Mass-Customization Through Digital Manufacturing 
 
by 
 
Adam Christopher Carter 
 
 
 
 
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of 
Auburn University 
in partial fulfillment of the 
requirements for the Degree of 
Master of Industrial Design 
 
Auburn, Alabama 
August 03, 2013 
 
 
 
 
Keywords: 3D Printing, Additive Manufacturing, On-Demand Manufacturing,  
 Mass-Customization, Rapid Manufacturing  
 
 
Copyright 2013 by Adam Christopher Carter 
 
 
Approved by 
 
Richard Britnell, Chair, Professor of Industrial Design 
Tin-Man Lau, Professor of Industrial Design 
Bret Smith, Professor of Industrial Design 
Christopher Arnold, Associate Professor of Industrial Design  
 
 
 
  
ii 
 
ABSTRACT 
 
 
 
Manufacturing is an ever-evolving process that constantly changes how products 
are developed. Changes in manufacturing can affect society and companies worldwide 
resulting in innovative new products and processes. Industrial Designers are critical to 
new product development and must always stay on the cutting edge of technology. As 
technology changes, so must the processes associated with new product development. 
This study will show that on-demand manufacturing techniques are becoming more 
popular and may become the industry standard in specialty categories. Therefore, a new 
product development process is needed to keep up with new technologies currently in the 
market place. Research will pinpoint the need for user-customized products that can be 
manufactured using the process set forth in this study. This study will present various 
solutions for selling user customizable on-demand products that will benefit designers, 
customers, and consumers.  
iii 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 
 This study would not have been possible without the support of my family, 
friends, and the Auburn University Industrial Design Department. I would like to thank 
my loving wife and best friend, Catherine Carter, and my precious daughter, Samantha, 
for their unrelenting support and devotion. I would also like to thank my parents, Boots 
and Carol Carter, for their support and unconditional love they have shown me 
throughout my life. I would also like to thank my committee members, Professor Richard 
Britnell, Professor Tin-Man Lau, Professor Bret Smith, and Associate Professor 
Christopher Arnold for their encouragement and insight throughout my career as an 
Industrial Designer. I would finally like to give a special thank you to Professor Clark 
Lundell and Mr. David Gowan for their generous support and encouragement. 
  
iv 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 
Abstract   ............................................................................................................................. ii 
Acknowledgments  ............................................................................................................ iii 
List of Figures   ................................................................................................................. vii 
List of Abbreviations   ....................................................................................................... xi 
 
CHAPTER ONE 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Problem Statement   .................................................................................................1 
 Need For Study   ......................................................................................................3 
Objectives for Study   ..............................................................................................4 
Definition of Key Terms   ........................................................................................5 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
Overview   ..............................................................................................................10 
 Literature Review  .................................................................................................10 
Need for Product   ......................................................................................11 
Mass-Customization   ................................................................................12 
Rapid Prototyping   ....................................................................................13 
Customizing   .............................................................................................22 
Project Time Scales  ..................................................................................26 
Leading the Way   ......................................................................................30 
Designer Abilities (Concurrency in Design)   ............................................32 
Interchangeable Parts   ...............................................................................41 
Mass Production  .......................................................................................44 
Customization   ..........................................................................................51 
Smart Car/ Mercedes-Benz   ..........................................................52 
IKEA   ............................................................................................55
Cellular Phones   ............................................................................57 
On-Demand Manufacturing   .....................................................................64 
v 
 
Digital Manufacturing   ..................................................................66 
3D Printing   ...................................................................................67 
Layer Resolution   ..........................................................................69 
On-Demand Manufacturing via 3D Printing   ...............................70 
Hobby Categories  .....................................................................................72 
Model Railroad   ............................................................................73 
Scale   .............................................................................................76 
Market Overview   .........................................................................77 
Retail Sales  ...................................................................................78 
Accessories   ..................................................................................78 
 Literature Review Summary   ................................................................................79 
Assumptions of Study   ..........................................................................................81 
Scope & Limits of Study  ......................................................................................82 
Anticipated Outcome   ...........................................................................................82
Outcome: Design Criteria   ....................................................................................83 
Summary of Chapter   ............................................................................................84 
 
 
CHAPTER THREE  
 
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESS 
 
Overview   ..............................................................................................................85 
Procedures and Methods   ......................................................................................86 
Research   ...................................................................................................86 
Development   ............................................................................................87 
Implementation   ........................................................................................88 
Opportunity and Design Strategy   .........................................................................91 
Customization   ..........................................................................................91 
Product Concepts   .....................................................................................97 
Computer Models  .....................................................................................98 
Customization Chart   ..............................................................................100 
Selling Final Product ...........................................................................................102 
Selling Physical Products to Consumers .................................................104 
Selling Digital Files to Consumers Worldwide  ......................................105 
Selling Digital Files to Small Businesses Worldwide  ............................107 
Summary of Chapter   ..........................................................................................107 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
vi 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
 
APPLICATION OF PROCESS 
 
Overview   ............................................................................................................110 
3D Personal Printer   ............................................................................................110 
Materials   ................................................................................................112 
Material Cost   ..........................................................................................114 
MakerWare   ............................................................................................115 
Slicing   ....................................................................................................116 
Printing   ...................................................................................................118 
Prototype Parts   ...........................................................................118 
Final Product   ..............................................................................119 
Branding   .............................................................................................................120 
Company Name   .....................................................................................120 
Company Logo  .......................................................................................121 
Mock Website Development   ..............................................................................122 
Summary of Chapter   ..........................................................................................126 
 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
 
CONCLUSIONS 
 
Summary of Study   .............................................................................................127 
Recommendations for Further Studies   ...............................................................129 
Synopsis  ..............................................................................................................130 
Findings ...............................................................................................................131 
References   ......................................................................................................................134 
vii 
 
List of Figures 
 
 
Figure 1   ............................................................................................................................14 
Figure 2   ............................................................................................................................15 
Figure 3   ............................................................................................................................16 
Figure 4   ............................................................................................................................17 
Figure 5   ............................................................................................................................18 
Figure 6   ............................................................................................................................20 
Figure 7   ............................................................................................................................24 
Figure 8   ............................................................................................................................24 
Figure 9   ............................................................................................................................39 
Figure 10   ..........................................................................................................................43 
Figure 11   ..........................................................................................................................44 
Figure 12   ..........................................................................................................................46 
Figure 13   ..........................................................................................................................47 
Figure 14   ..........................................................................................................................48 
Figure 15   ..........................................................................................................................49 
Figure 16   ..........................................................................................................................50 
Figure 17   ..........................................................................................................................53 
Figure 18   ..........................................................................................................................53 
Figure 19   ..........................................................................................................................54
viii 
 
Figure 20   ..........................................................................................................................54 
Figure 21   ..........................................................................................................................56 
Figure 22   ..........................................................................................................................57 
Figure 23   ..........................................................................................................................59 
Figure 24   ..........................................................................................................................60 
Figure 25   ..........................................................................................................................61 
Figure 26   ..........................................................................................................................63 
Figure 27   ..........................................................................................................................64 
Figure 28   ..........................................................................................................................65 
Figure 29   ..........................................................................................................................68 
Figure 30   ..........................................................................................................................71 
Figure 31   ..........................................................................................................................72 
Figure 32   ..........................................................................................................................73 
Figure 33   ..........................................................................................................................74 
Figure 34   ..........................................................................................................................75 
Figure 35   ..........................................................................................................................76 
Figure 36   ..........................................................................................................................77 
Figure 37   ..........................................................................................................................79 
Figure 38   ..........................................................................................................................87 
Figure 39   ..........................................................................................................................88 
Figure 40   ..........................................................................................................................89 
Figure 41   ..........................................................................................................................90 
Figure 42   ..........................................................................................................................92 
ix 
 
Figure 43   ..........................................................................................................................93 
Figure 44   ..........................................................................................................................93 
Figure 45   ..........................................................................................................................95 
Figure 46   ..........................................................................................................................96 
Figure 47   ..........................................................................................................................97 
Figure 48   ..........................................................................................................................99 
Figure 49   ........................................................................................................................101 
Figure 50   ........................................................................................................................103 
Figure 51   ........................................................................................................................104 
Figure 52   ........................................................................................................................106 
Figure 53   ........................................................................................................................107 
Figure 54   ........................................................................................................................108 
Figure 55   ........................................................................................................................111 
Figure 56   ........................................................................................................................113 
Figure 57   ........................................................................................................................113 
Figure 58   ........................................................................................................................114 
Figure 59   ........................................................................................................................116 
Figure 60   ........................................................................................................................117 
Figure 61   ........................................................................................................................118 
Figure 62   ........................................................................................................................119 
Figure 63   ........................................................................................................................120 
Figure 64   ........................................................................................................................121 
Figure 65   ........................................................................................................................122 
x 
 
Figure 66   ........................................................................................................................123 
Figure 67   ........................................................................................................................124 
Figure 68   ........................................................................................................................124 
Figure 69   ........................................................................................................................125 
Figure 70   ........................................................................................................................133 
 
xi 
 
List of Abbreviations 
 
 
2D Two Dimensions 
3D Three Dimensions 
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene 
CAD Computer Aided Design 
CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing 
CNC Computer Numerical Control 
DIY Do It Yourself 
FDM Fused Deposition Modeling  
FOB Freight On Board 
ID Industrial Design 
NPD New Product Development 
ODM On-Demand Manufacturing 
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer 
PLA Polylactic Acid 
PVA Polyvinyl Alcohol 
RP Rapid Prototyping 
SEMA Specialty Equipment Market Association 
SLS Selective Laser Sintering 
ITU  International Telecommunications Union
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 
Problem Statement 
 
