education, 57(2), 127-139. ACDA. (n.d.). Repertoire. Retrieved from http:/acda.org/repertoire. Ashley, M. (2006). You sing like a girl? An exploration of ?boynes? through the treble voice. Sex Education, 6(2), 193-205. Ashley, M. (2010). Slappers who gouge your eyes: Vocal performance as exemplification of disturbing inertia in gender equality. Gender and Education, 22(1), 47-62. Barham, T. J. (2001). Strategies for teaching junior high & middle school male singers: Master teachers speak. Santa Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Music Publishing. Barton, B. K., & Cohen, R. (2004). Clasroom gender composition and children?s peer relations. Child Study Journal, 34(1), 29-45. Bjorklund, D. F., & Bering, J. M. (2000). The evolved child: Applying evolutionary developmental psychology to modern schooling. Learning and Individual Diferences, 12(4), 347-373. Blair, H., & Sanford, K. (1999). Single-sex clasrooms: A place for transformation of policy and practice. Paper presented at the annual meting of the American Educational Research Asociation. ERIC Retrieved February 5, 2007. Bland, J. (2003) About gender: Sex diferences. Retrieved from http:/ww.gender.org.uk/about/07neur/77_difs.htm. Brizendine, L. (2006). The female brain. New York: Broadway Books. ! 156 ! Brunner, D. L. (1992). Choral repertoire a director's checklist. Music Educators Journal, 79(1), 29. Buchanan, H. J., & Mehafey, M. W. (Eds.). (2005). Teaching music through performance in choir: Volume 1. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc. Buchanan, H. J., & Mehafey, M. W. (Eds.). (2007). Teaching music through performance in choir: Volume 2. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc. Cable, K. E., & Spradlin, T. (2008). Single-sex education in the 21st century. Education Policy Brief, 6(9), 1-12. Retrieved from ww.cep.indiana.edu/projects/PDF/PB_V6N9_Fal_2008_EPB.pdf Campbel, P. B., & Sanders, J. (2002). Chalenging the system: Asumptions and data behind the push for single-sex schooling. In A. Datnow & L. Hubbard (Eds.), Gender in policy and practice: Perspectives on single-sex and co-educational schooling, 31-46. New York, NY: Routledge-Falmer. Carp, R. S. (2004). Single gender choral ensembles, attitudes and practices: A survey of southern California high school choir directors. Retrieved June 30, 2011 from Disertations & Theses: A&I. (Publication No. AAT 3145167). Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., Terry, R. Wright, V. (1991). The role of aggresion in peer relations: An analysis of aggresion episodes in boys? play groups. Child Development, 62(4), 812-826. Col, J. (2001). Enchanted Learning. Retrieved from http:/ww.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/ear/ Col, J. (2001). Enchanted Learning. Retrieved from http:/ww.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/brain/Structure.shtml ! 157 ! Cooksey, J. M. (1977a). The development of a contemporary, eclectic theory for the training and cultivation of the junior high school male changing voice: Part I. The Choral Journal, 18(2), 5?14. Cooksey, J. M. (1977b). The development of a contemporary, eclectic theory for the training and cultivation of the junior high school male changing voice: Part II. The Choral Journal, 18(3), 5?16. Cooksey, J. M. (1977c). The development of a contemporary, eclectic theory for the training and cultivation of the junior high school male changing voice: Part III. The Choral Journal, 18(4), 5?15. Cooksey, J. M. (1978). The development of a contemporary, eclectic theory for the training and cultivation of the junior high school male changing voice: Part IV. The Choral Journal, 18(5), 5?18. De Belis et al. (n.d.). Sex diferences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 11(6), 552-557. Retrieved from http://cerdor.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/6/552.ful. Downey, D. B., & Vogt Yuan, A. S. (2005). Sex diferences in school performance during high school: Puzzling paterns and possible explanations. The Sociological Quarterly, 46, 299-321. Else-Quest, N., Hyde J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender diferences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 33- 72. Eros, J. (2008). Instrument selection and gender stereotypes: A review of recent literature. UPDATE: Applications of Research in Music Education, 27(1), 57-64. ! 