Customization is the process by which a consumer modifies or alters a product in 
a specific way to meet their specifications and desires. Customization has been 
documented throughout society since the beginning of history.  The act of customizing a 
product can be seen throughout the world, in all walks of life, and in various product 
categories. Economies of scale affect customization in manufacturing; therefore, most 
customization is done aftermarket by the consumer. A very common customization 
market can be seen in the automotive industry. An individual supplier may provide 
consumers with an assortment of wheel choices, while another supplier offers suspension 
kits and a third supplies performance engine parts. The original equipment manufacturer 
(OEM) cannot afford to spend money on tooling multiple styles of parts, warehousing, 
researching, or developing the additional parts needed to make consumers happy with 
their customizations. 
?Hot Rodding? is a term that was coined in the early 1930?s when customizing 
vehicles began. The evolution of ?Hot Rodding? began with the need for hauling 
moonshine during prohibition. Moonshiners would customize their cars with performance 
enhancing parts to help them outrun federal agents, starting a trend in customization 
(Alexander). Hot rods can also be an outward showing of the owner?s
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personality and uniqueness through innovations. Each owner is able to create personal 
touches and claim that the vehicle is the only one of its kind. Most customizations are 
done by ?do it yourself? (DIY) individuals who can build one off items with minimal 
time and cost. Some modifications are simple five-minute projects, while others can 
involve months of research and fabrication.  
New innovative products are often introduced during the Specialty Equipment 
Market Association (SEMA) tradeshow in Las Vegas, Nevada, each year. In 2012, over 
135,000 attendees and approximately 2,250 vendors were on hand making the show the 
?largest small business-gathering in the United States? (2012 SEMA Show Statistics and 
Highlights, 2013). The SEMA show is dedicated to exhibiting the latest innovative 
automotive product ideas that would allow any consumer to customize their vehicle. 
According to the 2012 SEMA annual market report, retail sales for the show grossed 
nearly $30 billion (SEMA). SEMA proves that customization is important to consumers 
and that customization can be successful. 
Allowing the consumer to easily become their own designer and, if desired, their 
own manufacturer is revolutionary and could change the entire way aftermarket sales are 
handled in the future. Consumers will purchase products they can customize easily if they 
are given the option and it is convenient for them to do so. The customer will have a 
greater attachment to the final product and will typically be willing to pay more for the 
final product (Carter).  
Hobbyists can see their dreams come into fruition with the help of rapid 
prototyping machines that are capable of printing three-dimensional parts by using 
computer models as reference. As rapid prototyping machines become more affordable 
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and the quality of the final product improves, products will evolve and some products 
will start becoming manufactured at home or in specialty stores on 3D personal printers 
(Anderson).  
Need for Study 
This study will provide novice DIY hobbyists the ability to become their own 
personal manufacturer on-demand. As technology grows, so do the needs of the 
consumer; therefore, various solutions will be defined to account for variables such as, 
but not limited to, the introduction of new technologies, overhead costs, equipment 
maintenance, and material costs.  
Rapid prototyping websites are typically open source by design and flooded with 
random pieces and parts and spread across numerous product categories. A shotgun 
approach to file sharing can be confusing to a consumer and instantly turn them away 
from the process altogether. We will focus a portion of this study to developing an 
organized file management system that will be integrated into an e-commerce site. This 
e-commerce site will be used to promote and sell innovative and customizable designs. 
There are many opportunities to pursue when it comes to customization; however, 
for this study we will focus on model railroads. By creating a process for a scale model, 
we can accurately build within the limits of current affordable desktop 3D printers and 
other additive manufacturing processes. Though this study will be focused on model 
railroads, the data and practices can be applied to other product categories as well. 
  
4 
 
Objectives for Study 
The following areas will be the primary focus of this study.  
Objectives 
? Research companies who currently sell customized products. 
? Research websites who provide consumers 3D printed parts. 
? Define existing products and services currently available. 
? Identify and create a set of rules for developing customizable digital files for 
printing using 3D personal printers. 
? Define a set of scale model parts that can benefit from being customizable and 
printed using a 3D personal printer. 
? Develop a set of products that can be customizable and printed on 3D personal 
printers. 
? Create a mock e-commerce site to sell digital files and parts. 
  
5 
 
Definition of Key Terms 
 
 
3D Printer: A machine that prints three-dimensional parts from a digital file. 
Additive Manufacturing: A process of making a three-dimensional solid object of 
virtually any shape from a digital model. 3D printing is achieved using an additive 
process, where successive layers of material are laid down in different shapes.  
Computer Aided Design (CAD): The use of computer programs and systems to design 
detailed two- or three-dimensional models of physical objects, such as mechanical parts, 
buildings, and molecules. 
Concurrent Design: A work methodology based on the parallelization of product 
development tasks. The methodology helps ensure product functions are studied 
systematically throughout the development process. 
Consumer: The end user who purchases products or services for personal use. 
Customer: A dealer who purchases a product or service from the manufacturer with the 
intent to resell the product or service. 
Customizable: To change a product according to a customer?s individual requirements. 
Customization: To build, fit, or alter according to individual specifications. 
Digital Fabrication: A process of using 3D modeling software to develop digital 3D 
computer models that can later be used for manufacturing. 
Digital Files: Electronic files that contains useful information, such as documents, 
images, or 3D models of products. 
Digitizing: A digital representation made of an analog object. The digital file can later be 
used to recreate the analog part.  
6 
 
E-commerce: Buying and selling of products or services that is conducted over the 
Internet using websites, also referred to as electronic commerce.  
Fabrication: To construct from diverse and usually standardized parts. 
File Management: The grouping and structure assigned to digital computer files to 
provide order and structure to stored files. 
Flat Packed: Ready-to-assemble furniture that is shipped in multiple unassembled pieces 
and requires assembly. 
Fordism: Named after Henry Ford, is a notion of a modern economic and social system 
based on an industrialized and standardized form of mass production. The manufacturing 
system designed to spew out standardized, low-cost goods and afford its workers decent 
enough wages to buy them. 
G-Code:  A computer language used to tell computerized machine tools what to make 
and how to make it. 
Gestalt: Psychological point of view that says it is necessary to consider the whole of 
something, since the whole has a meaning apart from its individual elements. The whole 
is greater than the sum of the parts. 
Hobby: Activity that is done for pleasure, typically, during one?s leisure time. 
Hobbyist: A person who engages in an activity solely for fun. 
Hot Rodding: American cars modified with large engines and custom parts and 
primarily designed for racing. 
Industrial Design: An applied art whereby the aesthetics and usability of products may 
be improved. Design aspects specified by the industrial designer may include the overall 
shape of the object, the location of details with respect to one another, colors, texture, 
7 
 
sounds, and aspects concerning the use of the product ergonomics. Additionally the 
industrial designer may specify aspects concerning the production process, choice of 
materials and the way the product is presented to the consumer at the point of sale. The 
use of industrial designers in a product development process may lead to added values by 
improved usability, lowered production costs and more appealing products.
Maker: A contemporary culture with focus and interests in developing concepts and 
products through the use of electronics, robotics, 3D Printing, CNC and various other 
technologies. 
MakerBot: A 3D printer manufacturing company who sells affordable at home 3D 
printers. 
MakerWare: Computer software developed by MakerBot Industries to slice 3D CAD 
files into G-Code computer language. 
Manufacturer: The company or person who develops goods or services to be sold to 
customers and/or consumers. 
Manufacturing: The development of goods for use or sale using labor, machines, and 
tools. 
Mass-customization: The use of flexible computer-aided manufacturing systems to 
produce a custom output. Those systems combine the low unit costs of mass production 
processes with the flexibility of individual customization. 
Mass-production: A term coined by Henry Ford to describe the manufacture of goods in 
large quantities, often using standardized designs and assembly-line techniques. 
Napster: A pioneering peer-to-peer file sharing Internet service that emphasized sharing 
audio files, typically music, encoded in MP3 format. 
8 
 
New Product Development (NPD): The complete process of bringing a new product to 
market.  
On-Demand Manufacturing: A process of making and manufacturing a three-
dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital computer model. 
One-off products: A one-of?a-kind product, which has never been duplicated. 
Open-Source: Computer software or files whose source code is available free of charge 
to the public to use, copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute. 
Peer-to-peer: Allows users to download media files such as music, movies, and games 
using a P2P software client that searches for other connected computers. 
Pirating: To make use of or reproduce (another's work) without authorization. 
Rapid Customization: The ability to produce custom products at a mass-produced 
speed. 
Rapid Manufacturing: The process of manufacturing goods using rapid prototyping 
machinery. 
Slicing: A process used by MakerWare software to slice 3D CAD files into G-Code that 
a CNC machine can understand. 
Rapid Prototyping: Automatic construction of physical objects using solid freeform 
fabrication. The first techniques for rapid prototyping became available in the late 1980s 
and were used to produce models and prototype parts. 
Solid Modeling: A consistent set of principles for mathematical and computer modeling 
of three-dimensional solids. 
9 
 
*.STL: A digital file format containing 3D computer models that are typically used for 
rapid prototyping. The file format is common throughout many software packages and 
has become a standard format. 
*.x3g: Digital file format created by MakerWare software when slicing a 3D CAD file 
for use on a 3D printer. 
10 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
 
Overview 
Chapter two will discuss the past, present and future of manufacturing, 
customization, and the hobby industry. In this chapter, each section will present the 
reader with critical key elements that will help defend the study in later chapters. The 
chapter will discuss the importance of interchangeable parts throughout history along 
with the invention of mass production and the assembly line. The chapter will discuss the 
future of 3D printing by using the hobby industry as an example. 
Literature Review 
Personalizing everyday life is a way of the world. Customizing is defined as 
modifying or building according to individual or personal specifications or preference. 
Each company comes up with some new and innovative way to please the customers of 
the world. Each company has its own niche that it is good at, and in turn does very well 
with that product.  
Every company tries to appeal to the largest number of people possible when 
creating a design. Typically larger companies are able to offer more variety in their 
designs due to the availability of funds for, among other things, changing molds or just 
tweaking the colors. Customizing is largely noticeable in the automotive fields of design, 
where people are often trying to make their vehicle be different from everyone else?s. For
11 
 
example each vehicle has a different cost; therefore, a cheaper vehicle may end up in a 
student?s hands while a more expensive vehicle may end up in an executive?s hands. If 
each vehicle is different than the next and each person is able to choose which vehicle 
they want within their budget, then each consumer is already customizing his or her life. 
Chances are that when a person purchases a vehicle of his or her choice, that choice is 
based on a number of things, one being a status symbol to others. If we imply that no two 
cars are exactly the same after a consumer purchases a vehicle, this proves that 
customization is in fact all around us.  
Need for a Product 
 Before a company develops and markets a new product to sell to consumers, the 
company must first realize that a need for that product exists. As Usher explains: 
The realization of a product consists essentially of two steps: Design and 
manufacturing. However, in order to understand the process, we must look 
at the total life of a product. The life of a product begins with its planning 
the different life phases of a product. The need for a product, whether real 
or imagined, must exist. This may come from external or internal sources. 
The external causes for a new product might include a direct order from a 
customer, the obsolescence of an existing product, the availability of new 
technologies, or a change in market demands (Usher, 60). 
A product can only be developed if it is determined that there is in fact a need for 
that product. A product will only sell if people need that product and want it or in fact 
need it. ?The industrial design process includes several phases, such as investigation of 
customer needs, conceptualization, and preliminary refinement... etcetera? (Gero, 372). 
12 
 
This is how designers and business people decide what needs to go onto the market or 
what may wind up being a cutting edge design. This information is collected from 
surveys, polls, and other forms of data collecting. Analysis of the data allows the majority 
choice to be chosen for a design. If companies were to broaden their scope to everyone, 
there would be more business, but it would take much more work in the long run.   
Mass-Customization 
 In order to expand their market share, companies are exploring mass-
customization, but too often without knowledge of whether, in fact, their many products 
with little actual variety is what is wanted or needed. 
Mass-customization embarks a new paradigm for manufacturing 
industries, focusing on variety and customization through flexibility and 
quick responsiveness with the goal of developing, producing, marketing, 
and delivering affordable products that can satisfy as wide a range of 
customers as possible. To adopt the mass-customization paradigm, many 
companies are being faced with the challenge of providing as much 
variety as possible for the market with as little variety as possible between 
products in order to maintain economies of scale while satisfying a wide 
range of customer requirements (Gero, 407).  
Variety is a way of saying that companies are just trying to flood the market with 
a bunch of junk and hoping that something appeals to consumers. To look at the 
paradigm in another way, a cook can throw spaghetti on the wall and odds are that one 
noodle may stick if it is close to done, but it may still be slightly overcooked or 
13 
 
undercooked, or not exactly what the consumer wants. Why not customize the right way, 
by hearing what each person wants and customizing for each individual in particular? 
Rapid Prototyping 
Rapid prototyping (RP) is a process that significantly reduces the time between 
concept and the production of high quality prototype parts or tools. ?It is the layer-by-
layer fabrication of three-dimensional physical models directly from a computer-aided 
design (CAD)? (Bennett, Cooper; Foreword, 1). For this paper, RP is a major factor in 
the customization of parts, due to the ease and time it takes to produce a part. ?The RP 
process provides designers and engineers the capability to literally print out their ideas in 
three dimensions? (Cooper, 1). RP is needed in any customization field to check for 
errors or design flaws before creating hundreds of parts that may be inadequate for the 
consumer.  
All of the RP processes construct objects by producing very thin cross 
sections of the part, one on top of the other, until the solid physical part is 
completed. This simplifies the intricate three-dimensional construction 
process in that essentially two-dimensional slices are being created and 
stacked together. For example, instead of trying to cut out a sphere with a 
detailed machining process, stacks of various-sized "circles" are built 
consecutively in the RP machine to create the sphere with ease. The 
advantage of building a part in layers is that it allows you to build complex 
shapes that would be virtually impossible to machine, in addition to the 
more simple designs. RP can build intricate internal structures, parts inside 
14 
 
of parts, and very thin-walled features just as easily as building a simple 
cube (Cooper, 1). 
Figure 1 shows the progression of a sphere as it would be printed on a rapid 
prototyping machine. The progression starts with a small layer of material built upon the 
previous layer of material. The process is known as additive manufacturing and can be 
used to make elaborate parts that would otherwise be impossible to create. The figure 
shows a sphere in different stages of the print process. The first image shown on the left 
is in the beginning phases of the print process. As the layers are laid down, the image 
becomes apparent. The figure demonstrates the start, shown on the left, to the final 
product on the right.  
 
 
FIGURE 1: 3D Printing Progression from Left to Right 
 
While using this method of creating a one-off part, virtually any shape can be 
generated that would otherwise not be feasible for mass production. Figure 2 illustrates 
three hollow spheres that are easily manufacturable using the additive manufacturing 
process. In contrast, traditional manufacturing methods will only allow individual 
15 
 
hemispheres to be manufactured. Each hemisphere would then have to be bonded 
together to make the parts as shown in Figure 2. 
 
 
FIGURE 2: Hollow Spheres 
  
Figure 3 shows the three spheres from Figure 2 in a nested state. The three 
spheres are very unique in design and together create a final product that is virtually 
impossible to machine. However, reproduction of this complex design is easily capable 
by using a 3D printer. 
 
  
16 
 
 
FIGURE 3: Nested Hollow Spheres 
 
Conventional manufacturing will not allow undercuts or parts within parts, 
making RP a valuable tool for creating intricate structures. These features can be greatly 
beneficial to consumers and manufacturers worldwide.  
 
  
17 
 
 
FIGURE 4: 3D Printed Nested Hollow Spheres 
 
Figure 4 is a 3D printed part that measures 2.5 inches in diameter. The sphere 
shows multiple cross sections that illustrate the build process. The cross sections in the 
figure are vertical, but when the part is being printed, the sections will be horizontal. 
From the figure we can confirm that this part was lying on the left or right side as it was 
printed. The base of the sphere, however, has horizontal layers that show that the part was 
built in the normal orientation. 
18 
 
Car developers are capable of using 3D printers to simplify intricate assemblies 
and reduce the number of parts required to develop products. The developers of the 3D 
printed car ?Urbee 2,? for example, have stated that the plastic materials used to 
manufacture the car are ?as strong as steel, but weigh half as much? (George).   
 
 
 
FIGURE 5: Sara Payne?s Photo of the Urbee 2 3D Printed Car and Engineer Jim Kor 
(George). 
 
The Urbee 2 3D Printed Car demonstrates how important RP can be in 
automotive customization for all types of parts. 
19 
 
This process is vital in creating hard to build parts quickly and easily. By 
utilizing this method of production a customizing company could create 
intricate parts as well as simple parts for production. RP also decreases the 
amount of operation time required by humans to build parts. The RP 
machines, once started, usually run unattended until the part is complete. 
This comes after the operator spends a small amount of time setting up the 
control program. Afterwards, some form of cleanup operation is usually 
necessary, generally referred to as post processing. Nonetheless, the user 
intervention times still remain far less than that for traditional machining 
processes (Cooper, 1-2). 
 Wired Magazine?s Alexander George explains that the Urbee 2 can be 
manufactured in 2,500 hours through an approach that has been coined as ?Lights Out.? 
The ?Lights Out? approach is described as being able to set up a machine to build a part, 
and walking away from the machine and turning off all the lights, only needing to return 
when the part has been finished or more material is needed for the machine. The time it 
takes to manufacture the final product is continuous machine operating time and is not 
based on standard work hours. The machines are capable of working through the night 
without the need for manual labor (George). One machine operator is now capable of 
controlling multiple machines, unlike mass production where one operator is tasked with 
one machine. Due to this feature, RP is an inexpensive alternative to mass production 
because of the limited labor required to operate equipment. The more labor involved in 
making a part will increase the cost of the final product, thus proving why RP is a 
practical solution to new product manufacturing. The stage where labor needs are higher, 
20 
 
post-processing, is the method of finalizing 3D printed parts by removing support 
material and cleaning any residual material from the part. The process will need to be 
minimized to ensure the cost remains as low as possible.  
 
 
FIGURE 6: Sara Payne?s Photo of the Urbee 2 3D Printed Car (George). 
 
 Though not widely produced or distributed, the Urbee 2 3D Printed Car 
demonstrates the importance that RP can hold, not only in customization, but also 
prototype modeling, especially for small companies. 
As you can see, RP is a very powerful utility for prototype modeling in 
today's high-speed design-to-market workplace. Quick and inexpensive 
prototypes are the reason the technology was invented, as it is still a very 
important function to accommodate. RP is an excellent prototype-run 
21 
 
alternative, but since its creation, as all good technologies do, it has 
branched out into even more useful applications, including casting, 
tooling, reverse engineering, and direct hardware fabrication (Cooper, 6). 
 
As the uses of RP become more widely explored and utilized, it can move 
into other manufacturing processes in which labor is a major cost concern. 
RP is a great method for the prototype-run alternative, but if it were used 
correctly it could possibly be a manufacturing process, rather than a pre-
manufacturing process. With the average cost of a robot running upwards 
of $50,000 plus, and the annual operating cost of roughly $5 per hour, 
robots can run longer, smarter, and cheaper than a minimum wage 
employee (Gerstenfeld, 10).  
As can be seen, RP is a valuable tool in keeping the cost of labor down, and it also 
allows companies to control the cost throughout the product life cycle. 
From the time the development of a product begins, its cost starts to grow 
because of the resources used for its realization--personnel, facilities, and 
equipment. The price of a competitor's product in a free-market economy, 
however, drops with time. There are several reasons for the latter, for 
example, rationalization of the manufacturing process, cost driven 
improvements in design, and increased knowledge about the product--the 
?learning process? (Usher, 65). 
  
22 
 
Customizing 
Customizing can create new markets as well as broaden existing markets by 
giving consumers the ability to change products according to their personal preferences. 
Economies of scale limit manufacturing abilities because of cost associated with tooling 
and production. The law of supply and demand is a large factor in customization and can 
determine the success or failure in business. Finding a niche where the greatest profit 
margin can be acquired is the key to a successful business and is a very important 
consideration when deciding on the customizations to be made available for purchase. 
Art Hedrick explains that hard tooling is costly and can take months to develop, thus 
costing not only money, but time. When products change, the tooling must change as 
well thus costing more money and time. The cost of tooling can be broken down further 
to include building the tooling, downtime to maintain it, and any scrap that wasted during 
testing the tooling (Hedrick). Usher provides these three key areas of focus when 
developing products to ensure the product will have a good possibility of success: 
The decision whether to proceed with a product development project must 
be based on facts rather than intuition. It may appear at first that it is 
difficult to quantify the costs and benefits of the various development 
goals. Nevertheless, even the use of gross approximations is better and 
more easily justifiable than an instinctive decision.  
1.) Product features. The features of the product determine its performance 
which is important in determining any of its market success. Product 
performance is determined by the customer and the marketplace, not 
merely by satisfying what is in the specifications. 
23 
 
2.) Product cost. This is the total product cost over its life cycle, including 
the purchase price and the operating, maintenance, and disposal costs. 
3.) Development Speed. Time to market is obviously the most critical 
factor. This is the total time from the moment when someone thinks about 
developing the product to the time it is in the customer's hands. The speed 
of product development determines the time to market (Usher, 69). 
Setting the bar appropriately in the customization field is the primary goal that 
each designer must strive to meet. If the design is not unique enough, it will not sell. If 
the design takes too long to build, it will not be cost beneficial to build. By jumping into 
the market with a new and innovative product, a rapid manufacturing company should 
have no problem bringing in business. By finding the proper niche where customizing is 
not common, a company would in turn create a market where competition is scarce and 
could benefit from this. Pierre Dumont, author of iTech Post, writes about a shoe 
manufacturer who is using 3D printing technology to develop customized shoes. He 
states that Nike has started using Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) to manufacture a new 
set of football cleats called the ?Nike Vapor Laser Talon.?  
24 
 
 
FIGURE 7: Nike Vapor Laser Talon (Dumont) 
 