158 ! Froese-Germain, B. (2006). Educating boys: Tempering rhetoric with research. McGil Journal of Education, 41(2), 145-154. Gackle, L. (1987). The efect of selected vocal techniques for breath management, resonation, and vowel unification on tone production in the junior high school female voice. Disertation Abstracts International, 48(4), 862A. (UMI No. 8716155). Gackle, L. (1991). The adolescent female voice: Characteristics of change and stages of development. Choral Journal, 31(8), 17?25. Gray, C., & Leith, H. (2004). Perpetuating gender stereotypes in the clasroom: A teacher perspective. Educational Studies, 30(1), 3-17. Gray, C., & Wilson, J. (2006). Teachers? experiences of a single-sex initiative in a co- education school. Educational Studies, 32(3), 285-298. Gurian, M. (2001). Boys and girls learn diferently: A guide for teachers and parents. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bas. Gurian, M., & Stevens, K. (2004). Closing achievement gaps: With boys and girls in mind. Educational Leadership, 62(3), 21-26. Hancock, C. B. (2008). Music teachers at risk for atrition and migration. Journal of Research in Music Education, 56(2), 130-144. Hancock, C. B. (2009). National estimates of retention, migration, and atrition. Journal of Research in Music Education, 57(2), 92-107. Hannon, J., & Ratlife, T. (2007). Opportunities to participate and teacher interactions in coed versus single-gender physical education setings. Physical Educator, 64(1), 11-20. ! 159 ! Honigsfeld, A., & Dunn, R. (2003). High school male and female learning-style similarities and diferences in diverse nations. Journal of Educational Research, 96(4), 195-206. Hutchings, M., Carrington, B., Francis, B., Skelton, C., Read, B., & Hal, I. (2008). Nice and kind, smart and funny: What children like and want to emulate in their teachers. Oxford Review of Education. 34(2), 135-137. Jackson, J. (2010). Dangerous presumptions: How single-sex schooling reifies false notions of sex, gender, and sexuality. Gender and Education, 22(2), 227-238. Jackson, C., & Smith, I. (2000). Poles apart? An exploration of single-sex and mixed-sex educational environments in Australia and England. Educational Studies, 26(4), 409-422. James, A. N. (2007). Teaching the male brain: How boys think, fel, and learn in school. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Pres. Johnson, C. M., & Stewart, E. E. (2004). Efect of sex identification on instrument asignment by band directors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(2), 130-140. Jones, S. M., & Dindia, K. (2004). A meta-analytic perspective on sex equity in the clasroom. Review of Educational Research, 74, 443-471. Jordan-Young, R. (2010). Brain storm: The flaws in the science of sex diferences. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pres. Jorgensen, N. S., & Pfeiler, C. (2008). Succesful single-sex offerings in the choral department. Music Educators Journal, 94(5), 36-40. Koza, J. E. (1992). Picture this. Music Educators Journal, 78(7), 28. ! 160 ! Koza, J .E. (1993). The ?mising males? and other gender isues in music education: Evidence from the Music Supervisors? Journal, 1914-1924. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(3), 212-232. Marshal, G. (1998). "Gender stereotypes." A Dictionary of Sociology. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: http://ww.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O8A genderstereotypes.html Marsh, H., Blair, K., Jones, M., Soliman, N., & Blair, R. (2008). Dominance and submision: The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and responses to status cues. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(4), 713-724. Martino, W., Mils, M., & Lingard, B. (2005). Interrogating single-sex clases as a strategy for addresing boys? educational and social needs. Oxford Review of Education, 31(2), 237-254. McArthur, T. (1998). "Gender bias." Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: http:/ww.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-GENDERBIAS.html McKeage, K. M. (2004). Gender and participation in high school and college instrumental jaz ensembles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52(4), 343- 356. Moir, A., & Jesel, D. (1991). Brain sex: The real diference between men and women. New York: Del Publishing. ! 