 
FIGURE 8: Nike Vapor Laser Talon (Dumont) 
25 
 
The shoes are developed using this method of manufacturing, because traditional 
methods of manufacturing will not allow the shoe to function as designed. The author 
elaborates on the manufacturing process and states that this technology can be used to 
provide each individual wearer their own personal shoe that is an exact fit to their foot 
(Dumont).  
As stated before in the right job market, cutting edge designs and customized 
designs acquire more monetary support from vendors and individuals. Art is a good 
example; demand for the original is higher, and prints are typically priced based on the 
size and how many prints were created from the original. The same model could be 
utilized for other products, similar to furniture, clocks, lamps, etc. If there are two million 
designer shoes on the market, then the likelihood of those shoes being special is very 
slim; however, if there are only two on the market, then the shoes will bring more value 
due to the lack of flooding in the market place. ?The highly competitive nature of the 
marketplace requires that manufacturers be able to deliver to the customer products, with 
the following attributes: (1) High quality, (2) short delivery time, and (3) low cost? 
(Usher, 59). A large company can meet high quality, short delivery time, and low cost; 
however, on the instance that the high quality is not present in the product, recalls or 
corrective actions must be made. In this case the company loses thousands, if not 
millions, of dollars trying to fix the product. With a smaller customizing company the 
likelihood of having to recall a product will be less likely due to the attention to detail 
given to each part. With a one-off part, quality should be first and foremost on the list of 
goals, followed by short turnaround time, and then cost. In theory, a rapid manufacturing 
company could make ten different high quality product designs before a traditional 
26 
 
manufacturing company makes one decent product. A larger manufacturing company has 
to make a prototype, test it, check for flaws, fix them, and finally send the product to the 
manufacturing plant to be fabricated. An additive manufacturing company is capable of 
creating a prototype or a small run of final printed parts in-house much faster. Less 
impact to overall cost can also be noticed over that of traditional manufacturing methods 
(Additive Fabrication). 
Project Time Scales 
A prototype can be a valuable tool to save cost and understand the parts being 
made before spending time and money on tooling. Though vital, prototype fabrication 
can be tedious and time consuming when building the prototype using conventional 
methods.  
Central to industrial design creative work is modeling. Modeling is the 
activity whereby products are represented in a form other than in their 
final manufactured state. All design disciplines use models. One of the 
most common forms of model is the engineering drawing in which all 
aspects of a product (form, finishes, construction details etc.) can be 
represented in 2D. A commonly understood form of a model is the 3D 
physical model. This could be a non-functioning appearance model, a 
functional model to develop some technological feature, or a pre-
production prototype, which is very close in appearance, construction and 
function to the manufactured item. The different disciplines involved in 
the process of new product development (NPD) have their own forms of 
27 
 
models to aid the progression of their tasks. These models are critical to 
the success of NPD (Bennett, 2). 
Models are important to design and engineering processes and can help determine 
the success or failure of a product by finding possible malfunctions and fixing the 
problems before selling the unit. According to Christopher Barnatt, manufacturing has 
room to advance and has the potential of developing products on-demand utilizing the RP 
approach (Barnatt).  
Project time scales reduced by bringing forward the engineering and 
ergonomic evaluation through the use of rapid prototype models, project 
time scales are reduced significantly. As complexity of form makes little 
difference to rapid prototyping costs, unlike 'hand built' conventional 
models, there may be financial gains. This would of course depend on the 
technique being employed, and whether post prototyping operations were 
required such as vacuum casting (Bennett, 10). 
If prototypes are built using the same processes as the final manufacturing 
process, the beginning result and end result could be identical. With rapid manufacturing 
the designer has the capability of using a prototype that has the quality of a final model 
for testing. Materials used in the final model and quality designs are the major factors that 
will limit the structural integrity of the product. These limitations can be avoided by 
designing quality products, using high strength materials when needed, and testing them 
thoroughly. Once the designer has proven the concept and made changes, the product 
would then be ready for sales. A customer could easily walk into a store and have a 
product manufactured instantly while they wait. Products can be manufactured on RP 
28 
 
machines and come off the machine ready to sell. Having quality RP machines capable of 
quality printing of a final product can eliminate the current process of sending a design to 
a factory and having it developed overseas. Each design can be customizable based on a 
set of criteria that could be versatile enough to work for everyone in and outside of the 
51% majority for whom most designers typically design. The prototype now becomes the 
final product and the production time is shortened. Barnatt goes on to state higher levels 
of customization will be capable when manufacturing products using 3D printers. 
(Barnatt). A larger manufacturing company will, of course, be able to make a larger 
number of products in the long run. Customizing is not about flooding the market with 
?generic? products, but about finding the niche where customized products can be 
beneficial while still requiring a demand multiple times. As the demand increases and the 
volume of products increases, the economies of scale start to become a factor. If a 
manufacturer is only developing a few hundred small parts a year and each item is 
different than the next, then the economies of scale shows that it is more cost effective to 
use a rapid prototyping process as each part will be unique. Individual product cost may 
be higher per item in this instance but the final cost including tooling costs associated 
with each part will be much lower than traditional manufacturing. Chris Anderson of 
Wired Magazine explains economies of scale and the benefit of 3D printing versus 
traditional manufacturing through the example of manufacturing rubber duckies: 
The big win of the digital-manufacturing age is that we can have our 
choice between mass production and customization. Just because you can 
make a million rubber duckies in your garage doesn?t mean you should. 
Made on a 3-D printer, the first ducky might run you just $20, but sadly so 
29 
 
will the millionth?there is no economy of scale. If you injection-mold 
your ducks in a factory, though, the old fashioned way, the first may cost 
$10,000?for tooling the mold?but everyone after that amortizes the 
initial outlay. By the time you?ve made a million, they cost just pennies 
apiece for the raw material. For small batches of a few hundred duckies, 
digital fabrication now wins. For big batches, the old analog way is still 
best (Anderson).  
 The final cost of an item is the sum of all costs associated with the product 
including but not limited to, research, development time, materials, packaging, amortized 
tooling, and shipping fees. The final cost is referred to as the freight on board (FOB) cost, 
and will typically change due to delivery location. In short the total unit costs will be 
lower if the company only needs to run a few runs of one item in the RP process. As the 
market changes and new demands are needed, each product will change and old tooling 
will become obsolete. Tooling will only last a certain number of runs before it begins to 
show wear and needs to be replaced or rebuilt.  
?Robots are expected to bridge the gap between automatic machines and human 
laborers. The primary role of robots is to reduce the human labor in manufacturing as 
much as possible? (Gerstenfeld, 51-2). Gerstenfeld states in his book, Manufacturing 
Research Perspectives: U.S.A. - Japan, robots handle materials so the operator does not 
have to. Automating a shop can be beneficial in the long run, but having numerous robots 
is an overhead cost that will need to be avoided to reduce initial costs.  However, the 
benefit of having the automated machines is definitely a major advancement over a hired 
model maker. ?With the introduction of Rapid prototyping, the viability of producing 
30 
 
physical models from computer models represents a significant challenge to the 
'conventional' working practices of the profession?(Bennett, 1). Rapid prototyping can 
only be viable if the prototype can save the company money in the long run by limiting 
quality issues and human errors in the production of a product. RP does however 
decrease the time it takes a model to be built but still it is only a good solution if it can 
save the company money. Inefficiency in the modeling process can become prevalent if 
the model makers do not use all of the tools they have at their disposal. For example, 
robots are tools that should be used when available to help facilitate those hard to build 
parts. In some instances time is wasted in downtime trying to model a part in a computer, 
rather than having it built by hand. It is sometimes a wise practice to limit the time of 
designing in the computer to a set duration. If a product could be created faster and more 
efficiently by hand, then the cost of the machine is definitely not beneficial in the long 
run.  
Leading the Way 
With the way technology moves, each company needs to be on the cutting edge of 
manufacturing and design processes. If a company remains on the leading edge of 
technology and adopts new and effective practices, they will, in turn, receive an 
advantage over their competitors (Bennett, Foreword). 
Today, many companies are interested in improving their competitive 
edge in the global marketplace where rapid changes occur due to 
technological innovations and changing customer demands. These 
companies realize that in order to bring product innovations and value-
added services to the market in a timely fashion, they must know the 
31 
 
wants (like-to-have), needs (must-have), and desires (wish-to-have) of 
their customers and quickly fulfill these wants, needs, and desires as 
completely as possible (Usher, 1).  
Companies that want to be on the cutting edge need to allow customization for 
each of their individual clients. Many people customize their cars, cell phones, 
backpacks, and even their bodies. It is apparent in society from the day we are born we 
start customizing our bodies. Humans cut their hair, put make up on, and wear designer 
clothes. Each person is different and has different wants, needs, and desires that need to 
be looked at. Each person is unique and lives their life differently than the next. Without 
customization people would not have the statuses in life that they do. For example, a 
generalization can be made that superstar athletes drive big expensive cars and wear a lot 
of jewelry, while poor people live in a box under the over passes. This is not true for 
every superstar or poor person, but the mental image has stuck because of customization 
in our lives. We customize our lives to how we live, but we are all the same. An average 
person may drive the same exact car that a superstar drives, but the superstar?s car may 
stand out more because they have thousand dollar wheels, a paint job, a sound system, or 
other accessories installed. In theory the two cars are the same exact vehicle, but the 
customization makes them completely different. Similarly, Basak Otus from the Yale 
Daily News proves this theory by stating that,  ?Consumers find it easier to make choices 
by-attribute ? personally selecting individual features of a product one at a time ? than 
when the consumer is presented with a set of finished products among which to choose. 
As a result of having chosen each feature himself, the consumer will display higher 
satisfaction and willingness to purchase the product? (Otus).  
32 
 
A company that can create a part by RP machine with customizable features will 
have an advantage over a company who is required to use traditional manufacturing 
methods and does not offer product options. In addition, manufacturing is limited by the 
capabilities of the facility and workers. The primary consideration is based on the fact 
that people have laws governing when they are able to work, how long they can work, 
how many breaks they are required to take during the day, etc. If a company utilizes their 
machines properly, they can create one-off models in less time and less money than the 
average company with human labor operating heavy machinery.   
Designer Abilities (Concurrency in Design) 
 RP provides a way to ease communication between design and prototype team 
members, but some minimum standards must apply. 
As a relatively recent approach to design modeling, rapid prototyping may 
significantly enhance the degree of concurrency that can be employed by 
industrial designers. All rapid prototyping technologies rely on 3D 
computer models to generate the physical models, which have the 
capability for use in further engineering development and production 
tooling. The success of rapid prototyping in NPD therefore relies on the 
adoption of 3D computer modeling as a standard form of modeling in the 
design phase. This means that industrial designers must adopt CAD 
systems as primary modeling tools (Bennett, 5). 
Designers must understand the basics of mechanics and design before they try to 
communicate with others. CAD systems should be known thoroughly and simple 
mechanics should be understood. In the RP model, designers are required to work parallel 
33 
 
with engineers and manufacturers throughout the process of product development. This 
approach optimizes focus on the whole of the design from start to finish. The method also 
helps prevent unforeseen problems that may occur during engineering or manufacturing 
while obtaining the original design features desired by the designer (Ya). Rapid 
Prototyping and Tooling Research details the need for concurrent design by stating: 
Engineering and industrial design is carried out as part of the early stages 
of NPD and the shortest lead times are often achieved when the various 
activities incorporate as much concurrency as possible. The working 
relationships of the various designers and engineers are also a critical 
factor in the success of product development. The models used for product 
development play a large part in this relationship (Bennett, 4-5). 
Concurrency in design is a topic that is important to new product development. 
The organization of concurrent design is critical and can make the product successful or 
make it fail. Concurrency in design proves that a product can be developed with different 
skill set individuals building separate parts and adding them to a final product. Each team 
works on the part or parts in which they are skilled. The final product combines the entire 
team?s work and provides the consumer with a quality product. However, some products 
are not conducive to using concurrent design. The idea of having fewer hands on a 
project means there is less possibility for confusion or miscommunication. The caveat to 
this concept is that the workload will be more cumbersome for the designer, whereas 
more people would be able to spread the workload. A single designer working 
exclusively on a project will require the designer to have a broader range of knowledge 
and skill sets. When other workers are introduced into working on the project, mistakes 
34 
 
can happen or alternatively can be avoided. Engineers and Industrial Designers are 
skilled in different areas of product design. The primary difference between the two fields 
can be summed up by stating that engineering is a discipline that is focused on making a 
product work. Industrial design is a field that is an applied art dedicated to creating 
innovative products (Libohova). Rapid Prototyping and Tooling Research informs the 
reader that industrial designers do in fact have a limited amount of mechanical ability that 
can be used in new product development. Bennett states: 
 The practice of industrial design involves the integration of engineering 
elements of new product development with a visual form and user 
interface appropriate to a particular market. Whilst having a general 
engineering capability, the specialism of the industrial designer is 
predominantly visual and ergonomic (Bennett, 1).  
If we assume that a well-educated industrial designer is capable of integrating 
engineering into a design of a product, then we can assume that the need for an engineer 
is no longer needed in the development process. This assumption implies that a well-
educated designer would be able to completely run a startup company producing 
customizable products using rapid fabrication methods. The designer should understand 
design thoroughly by visualizing how the product will appear in 2D or 3D concept 
images. The images are used to help accomplish the goals needed to develop the final 
product. Computers, drawing templates, pens, pencils, markers and drafting boards are all 
important tools that designers use as they are creating innovative designs. Most people do 
not realize that the aforementioned tools are only somewhat responsible for successful 
design. Gero reinforces this thought by stating:  
35 
 
 Many attempts have been made to enable creative and effective design 
activities using a computer. Although these attempts have been somewhat 
successful, we must admit that these are highly limited and many design 
activities are still dependent on the designer's personal ability (Gero, 371).  
Two designers have different ideas. Take designer A, who can look at sand and 
see individual grains of sand and scrutinize every particle. Designer B may look at the 
sand in a different way and may see a sand castle or something more complex. Not every 
designer is capable of using automated machines to produce an end product. A vast 
understanding of mechanics and materials is needed to understand how things are 
assembled, built, and possibilities of fabrications. If the designer is unfamiliar with this 
information, then the designer will have development problems and should work closely 
with an engineer on the development of the product. Gerstenfeld explains in his book 
titled Manufacturing Research Perspectives: U.S.A. - Japan that technology is constantly 
progressing and becoming smarter and more affordable when he writes: 
Robot applications in the U.S. manufacturing have been hampered by the 
fact that robots are expensive, stupid and sightless. Now, however, all of 
that is starting to change. Artificial intelligence will be able to add sight 
and some "intelligence" to robots, however, that research still has a long 
way to go (Gerstenfeld, 10). 
Unfortunately, robots are only as smart as their operators. In 2010 the Bureau of 
Labor and Statistics recorded 40,800 people in the United States of America were 
employed as Industrial Designers (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012-13 Edition, 
Industrial Designers). The household population in the United States in the same year 
36 
 
was 300,758,215 million people (Population Estimates, Vintage 2011: National Tables, 1 
Jul. 2011).  
This information is clear evidence that there is a large population of people who 
are not skilled in ID; therefore, we can assume that the majority of the population is 
incapable of fulfilling the tasks of a designer. It is implied that the majority of the 
population is not educated in designing products, running RP machines, and they are not 
familiar with making use of the product development processes that help maximize the 
potential of the RP machines. Designers with a good understanding of product design and 
machine capabilities are capable of maximizing machine efficiency by reducing material 
waste and maximizing the build area by nesting parts. These details need to be considered 
when trying to create a part in the computer for manufacturing as well. A wide array of 
knowledge is needed if the designer decides to work alone in the product development 
process. Therefore, only a very skilled and talented designer would be able to achieve this 
goal alone. 
Designers are limited only by their imaginations and their capabilities of using the 
tools at their disposal. 2D sketching has the potential to misinform the designer of scale 
or mechanics of the design. 3D CAD software is better suited for working out these 
issues and can pinpoint specific problems the design may face in production or in the 
consumer?s home. Similar to 2D sketching, CAD software also has problems of its own. 
John Usher explains:  
There are a number of serious problems with current computer-aided 
design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems despite the 
tremendous advances that have been made in solid modeling. First, the 
37 
 
current systems are generic by nature. The generic systems meet the CAD 
vendors' objective of making their products attractive to a large number of 
customers, but they are not ideally suited to each individual customer's 
needs. Most companies perform design work within a relatively narrow 
domain. They do not need the wide range of functionality provided by 
generic CAD systems (Usher, 29). 
CAD programs are designed to fill a broad range of needs and types of design 
processes. Most designers and engineers will never use a majority of the functions 
provided in the CAD packages because most of their work will only use a few types of 
manufacturing processes that are common in the type of work for which they design. 
Many manufacturing companies will use one machine for each process in each 
manufacturing step, which typically only requires the use of one function of the CAD 
software to design the part. SolidWorks CAD software is popular commercial design 
software, but at home designers will struggle with the price tag of $3,995 for one license 
and an annual fee of $1,295 for technical support (CAPINC). SolidWorks encompasses 
many features and tools that can help designers develop and test parts without having to 
build actual parts for testing, thus saving time and money. There are free software options 
available for download such as Google?s SketchUp. Unfortunately, a majority of the free 
downloads do not include critical tools needed to test the design?s physical properties, 
strengths, flaws, or interferences.  
Utilizing RP machinery that is capable of developing an entire part without the 
use of other machines will help designers in manufacturing parts. Designers who make 
use of 3D printers will require less manufacturing knowledge than traditional 
38 
 
manufacturing methods; therefore, the software capabilities can be reduced to more 
generic functions. 3D printers allow more versatility in design and can help the 
manufacturing process by eliminating various pieces of equipment. 
The industrial design process encompasses six critical elements needed to develop 
a product from start to finish, defined as: 
1.) Sketch (2D) 
2.) Sketch Model (3D)  
3.) Development Drawing (2D) 
4.) Rendering (2D) 
5.) Appearance Model (3D) 
6.) Appearance Prototype (3D) 
(Bennett, 2). 
 
  
39 
 
Industrial Design - Design Processes 
1.) 2D SKETCH 
 
2.) Sketch Model (3D) 
 
3.) Development Drawing (2D) 
 
4.) Rendering (2D) 
 
5.) Appearance Model (3D) 
 
6.) Appearance Prototype (3D) 
 
FIGURE 9: Industrial Design ? Six Step Development Processes 
 
40 
 
Traditionally, both industrial designers and engineers are needed to develop new 
products because they require different processes. 
The 'conventional' industrial design modeling procedures, as described 
above, are concerned with pursuing visual and ergonomic design 
objectives for the product. Engineering development tends to use different 
forms of product models to achieve its aims. These will include mock-ups 
of electrical or electronic systems, engineering layout drawings, and 
mechanical mock-ups (Bennett, 4). 
For all intents and purposes, if a designer has enough knowledge in a certain field, 
then there is no need for an engineer to mock up anything. A designer with full 
knowledge of their subject should be fully capable of mocking up all needed systems 
needed to complete the project. The more processes a designer can do on their own will 
limit the amount of outsourcing needed, which will lower the cost and result in a better 
end product. Efficiency of concurrent design is affected as more people are entered into 
the process of design. The project will be 100% concurrent if the designer is the only 
person who touches the project. If multiple people are added to the process, the likelihood 
that the project may start to suffer due to communication issues rises greatly. Carl 
Erickson, President and Cofounder of Atomic Object software product development 
company, reinforces this theory by stating:  
Communication and coordination overhead rises dramatically with team 
size. In the worst possible case where everyone on the project needs to 
communicate and coordinate with everyone else, the cost of this effort 
rises as the square of the number of people in the team. That?s such a 
41 
 
powerful effect, in fact, that a large team couldn?t possibly hope to achieve 
the goal of everyone coordinating their effort. But a small team could 
(Erickson).  
Interchangeable Parts 
 
Customization can be seen all around us and plays a major role in our society. The 
customization industry is growing fast as new companies realize the need for different 
and innovative personalized products. However, before the topic of customization is 
delved into much more deeply, the history of mass production is needed to better 
understand how products are made. Mass production was made famous by Henry Ford?s 
model T in the early 20th Century, working with a concept initially developed by Mr. 
Honor? Blanc prior to the 18th century with the creation of interchangeable parts.  
In 1778 Mr. Blanc developed identical parts that were able to replace one another in the 
event of a failure. Blanc developed this concept for use in firearms and is noted as one of 
the pioneers in using interchangeable parts. Blanc showed military men, academics, and 
politicians that his concept was valid when he assembled a musket by selecting random 
parts from a number of bins to eventually lead to the completion of a working musket. 
With the development of interchangeable parts came dependable and easier to fix 
weapons for soldiers, hunters, and enthusiasts. Prior to this development if a weapon 
malfunctioned or broke a part, a skilled gunsmith was needed to repair the weapon. By 
having interchangeable parts the need for the skilled gunsmith could be all but 
eliminated. Muskets can be easily repairable and not trashed as they were in previous 
times.   
42 
 
Eighteen years later a man by the name of Eli Whitney, most famously known for 
his invention of the cotton gin, was a strong believer in Blanc?s discoveries. After his 
near bankruptcy Whitney started on the same crusade as Blanc. Whitney demonstrated 
how interchangeable parts were the forefront of modern weaponry as he laid ten identical 
guns onto a table and then removed all the parts and piled them onto a table. This was 
unheard of before Blanc, but Whitney knew that he could pick any part at random and 
assemble each and every gun. In front of the United States Congress he too had 
completed the same task of proving his point of interchangeable parts. By presenting this 
idea of design and production to the United States Congress, Eli Whitney created a 
standard for all equipment purchased by United States Government. He simply restated 
an idea that had been developed twenty years earlier and is still around today. Without 
this reiteration of a simple yet effective process, society would not be where it is today.  
 