161 ! Mostafa, O. M. (2006). Male/Female Brain Diferences: Medical education online. Retrieved from htp:/ww.medicaleducationonline.org/index.php?option= com_content&task=view&id=46&Itemid=69. Nycz, T. J. (2008) A description of a gender separate middle school choral program. (Master Thesis). Bowling Green State University. Retrieved from http://etd.ohiolink.edu/view.cgi/Nycz%20Tracey%20J.pdf?bgsu121389779 3. Obleser, J., Rockstroh, B., & Eulitz, C. (2004). Gender diferences in hemispheric asymmetry of syllable procesing: Left-lateralized magnetic N100 varies with syllable categorization in females. Psychophysiology, 41, 783-788. O?Toole, P. (1998). A mising chapter from choral methods books: How choirs neglect girls. Choral Journal, 39(5), 9-31. No Child Left Behind. (n.d.) U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from htp:/ww2.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml. Pollard, D. (1999). Single-sex education. WEEA Digest, October. Retrieved from htp:/secure.edc.org/WomensEquity/pubs/digests/digestAsinglesex.html. Rea, L. M. & Parker, R.A. (2005). Designing and conducting survey research, 3rd ed. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Rex, J., & Chadwel, D. (2009). Single-gender clasrooms. The School Administrator, 8(66), 28-33. Rhawn, J. (2000). The inferior parietal lobe. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Clinical Neuroscience. New York, NY: Academic Pres. Retrieved from http:/brainmind.com/InferiorParietal.html ! 162 ! Rice University (2000). Retrieved from htp:/ww.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/cgliden/frontal.html Ruytjens, L., Albers, F., Van Dijk, P., Wit, H., & Wilemsen, A. (2006). Neural responses to silent lipreading in normal hearing male and female subjects. European Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 1835-1844. Ruytjens, L., Georgiadis, J. R., Holstege, G., Wit, H. P., Albers, F. W. J., & Wilemsen, A. T. M. (2007). Functional sex diferences in human primary auditory cortex. European Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 2073-2081. Sadker, D. (1999). Gender equity: Stil knocking at the clasroom door. Educational Leadership, 56, 22-27. Sadker, D. (2002). An educator?s primer on the gender war. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(5), 81- 88. Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairnes: How our schools cheat girls. New York, NY: Touchstone. Sadker, D., & Zitleman, K. (2004). Single-sex schools: A good idea gone wrong? The Christian Science Monitor, 9-10. Sanders, J. (1997). Teacher education and gender equity. ERIC Digest, 96(3), 25-29. Sax, L. (2005). Why gender matters: What parents and teachers need to know about the emerging science of sex diferences. New York, NY: Broadway Books. Sax, L. (2009). Boys Adrift: The five factors driving the growing epidemic of unmotivated boys and underachieving young men. New York, NY: Basic Books. Sax, L. (2010). Girls on the edge: The four factors driving the new crisis for girls. New York, NY: Basic Books. ! 163 ! Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Pugh, K. R., Constable, R. T., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K., ?. Gores, J. C. (1995). Sex diferences in the functional organization of the brain for language. Leter to nature, 373(6615), 607-609. Snodgras, L. L., & Harring, K. E. (2004-2005). Right hemisphere positivity bias in preconscious procesing: Data from five experiments. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 23(4), 318-335. Steinberg, E. N. (2001). "Take a solo": An analysis of gender participation and interaction at school jaz festivals. Disertation Abstracts International, 62, 3329. Streitmater, J. (2002). Perceptions of a single-sex clas experience: Females and males se it diferently. In A. Datnow & L. Hubbard (Ed.), Gender in policy and practice (pp. 212-226). New York, NY: Routledge-Falmer. Trollinger, L. M. (1993). Sex/gender research in music education: A review. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 4(5), 22-39. United States Department of Labor. (2011). Title IX, educational amendments of 1972 (Title 20 U.S. C. Sections 1681-1688). Retrieved from htp:/ww.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/titleix.htm. Van Dyke, S. A., Zuverza, V., Hil, L. A., Miler, J. B., Rapport, L. J., & Whitman, R. D. (2009). Gender diferences in lateralized semantic priming. Developmental Neuropsychology, 34(4), 381-392. Vasich, T. (2005). Inteligence in men and women is a gray and white mater. Retrieved from http:/today.uci,edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1261. ! 164 ! Walker, M. (n.d.). Influences of gender and sex-stereotyping of middle school students? perception and selection of musical instruments: A review of literature. Retrieved from www.rider.edu/Avrme/articles4/walker/index.htm. Weaver-Hightower, M. (2003). The ?boy turn? in research on gender and education. Review of Education Research, 73(4), 471-498. Wehr-Flowers, E. (2006). Diferences betwen male and female students? confidence, anxiety, and atitude toward learning jaz improvisation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 54(4), 337-349. White, C., & White, D. (2001). Commonsense training for changing male voices. Music Educators Journal, 87(6), 39-43. Wilson, J. (2010). Practices of and attitudes toward high school treble clef choral ensembles. (Doctoral Disertation). Retrieved from Disertations & Theses: A&I. (Publication No. AAT 3430419). Zitleman, K., & Sadker, D. (n.d.). Teacher education textbooks: The unfinished gender revolution. Retrieved from ww.american.edu/sadker/textboks.htm. ! 165 ! Appendix(A( (Note:(DO(NOT(AGRE(TO(PARTICIPATE(UNLES(AN(IRB(APROVAL(STAMP(WITH(CURENT( DATES(HAS(BEEN(APLIED(TO(THIS(DOCUMENT.)( ( INFORMATION!LETER! Regarding!a!research!study!titled:! ?Choral!directors?!knowledge!and!perceived!importance!of!biological!and!sociological!sex!diferences! in!the!choral!clasrom.?! ! Dear!Coleague,! ! I!would!like!to!take!this!oportunity!to!invite!you!to!participate!in!a!research!study.!This!study!is! investigating!choral!directors?!knowledge!and!perceived!importance!of!sex!differences!in!the!choral! classrom.!You!were!selected!as!a!participant!because!you!are!atending!the!midle!schol!and!high! schol!reading!sessions!or!roundtable!sessions!held!during!the!2012!ACDA!Southern!Division! Conference.!Megan!W.!Rudolph,!doctoral!student,!is!conducting!this!research.!She!is!under!the! advisement!of!Dr.!Nancy!H.!Bary,!music!education!profesor!at!Auburn!University.! ! If!you!chose!to!participate!you!wil!be!asked!to!fil!out!the!enclosed!survey!and!return!it!at!the!end!of! the!sesion!in!the!slotted!boxes!located!at!the!exits.!There!are!no!risks!involved!with!participating!in! this!survey!and!you!wil!remain!anonymous.!The!survey!wil!take!no!longer!than!15!minutes!to! complete.! ! The!information!gathered!in!this!survey!may!prove!to!be!very!beneficial!to!choir!directors!al!over! the!country.!Results!may!be!used!at!clinics!and!workshops!to!bring!an!awarenes!of!this!topic!to! other!choral!directors.!Additionally,!this!information!may!be!used!to!write!articles!for!profesional! journals,!and!for!further!research!on!this!topic.! ! I!know!that!your!time!is!valuable!at!a!conference,!but!please!take!a!quick!moment!to!assist!a!felow! choral!director!Your!decision!about!whether!or!not!to!participate!wil!not!jeopardize!your!future! relations!with!Auburn!University,!the!Department!of!Curriculum!and!Teaching!or!the!Music! Education!Program.! ! Your!anonymity!wil!be!secure!throughout!this!entire!proces.!There!is!no!way!to!asociate!whom! answered!what!questions.!If!you!have!any!questions!or!concerns,!please!fel!fre!to!contact!me!at!any! time!wicksml@auburn.edu!or!205A402A5293.!If!you!have!any!questions!about!your!rights!as!a! research!participant,!you!may!contact!the!Auburn!University!Ofice!of!Human!Subjects!Research!or! the!Institutional!Review!Board!by!hsubject@auburn.edu!or!IRBChair@auburn.edu!or!by! phone!34A833A5966.! ! If(you(decide(to(participate,(the(answers(you(provide(wil(serve(as(an(agrement(for( participation(in(this(research(study.( ( Sincerely,! ! ! ! Megan!W.!Rudolph! PhD!Candidate! ! ( ! 166 ! Sex(Diferences(in(the(Secondary(Choral(Classroom( ( Please(take(a(moment(to(fil(out(this(anonymous(survey.(This(research(is(being(conducted(as(a(portion(of(the( requirements(for(a(Ph.D.(in(Music(Education(at(Auburn(University.(Please(answer(the(questions(truthfuly(and(to(the( best(of(your(ability.(For(this(survey,("secondary"(refers(to(Middle,(Jr.(High,(and(High(Schol(level(choral(ensemble( classes.