  
43 
 
 
FIGURE 10: Early 19th Century ?Gun Making? from the 1832 Edinburgh Encyclopedia 
 
After the Civil War new developments were made and products began to roll off 
the production lines. These production lines took these interchangeable parts that were 
made in mass quantity and invented the industry of mass production. A new line of 
products ranging from sewing machines, typewriters, and, of course, rifles were all 
created using interchangeable parts. As each part was made, it could be stored or fitted 
with other parts to make the final product. Blanc saw this and utilized the fact that an 
unskilled laborer could now do the job of many skilled tradesmen.  
  
44 
 
Mass Production 
In 1450 Johannes Gutenberg created dyes and utilized a common idea of fixed 
type to create a new form of mass production. He assembled the letters into a carriage 
arranging the characters in a strategic format. By operating this method he was able to 
print anything onto a piece of paper multiple times. In earlier periods each letter had to be 
individually printed. Multiple copies of the same piece of work could be reproduced 
hundreds of times with the invention of the printing press. The concept of producing one 
piece of work multiple times is considered to be mass-produced; therefore Gutenberg?s 
?42-line Bible? is one of the first pieces of work to be mass-produced.  
 
 
FIGURE 11: A Page from Gutenberg?s Bible 
45 
 
Gutenberg, among others, was able to produce in mass quantity, but Henry Ford 
was the person who made mass production what it is today. Ford understood the need for 
assembly lines and established an empire one car at a time. Ford developed the Model A 
(see Figure 12) and, from there, the company has grown into the modern Ford Motor 
Company. The Model A was important to Ford because it was simple, economical, and 
was one of the first mass-produced cars on the market (Vaughan). Henry Ford?s line 
foreman, William C. Klann, visited Swift & Co. slaughterhouse in 1912. During his visit 
to the plant he observed hogs hanging from moving hooks in the ceiling. Each butcher 
would make the same meticulous cuts on each hog that passed by their workstation. The 
outcome of this assembly line method resulted in faster processing times that required 
fewer people. Klann studied this approach and detailed the need for an assembly line in 
automobile manufacturing. Klann implemented his first assembly line in the spring of 
1913 for assembling electrical components, known as magnetos, for the Model T. The 
magneto assembly line reduced the assembly time by 75%, which in turn helped save the 
company time and money (Ahrens). Ford began implementing assembly lines in 1914 
with the introduction of the Model T (see Figure 13). Many industries began realizing the 
importance of assembly lines and started implementing them into factories around the 
world. Society referred to Henry Ford?s new method of manufacturing as Fordism, but 
Ford later created the term that is known today as ?Mass Production? (Brinkley & 
Miller).  
In 2007 Ford reported producing 6.553 million automobiles for earnings of 
$173.9 billion (Ford Motor Company). The auto industry was affected directly by the 
46 
 
2008 recession and manufacturers are still recovering. In 2012 Ford manufactured 5.7 
million automobiles earning $134.3 billion (Ford Motor Company).  
In 2012, Ford was ranked number one in auto sales within the United States, surpassing 
Chevrolet and Toyota (Cain).  
 
 
 
FIGURE 12: 1903 Model A is the Oldest Surviving Ford Production Car in Existence 
(Ford Motor Company). 
 
47 
 
 
FIGURE 13: Ford Motor Company Assembly Line (Ford Motor Company) 
 
When Henry Ford opened his factory doors in 1916, he disagreed to providing 
customization for his automobiles. Ford wrote in his autobiography that, ?Any customer 
can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it?s black.? Black was chosen 
based on its quicker drying time because Ford was all about speed and nothing else. 
Years later other companies finally caught up to him and started offering options. Options 
are a major factor in people?s lives. People want to feel important and that they can have 
a say in what they purchase. When Ford refused to update styling or add newer features, 
customers became unhappy and decided to go elsewhere. Eventually Ford would 
succumb to annual model changes in their designs.  
 
  
48 
 
 
FIGURE 14: 1928 Ford Model A (Ford Motor Company) 
 
Today, there are a number of automakers, each with their own marketing plans. 
Some options include an incorporated iPod dock, headlights that turn with the steering 
wheel and cars capable of parallel parking themselves. Each one of the options is 
designed to be the next big feature in the auto industry where some designs become 
standard while others fail. Each year the annual model change allows the company to fix 
a problem or add a new marketing feature to the vehicle. In addition, customers will add 
and take away customizations from a vehicle to make the vehicle their own. A custom 
paint job, new wheels and tires, or a great sound system are only a few things that can be 
done to a car to make it unique (see Figures 15 and 16). Customization is a critical 
element to the process of evolution.  
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FIGURE 15: BMW Website Exterior Color Options (BMW) 
 
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FIGURE 16: BMW Website Options (BMW) 
 
  
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Customization 
 A company is not able to produce as much inventory when they offer 
customization options, unless they are mass-producing one customized product. For 
example, in Figures 15 and 16, a client may want an iPod adapter and the High Definition 
surround sound system in the car.  The car becomes custom as soon as the customer adds 
or changes one of these options that are mass-produced. Interchangeable parts are a key 
element when designing large projects; multiple styles of products can be used as long as 
one or two critical features are consistent. Manufacturers design multiple styles of radios, 
speakers, and various other accessories to be interchangeable, thus allowing the client to 
pick and choose options for their new purchase. Interchangeable parts put these new 
designs on the cutting edge of their industry and allow for multiple possibilities including 
the sales of aftermarket accessories. Although this concept of selecting an option might 
not be considered customizing to everyone, it is in fact a method for changing a product 
to meet the needs, desires, and wants of the customer. In addition, most manufacturers 
use interchangeable parts to build their products to help with manufacturing process, 
warranty replacement, and also allowing for future upgrades. Today?s customization can 
be seen in many different product categories worldwide including automobiles, consumer 
electronics, and weaponry. Customization creates innovation and helps evolve society 
and its products as a whole.  
 
  
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Smart Car/ Mercedes-Benz 
 A French car that started production in 1998 is one of the most popular cars on 
European streets and is now becoming popular in cities across the United States. In the 
short time they have been around, Smart has sold over 45,000 Smart Fortwo?s throughout 
the United States. These cars are small enough to get around the streets of Paris, Rome, 
London or New York (SmartUSA). The simplicity of the Smart is the major contributing 
factor that makes it efficient. Mercedes-Benz teamed up with Swatch, an innovative 
watch company, to develop the car. The name SMART was created when combining the 
two company names, Swatch and Mercedes along with ?art? to create the acronym, 
SMART (SmartUSA). Swatch is a company that strives on being different and unique; by 
teaming with Mercedes-Benz the Smart Car was born. The Smart Car was developed to 
be a commuter vehicle that was ecologically friendly, as well as having style and appeal 
to the driver. Smart was able to accomplish this goal with interchangeable body panels 
that could be changed easily. The body panels are easily manipulated and come in an 
array of designs. Customization can be as simple or as elaborate as the owner chooses. 
Each design characterizes the person driving the car and helps present their personality to 
the world. Smart will introduce their third iteration of the car in 2013. The Fortwo will be 
offered in a variety of colors and options with personalization as a primary goal. Smart 
offers the consumer the ability to customize his or her own unique decals to make each 
car one of a kind (see Figure 17) (SmartUSA). 
 
  
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FIGURE 17: SmartUSA Customization 
 
 
 
FIGURE 18: SmartUSA 
 
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FIGURE 19: 2008 Smart Fortwo with BRABUS Sport Package (Wikipedia) 
 
 
FIGURE 20: 2013 Smart Fortwo (Wikipedia) 
 
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 The ?Smart Car? is an affordable mode of transportation that is easy and fun to 
drive.  The Smart has potential of being customized as little or as much as a customer 
desires. Owning a Smart does not only allow the driver to get from one place to another 
but it also allows them to get there in style. 
IKEA 
 IKEA is a store dedicated to selling fixtures for the home or office. Each piece 
sold in the store is shown on display to the customer in a showroom. The manufacturer 
compiles a parts list from a designer and manufactures each individual part for the order. 
The customer chooses which pieces they like and writes down the specific model 
numbers for each item. The consumer then walks into the warehouse with multiple rows 
of racks containing flat packed furniture and pulls the parts he needs to complete the 
furniture. The store saves money by not having to pay labor wages for assembling 
furniture. The stores are also capable of maximizing space in the warehouse with this 
method. A study in the Journal of Consumer Psychology referred to as the IKEA effect 
shows that customers who assemble their own products have a stronger attachment to the 
final product and also value the product higher than those who purchase finished goods. 
The study also discusses the value of the consumer?s labor and the confusion that helps 
sell a product for a less expensive cost. A consumer can purchase a product for a cheaper 
cost and assemble the product; however, it is typical that the consumers will not calculate 
their billable time. The billable time is money they could be earning if they were working 
and not building the furniture. The study goes on to say that the valuation of building the 
product is far greater than the thought of cost savings (Norton). Each flat packed box 
contains a detailed set of detailed instructions that show the assembly steps for the newly 
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purchased item. Figure 21 shows the assembly method for building the new piece of 
furniture. The shelving can easily be shipped or moved as a flat pack, then assembled 
once it reaches its final destination.  
 
  
FIGURE 21: IKEA Assembly Instructions (IKEA) 
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Cellular Phones 
Cell phones can be viewed as a status symbol in today?s society. Each phone has 
new and interesting marketing features that gain the consumer?s interest. The cell phone 
originally started out as large as a briefcase and over time has become much smaller for 
ease of everyday carry.  
 