( ( At(the(end(of(the(sesion(please(drop(your(survey(in(the(slotted(box(at(the(exits.(Thank&you&in&advance&for&your&time!& ! 1. Have(you(already(filed(out(this(survey(at(another(sesion?( ( !!!!!!!!!______!!!!!!!!Yes!?!!Thank!you!for!your!time.!Please!deposit!this!survey!in!the!sloted!box!at!the!end!( of!the!sesion,!you!do!not!ned!to!continue!any!further.( ______!!!!!No!?!!Please!continue!to!the!next!questions.! ! 2. What(is(your(sex?( ( ______! Female!! ______! Male! ! 3. In(what(state(do(you(curently(teach?( ( _____! Alabama! ! _____! South!Carolina! _____! Florida!! ! _____! Tennese! _____! Georgia!! ! _____! Virginia! _____! Kentucky! ! _____! West!Virginia! _____! Louisiana! ! _____! I!curently!do!not!teach.!Please!list! _____! Misisippi! ! ! !!your!state:!!_____________________________! _____! North!Carolina! ! _____! Other,!please!specify:!_________! ! 4. How(long(have(you(taught(secondary(choral(music?( ( _____! 0!years!! ! _____! 11A15!years! _____! 1A5!years! ! _____! 16A20!years! _____!!!!!6A10!years! ! _____! 20+!years! ! 5. What(grade(level(do(you(curently(teach?(Check&all&that&apply.)( ! _____! Elementary!(KA5)!! _____! 10 th ! _____! 6 th !!! ! ! _____! 11 th ! ! ! ! ! _____! 7 th ! ! ! _____! 12 th ! _____! 8 th ! ! ! _____! Post!Secondary! _____! 9 th ! ! ! _____! I!curently!do!not!teach.! ! 6. What(is(the(highest(degre(you(have(earned?(Please&check&one.)( ! _____! I!am!an!undergraduate!student.! _____! Bachelor?s! _____! Master?s! _____! EDS! _____! Doctorate! _____! I!am!a!graduate!student!in!the!following!degre!program_______________.! ! 7. How(many(mixed(sex(choirs(do(you(teach(during(the(schol(day?( (A!mixed!sex!choir!is!any!choir!that!has!both!males!and!females! !present!in!the!class!at!the!same!time.)! ! ! ______________! ! ! 167 ! 8. How(many(al(female(choirs(do(you(teach(during(the(regular(schol(day?( ( ______________! ( 9. How(many(al(male(choirs(do(you(teach(during(the(regular(schol(day?( ( ______________! ! 10. Which(type(of(choir(do(you(prefer(to(work(with?(Check(al(that(aply.)( ( _____!! Mixed!Sex!Choir! ! _____! All!Female!Choir! _____! All!Male!Choir! ! 11. Which(type(of(choir(is(your(least(favorite(to(work(with?(Check(al(that(apply.)( ( _____!! Mixed!Sex!Choir! _____! All!Female!Choir! _____! All!Male!Choir! & ! The folowing statements are generalizations that may or may not be true for the male and female student population. Please respond to each item by placing a circle around the answer that best fits your beliefs. ! Circle only ONE answer per question. Generaly true for BOTH SEXES. (1) Generaly true for FEMALES. (2) Generaly true for MALES. (3) Generaly NOT true for EITHER SEX. (4) I am not sure. (5) Tend!to!experience!voice!change!isues.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!respond!best!to!a!set!routine!in!the! classrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!be!distracted!by!social,!nonAacademic! issues!in!the!clasrom!(i.e.!flirting,!social!status,! etc.).! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!no!dificulty!hearing!female! teachers.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!be!selfAmotivated!in!the!clasrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!respond!wel!to!a!calm!clasrom! seting.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!lack!selfAmotivation!in!the!clasrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!utilize!only!auditory!areas!of!the!brain! when!analyzing!auditory!paterns.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!thrive!in!a!mixedAsex!environment.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!receive!litle!teacher!atention!for!their! behavior!in!the!clasrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!a!weaker!sense!of!hearing.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!be!sensitive!to!light!levels.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!proces!lipAreading!into!an!auditory! sound!(i.e.!directors!showing!students!vowel! formations,!giving!text!reminders!during!a! rehearsal!or!performance,!etc.).! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!experience!drastic!voice!change!isues! during!puberty.! 1 2 3 4 5 ! 168 ! Tend!to!have!more!areas!of!the!brain!activated! when!they!are!resting.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!atach!emotion!to!information!they! receive.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!proces!information!and!emotion!in! one!hemisphere!of!the!brain.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!be!sensitive!to!both!positive!and! negative!visual!stimuli.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!not!speak!out!in!the!clasrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!respond!wel!to!an!active!(kinesthetic)! classrom!environment.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!high!levels!of!testosterone.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!prefer!group!work.! ! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!dificulty!hearing!female!teachers.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!expres!felings!verbaly.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!prefer!confrontation!and!high!stimuli! situations.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!no!voice!change!isues.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!outbursts!and!be!rowdier!in!the! classrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!experience!minimal!voice!change! issues!and!vocal!cord!growth!throughout! puberty.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!not!be!distracted!by!social,!nonA academic!isues!in!the!classroom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!enjoy!competition!as!a!motivation!to! learn.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!high!levels!of!estrogen.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!not!be!agresive!in!nature.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!speak!out!in!the!clasrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!want!to!please!the!teacher.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!be!sensitive!to!light!levels.! ! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!respond!wel!to!teacherAdirected! instruction.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!experience!hormone!releases!several! times!a!day.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!receive!more!negative!teacher! attention!for!their! behavior!in!the!clasrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!proces!writen!words!faster.! 1 2 3 4 5 ! ! ! 169 ! Tend!to!have!dificulty!procesing!lipAreading! into!an!auditory!sound!(i.e.!directors!showing! students!vowel!formations,!giving!text! assistance!during!a!rehearsal!or!performance,! etc.).! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!control!their!clasrom!behavior.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!enjoy!competition!as!a!motivation!to! learn.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!a!stronger!sense!of!hearing.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!not!care!about!pleasing!the!teacher.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!like!situations!to!remain!calm!with!no! confrontations.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!utilize!language!and!auditory!areas!of! the!brain!when!analyzing!auditory!patterns.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!not!prefer!competition!as!a!motivation! to!learn.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!refrain!from!expresing!felings! verbally.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!proces!information!and!emotion!in! both!hemispheres!of!the!brain.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!no!brain!activity!during!verbal! stimuli!that!they!dem!not!important.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!prefer!varied!learning!activities!in!the! classrom.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!thrive!in!a!singleAsex!environment.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!atach!no!emotion!to!the!information! they!receive.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!be!sensitive!to!positive!visual!stimuli.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!show!brain!activity!even!when!they! deem!the!verbal!stimuli!not!important.! 1 2 3 4 5 Tend!to!have!more!areas!of!the!brain!activated! when!they!proces!information.! 1 2 3 4 5 ! Please(respond(to(the(following(statements(by( placing(an(?X?(in(the(box(that(best(fits(your( beliefs.( Strongly Agre (1) Agre (2) Neither agree nor Disagre (3) Disagre (4) Strongly Disagre (5) 12. Secondary choral teachers ned more knowledge about sex diferences. ! ! ! ! ! 13. I would atend profesional development regarding sex diferences if it were available. ! ! ! ! ! 