FIGURE 22: Iconic Motorola Cell Phone Known as the ?Brick? from the 1980?s (What is 
the Brick Phone) 
 
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 They can now fit into the palm of a hand and be stored in pants? pockets while having 
more functionality than before. There are many shapes and sizes of cell phones and each 
has its own importance. Originally, the cell phone was used as a communication device 
for the person constantly on the go. Rather than having to sit by the phone or having to 
schedule a phone appointment, a user is able to pick up his or her cell phone and call 
anyone at any time. Cell phones have evolved yet again with manufacturers constantly 
seeking new improvements and implementing them into their previous designs. Such 
improvements included games, followed by a camera that could take pictures, and shortly 
followed by a camera that could take video along with the still images. Today, cell 
phones are capable of sending and receiving emails, playing music, playing television 
shows, and even reminding the user of important dates or times. 
  
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FIGURE 23: Progression of Early Cell Phone Design (Norman and Foulkes) 
  
With the advent of the smart phone a consumer is capable of surfing the entire 
reaches of the Internet. The iPhone is a device that allows users to do virtually anything 
that a personal computer can do, including checking the weather and sports, depositing 
checks into their bank accounts, changing the channel on the television, and even talking 
to a friend across the world. The iPhone is capable of playing movies and a library list of 
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music for those who need entertainment. Cellular phones are moving away from the 
original goal of allowing the user to talk to someone, and now provide the user with 
entertainment, as well as becoming the consumer?s personal secretary.  
 
 
 
FIGURE 24: iPhone 5 (Apple) 
 
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Cell phone quantities are now outnumbering people in today?s society. According 
to the European Union?s in-house statistical office, Luxembourg had 158 mobile phone 
contracts in 2007, but there were only 100 people for those contracts. Business 
professionals are being issued cell phones for work even if they already have a personal 
cell phone. Other countries, such as Lithuania, Italy, and Hong Kong are similar in 
numbers and show that they have more cell phones than people. According to the 
International Telecommunications Union (ITU), in 2011 there were 7 billion people in 
the world and an astonishing 5.9 billion cellular phone subscriptions worldwide 
(International Telecommunication Union).  
 
 
FIGURE 25: Cell Phone Subscribers Worldwide 
 
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Per 10
0 Inha
bita
nts
 
Year 
Mobile-cellular
telephone subscriptions
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Cell phones are continuously improving and becoming more customized as 
existing technologies are improved and new technologies developed. Many cell phone 
users pick the options they want and often add their own personal touch to the cell 
phones. Companies supply cases and housings for cell phones based on the type and 
brand of phone. Each case has its own unique appeal and presents the user?s personality 
to everyone who sees the phone. The New Statesman reports that cell phone accessory 
revenue will top $50 billion dollars by 2015. The report does not account for any 
accessories that are included with the purchase of the phone. One user may have a ?Hello 
Kitty? theme, while the next user may have a ?Transformers? theme. The chart in Figure 
25 shows an ever-growing trend in the cell phone industry. In 2011 the ITU reported that 
cell phone service was available to 87% of the world population, while service was 
available to 79% of developing countries (International Telecommunication Union).    
 
  
63 
 
 
FIGURE 26: Gold Plated Cell Phone (Sclick) 
 
Customizing a cell phone is a way for the users to display their likes or dislikes 
while showing the world their personality. In addition, cell phones are a status symbol 
and can provide outsiders with an idea of who someone is. A gold plated cell phone 
similar to the one in Figure 26 may show that the user has a lot of money and is willing to 
spend it on anything. A different user may have a rubber case to help in the event that the 
phone is dropped or is used in harsh weather (see Figure 27). This example may show 
that the user is more worried about protecting their phone than having it be slim and 
compact.  
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FIGURE 27: LifeProof Protective Cell Phone Cover 
 
On-Demand Manufacturing 
On-demand manufacturing is a trending topic in the world of new product 
development, but the concept of on-demand is firmly established and growing in the 
media industry. On-demand is a term that has become popular in the last few years with 
the capabilities of on-demand television. A consumer is capable of watching movies, 
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television shows, or downloading music content as needed or wanted. According to 
technology mogul Ericsson?s ConsumerLab, Internet television grew rapidly in 2010. The 
study showed that 93% of television watchers were watching traditional scheduled 
programs, but of that 93%, 70% of the users surveyed were streaming or downloading 
on-demand content as well (Ericsson). 
 
FIGURE 28: On-Demand Television vs. Traditional Scheduled Programming 
 
This study shows that even if consumers use the traditional methods of watching 
television, they still prefer to have some of their content on-demand without having to 
On-Demand 
70% 
Scheduled 
Television 
93% 
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wait for an episode to air. If we infer that this trend is typical with consumers, we can 
conclude that consumers have a desire to acquire their products sooner rather than later. 
We can conclude from this study that allowing consumers to view or listen to their media 
at their convenience has become a luxury with which most are happy with. If we take a 
look into product development, we can find potential sources for creating the same on-
demand process within digital manufacturing trends.  
Digital Manufacturing 
?Digital manufacturing is the use of an integrated, computer-based system 
comprised of simulation, three-dimensional (3D) visualization, analytics and various 
collaboration tools to create product and manufacturing process definitions 
simultaneously? (Siemens). The process of digital manufacturing can benefit from on-
demand manufacturing if there is a need for the products being designed. One application 
of on-demand manufacturing, free 3D design software is becoming abundant and easier 
to use for the novice innovator. The free software is often lacking in features, but can 
provide a basic design with which a novice user could be happy. A few companies have 
been started that will compile these digital files into one location similar to a library full 
of books. For example, Thingiverse (Thingiverse) is an open source, non-profit website 
that is home to numerous designs of all shapes and sizes. Each design can be downloaded 
by anyone who has signed up for a free account on their website. Unfortunately, these 
products are not engineered or designed by a professional and may lack in strength, 
durability, performance, or other important characteristics that would be important when 
selling a product to the masses.  
  
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3D Printing 
Thingiverse will not build parts for consumers; however, there are companies who 
will create RP parts on 3D printers for a minimal charge. Kraftwurx, i.Materialize, 
Sculpteo, and Shapeways are a few companies who offer affordable 3D printing to 
anyone with a digital file. Each of these companies will allow each consumer to design 
and sell their creations on their websites for a minimal fee without ever having to touch 
the final product. Figure 29 is a representation of the material offerings given by one 
company. Each company constantly develops new innovative materials with a variety of 
color options for their printers. 
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FIGURE 29: i.Materialize Material Options 
 
  
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3D printers vary in shape, size, cost, materials, and resolution they can use for 
printing parts. There are a few different types of 3D printing processes, but the focus for 
this paper will be Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). FDM is an additive manufacturing 
process where a thin piece of plastic filament, typically acrylonitrile butadiene styrene 
(ABS) or polylactic acid (PLA) is extruded through a nozzle similar to that of a hot glue 
gun. The plastic filament melts in the extruder and is deposited onto a build platform 
where it instantly cools to create a 3D part. 3D printers are designed to print one color of 
filament per extruder nozzle. Some machines will have multiple nozzles, while the 
majority of the printers will only have one nozzle due to the fact that most desktop 3D 
printers are still in an early developmental stage that is completely experimental. There 
are currently many manufacturers of desktop 3D printers on the market. MakerBot is a 
small company located in Brooklyn, New York, that is dedicated to the advancement of 
desktop personal printers. Independent designers and engineers will thrive as companies 
like MakerBot generate new methods for creating quality three-dimensional products. 
The latest MakerBot printers are capable of printing as small as 100-micron (0.10 mm) 
layers, which is equal to the thickness of a sheet of copy paper (O?Brien). 
Layer Resolution 
Layer resolution is a critical factor of 3D printers that is constantly improving as 
new machines are developed. Resolution is measured in microns and can be adjusted 
higher or lower as needed. The 3D printed part detail is affected as the resolution 
changes; by increasing the resolution from 300-microns to 100-microns the details 
become more apparent and noticeable. The amount of material being used will be the 
same for both resolutions, but the time to make the part at 100-microns will take longer 
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than it will to make the 300-micron part. This is important to consider when calculating 
machine runtime and the perceived value of the part being made. Typically, a prototype 
should be printed at a lower resolution to confirm size, shape, and any features that might 
be questionable. Upon confirming the prototype, a higher resolution model can be made 
for the final product. 
Quality and detail are dependent upon the layer resolution of the printer, and 
printers will produce better products as printers become more advanced. There are many 
brands of printers, ranging from build-it-yourself at home FDM printers (starting around 
$500 from Solidoodle.com, entry-level FDM 3D printers (average cost: $3000 from 
MakerBot), and of course the high end non-FDM professional printers from Stratasys and 
Objet that can print in 16-micron layers ($10,000 - $250,000). 
On-Demand Manufacturing via 3D printing 
There are many benefits to on-demand manufacturing. Business News Daily 
explains that on-demand manufacturing can limit quality issues while also bringing jobs 
back to the United States (Mulvey). ODM is not conducive to all product markets and 
will not have immediate success in certain product areas. It will be imperative to choose a 
category that will benefit from this method of ODM in order to continue to grow. 3D 
printing is becoming popular throughout the world, but it will take time before the 
average person can gain benefit from using a 3D printer. Brian Lane states that on-
demand manufacturing is ?poised to kickstart the distributed fabrication industry and 
provide a boost to the global manufacturing market.? More people will start to own 3D 
printers as the technology becomes more cutting-edge, the quality of parts becomes more 
detailed, and consumers have easier access to digital files. Fortunately, Staples office 
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supply chain has decided to install 3D printers into a select set of stores to test the market. 
Mike Senese from Wired magazine writes, ?A new service called "Staples Easy 3D" will 
allow customers to upload their designs to Staples' website, then pick up the printed 
objects at their local office supply megastore, or have them shipped to their home or 
business ? not unlike the photo- and document-printing service the company already 
offers.? 
 
 
FIGURE 30: Staples Easy 3D Printer (3ders) 
 
It is important to note that Staples, Sculpteo, i.Materialize, Kraftwurx, and 
Shapeways 3D printing companies have far superior non-FDM 3D printing capabilities 
than the average small entrepreneur business will be able to afford. These larger 
companies are paying a higher overhead cost, but can provide a better end product, which 
may be beneficial to small businesses. Although this paper is focused on FDM 3D 
printing, we will still acknowledge these services to help provide better solutions for the 
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end products. Most 3D printers are only capable of printing one or two colors, but the 
material can be painted as desired. Hobbyists are avid painters and enjoy painting their 
projects to give them a realistic feeling. The hobby industry is large and can provide 
many useful directions for this paper. 
Hobby Categories 
 There are many categories involved in the hobby industry, but for this paper we 
will focus on four main categories: Model Railroad, Plastics and Die Cast, Radio Control, 
and General Hobby. It is important to define the main hobby categories by sales to help 
understand the market potential for each category. The chart below shows the estimated 
sales for each category in 2010 with the sum of all categories totaling $1.47 Billion.  
 