14. Females are easier to teach than males. ! ! ! ! ! 15. Males are easier to teach than females. ! ! ! ! ! ( ( ! 170 ! Please(fel(fre(to(write(any(comments(you(have(about(this(survey(or(research(topic(below,(or(write(any(comments( you(would(like(to(comunicate(to(the(researcher.( ( ( ( ( Thank(you(for(taking(the(time(to(complete(this(survey!( ( Your(participation(is(deeply(appreciated!!( ( If(you(have(any(questions,(please(feel(fre(to(contact(the(researcher,(Megan(WickseRudolph(at( wicksml@auburn.edu(or(her(supervisor(Dr.(Nancy(Bary(at(NHB0002@auburn.edu.((You(may(also( contact(the(Ofice(of(Human(Subjects(Research(at(Auburn(University(at(hsubject@auburn.edu(or(by(phone( 334e833e5966.( ( Thank(you(again!( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ! 171 ! Appendix(B( ! ! RECRUITMENT!SCRIPT!for!Megan!WicksARudolph! ! My!name!is!Megan!WicksARudolph!and!I!am!a!Ph.D.!Candidate!from!the!Department! of!Curiculum!and!Teaching!at!Auburn!University.!I!would!like!to!invite!you!to! participate!in!my!research!study!entitled!?Sex!Differences!in!the!Secondary!Choral! Clasrom?.!Any!choral!director!may!participate.! ! As!a!participant,!you!wil!be!asked!to!complete!a!survey.!This!survey!wil!take!no! longer!than!15!minutes!and!is!anonymous.!If!you!would!like!to!participate!in!this! research!study,!please!complete!the!survey!and!return!it!to!the!sloted!boxes!at!the! dor!at!the!conclusion!of!the!sesion.!If!you!have!already!completed!this!survey! once,!please!mark!the!apropriate!box!and!turn!in!the!survey.! ! Do!you!have!any!questions?! ! If!you!have!questions!later,!please!fel!fre!to!contact!me!at!205A402A5293,!or!you! may!contact!my!advisor,!Dr.!Nancy!Bary,!at!NHB202@auburn.edu.! ! Thank!you!in!advance!for!helping!me! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 172 ! Appendix(C( ! ! From: "Batey, Angela Lyn" Date: December 6, 201 9:43:37 PM CST To: "Megan W. Rudolph" Cc: Tom Shelton Subject: Re: Regional ACDA Hi, Megan! I was actualy in on this discusion with al the parties that you mentioned. It my understanding you were given aproval to contact the Divisional R & S Chairs related to your research about having these available at their roundtable sesions. I hope you wil take the advice to go to the exhibit hal and ask permision from one of the exhibitors to stand around their both and greet people requesting their asistance for your research. The Reading Sesions are completely diferent from the roundtable sesions, but, in consultation with Tom, we agreed you could place your surveys on the chairs in the room imediately prior to the Reading Sesion for the Midle Schol and High Schol R & S areas. Best of luck! AB ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 173 ! Appendix(D( ! Human Subjects [HSUBJEC@auburn.edu] Tuesday, February 21, 2012 1:25 PM Dear%Ms.%Wicks, % Your%protocol%entitled%"Secondary%Choral%Directors'%Awarenes%of%biological%and%Sociological%Sex% Diferences%in%the%Choral%Clasrom"%has%received%final%aproval%as%"Exempt"%under%federal% regulation%45%CFR%46.101(b)(2). % Official%notice: This%e'mail%serves%as%oficial%notice%that%your%protocol%has%ben%aproved.%A%formal%aproval% leter%will%not%be%sent%unles%you%notify%us%that%you%ned%one.%%By%acepting%this%approval,%you% also%accept%your%responsibilities%associated%with%this%approval.%Details%of%your%responsibilities% are%attached.%Please%print%and%retain. % Consent%document: Your%approved,%stamped%consent%wil%soon%be%forwarded%by%mail%to%your%Vestavia%Hils%adress. % Please%note%that%you$may$not$begin$your$research$that$involves$human$subjects$until$you$receive$ the$consent%with%an%IRB%aproval%stamp%aplied.%You%must%use%copies%of%that%document%when% you%consent%participants,%and%provide%a%copy%(signed%or%unsigned)%for%them%to%keep. % Expiration: Your%protocol%wil%expire%on%February%18,%2013.%Put%that%date%on%your%calendar%now.%About% three%weks%before%that%time%you%wil%ned%to%submit%a%final%report%or%renewal%request.%(You% might%send%yourself%a%delayed%eWmail%reminder%for%next%January.)% % If%you%have%any%questions,%please%let%us%know. % Best%wishes%for%succes%with%your%research! Susan % Susan%Anderson,%IRB%Administrator IRB%/%Ofice%of%Research%Compliance 115%Ramsay%Hall%(basement)%%%%%%%**%NOTE%ADDRES%*** Auburn%University,%AL%36849 (334)%84W5966 hsubjec@auburn.edu! !