 
FIGURE 31: Hobby Categories by Sales (Koziol) 
 $305,777,500  
 $362,912,500   $377,637,500  
 $424,770,000  
Estimated Hobby Sales: 2010
Plastics & Die Cast Radio Control General Hobby Model Railroad
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The information provided in the chart confirms model railroading as the most profitable 
hobby category, which is the primary reason that this category has been chosen for this 
study. 
Model Railroad 
Model railroading is a do-it-yourself hobby with the first models arriving in 1784. 
These first models were developed as prototypes 20 years before the first full-sized 
passenger and cargo trains were manufactured (Collectors Weekly). These scale models 
can be as simple as a circle around a Christmas tree or as elaborate as a complete 
historical recreation of a city.  
 
 
FIGURE: 32: Train around Christmas tree (Sharper Image) 
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FIGURE: 33: Detailed Scale Model Building (Bendever) 
 
Building model railroads can be very educational in history, carpentry, electrical 
skills, economics, model building, artistic techniques, research, logistics, planning, 3D 
spatial visualization, physics, engineering, and geography. Trains do more than just haul 
materials and people around the world; they also fuel imaginations. Children are 
introduced to trains at an early age and taught that they can be magical and majestic. 
Thomas and Friends is a popular child?s television show that uses a set of trains with 
faces to teach children values. The Polar Express, written by Chris Van Allsburg, is 
another instance of a book that describes a magical train that takes children to visit Santa 
Claus at the North Pole. Trains are depicted as one of Santa?s favorite toys in many 
advertisements across the world. Coca-Cola has many advertisements that show Santa 
playing and building trains for good little boys and girls around the world.  
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FIGURE: 34: ?Seasons Greetings? Coca-Cola Santa with Train 
  
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SCALE 
Railroad models are scaled in size and chosen depending on factors set forth by 
the model builder. Builders with limited space will typically choose smaller scale projects 
whereas larger builders who have large areas to work with may choose the largest scale 
models. Figure 35 is a reference chart that shows the most popular scale sizes (Z Scale, N 
Scale, HO Scale, O Scale, G Scale, and Scenic) used in the industry. Specialty sizes are 
excluded from this list due to the large volume and diversity.  
 
 
FIGURE 35: Model Train Scales (Toys Period)  
 
Specialty size models can be larger or smaller than traditional scale models and 
are typically built for a specific reason. The most common example of specialty size 
models can typically be seen every Christmas in your local mall driving children around a 
circle before or after they see Santa Claus.  
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FIGURE 36: Specialty Scale Train (Maury)  
 
Paul Graham, Shenandoah Valley Railway Club rail coordinator, stated in an 
interview with an ABC news affiliate that model trains are ?timeless? and provide a way 
for children to interact with older generations while providing a gateway to imagination 
(Byknish). 
Market Overview 
 There are many manufacturers of model trains in the market, with each company 
focusing primarily on one or two main scale categories. N scale is stated to be growing in 
popularity and parts accessible (Train Sets Only). For this study we will focus on N scale 
with limited reach into other scales ranges because the N category has numerous 
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manufacturers and suppliers for each area of focus. A few of the major brands include 
Atlas, Kato, Intermountain, Stewart, Proto, Bachmann Spectrum, and Lionel.  
Retail Sales 
Most major hobby stores stock entry-level train kits and train accessories. These 
kits typically include a locomotive, various types of box and freight cars, a caboose, 
railroad track, and the equipment to provide electricity to the locomotive. These kits will 
often include a starter kit of accessories that can include railroad and street signs, 
telephone poles, and assorted human figures. Hobby Lobby lists their entry-level kits 
from $99 up to $120 (Hobby Lobby), while Hobby Town USA has a larger variety and a 
broader price range of kits from $115-$265 (Hobby Town). There are many hobby stores 
located around the world; a registry of hobby stores dedicated to model train building can 
be found on the NMRA.org website. 
Accessories 
 Model Train accessories are a critical part of model train building, but the train is 
only one part of the building process. Street signs, railroad signs, buildings, landscapes, 
vehicles, and people are all critical parts of creating a realistic environment. The finest of 
details are considered when laying out design plans. Some modelers dedicate hours of 
research time to construct historically accurate scenes, while others will spend countless 
hours trying to design the next city planning solution. The modelers will build accessories 
if they are not currently available or if the details are not to their liking. Different painting 
methods are used to imitate different materials and weathering of surfaces to provide a 
realistic look and feel (Building Your Model Railroad). An example of the attention to 
detail can be seen in Figure 37. 
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FIGURE 37: Specialty Scale Train (Wells Green TMD) 
 
Literature Review Summary 
 A manufacturer should be diverse in all aspects of design, while remaining 
grounded in their design approach. Manufacturers who evolve will continue to grow and 
be successful because they are able to keep up with current trends.  The diversity will 
also keep them in the forefront of innovation and will create better products for 
consumers. Customizing is a huge part of our daily lives and should be pursued much 
more than it is already. If customization were to be pursued, a manufacturer would need 
to make sure to take into consideration the following factors: Cost, design, engineering, 
shipping, labor, machine costs and various other aspects involved with the manufacture 
of products.  
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Design involves a skilled eye from a designer who has a broad range of 
experience and understands design history. A designer should be knowledgeable about 
past products in order to be able to create products for the present and future. Designers 
with this vast knowledge will be able to sort their designs into different product 
categories of importance. There are many types of products on the market currently that 
fall into various categories, but because there are an unlimited number of future 
categories, the possibilities are endless, which will be beneficial to the design, the 
designer, and the consumer. Every individual should be able to customize their life in the 
style they prefer and should not be limited in selection to only products in the market 
currently. By creating a library of supplies that interchange, each individual part can be 
mass-produced. Parts that have the ability to be interchangeable as well as customizable 
can allow the end product to be virtually completely customizable, allowing the 
consumer to have unlimited possibilities. The fundamental concept of this theory states 
that a designer could start a small company with a few small designs. The designer would 
be able to choose a platform to work with and design custom parts that would be 
interchangeable with their platform of choice. The consumer would be able to choose 
from a preselected set of parts in a digital library, and make customizations based on 
what they would like and have it manufactured on-demand with specific changes as 
needed. The design company would then be able to print a part on a rapid prototyping 
machine and ship to the consumer directly, or the consumer could choose to download 
the digital file for a small fee and have the part printed at a local RP manufacturing 
facility.  
 
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Assumptions of Study 
 It is assumed that the research compiled in this documentation is accurate and 
valid for the use of this study. It is also assumed that the information in this project will 
be scalable based on the future technology and the growth of RP machines. Future 
technology will supply better quality machines as well as larger build platforms. 
Equipment prices will drop as the technology becomes more popular and understood. 
This assumption is largely based on the history of technology price drops over period of 
time, and largely based on a report by Gartner, who is a leader in information technology 
research. Gartner states that 3D printer costs will be reduced significantly by 2016. The 
report indicates printers that are currently in the $10,000 price range will be reduced 
down below $2,000. The research in this study is based solely on people?s desires, wants, 
and needs. Each consumer has different style preferences resulting in diverse desires, 
wants, and needs for each. By assuming this fact, the reader can understand that this is 
merely a hypothetical situation, and that each product will always have an infinite 
number of options, styles, and characteristics for that product. The information given 
through this research will be an example of the concept process, development, and 
product line, but it will not be a complete line of the product(s). Mass-production and 
customization are on completely different ends of the design and manufacturing 
spectrum. There will always be a struggle in mass-customization where the two processes 
fight over which has more importance. The nature of a completely one-off product means 
that the product cannot be reproduced by mass production. Tooling, costs, shipping, and 
mass-producing products void the concept of having mass-customized parts. When a 
company uses mass-customization, each design is viewed as a whole, and each part is 
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custom built, much like rapid prototyping.  When a designer uses the mass-customization 
process, they look at all aspects of the design and not just the whole picture, thereby 
giving the end-user a quality product. 
Scope & Limits of Study 
 The research should allow a designer to focus on designs that are interchangeable, 
while allowing for on-demand manufacturing of each part. The design phase of the 
project will be based on concepts of past and present designs. Modifying designs to be 
interchangeable will be based on the designer?s own knowledge of parts, methods of 
fastening, and mechanics of parts. The methodology of this study will create an equal 
balance of customization and on-demand manufacturing for model railroads.  The scope 
of the study is limited to the advancements in computer software in product design and a 
designer?s use of the software. The designer will also have to incorporate machinery, 
tooling, and manufacturing capabilities into the equation of the design.  
Anticipated Outcome 
It is anticipated that the outcome of this study will result in the development of a 
method for creating designs that can be manufactured on-demand or sold as digital files 
for manufacture at a later time. The study will show that part selections will grow as 
technology improves and machines grow in size. Customization and on-demand 
manufacturing will be critical for this concept to be proven correctly. Customers will 
have the option to choose the main features, as well as any customized features for their 
application of the product that is important to fit their needs. Complete application 
customization is obtainable by giving customers a various array of choices that can result 
in a one-off design that can be manufactured in house on 3D personal printers. An e-
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commerce web page will be developed to obtain user inputs to help produce a final 
product to their specifications. If the concept of easily customizable products is generated 
and succeeds, society will have a new standard of product design. Each product will not 
be designed for the 51% majority of the population, but for each individual person. The 
major concern with this concept will be related to the individual parts rather than the 
whole. The process of making multiple interchangeable parts, while keeping the 
assembly simple and easy to install, is critical for the design model to work properly. The 
concept will merge on-demand manufacturing and customization into one final product, 
thereby creating a new and innovative way to personalize products.  
Outcome: Design Criteria 
 Model railroading is important to this study; however, a special set of criteria will 
need to be developed to ensure the product is designed as intended. Each aspect from 
development, technology, and product variations should be considered when creating the 
design criteria to create model railroad products. Design Criteria is a critical portion of 
designing a new product or a new method of designing a product. The listed criteria are 
designed to be a guideline that should be used each time a model railroad or similar 
product is developed. The criteria details specifics such as product specifications, scale, 
details, and features. Each new part designed will be reviewed to ensure the product 
meets the goals of the design criteria. 
? Must be customizable 
? Must have detailed characteristics to make product unique 
? Must be aesthetically pleasing 
? Must use minimal material 
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? Must be affordable 
? Must be made using a 3D printer 
? Must be paintable 
? Must be durable 
? Must be easy to install 
? Must require minimal assembly 
? Must be consumer friendly 
Summary of Chapter 
Customization is all around us and it will continue to evolve as new technologies are 
developed. Products and product lines will continue to grow with the help from on-
demand manufacturing machines. Consumers embrace customization as a method of 
expressing their personalities by constantly creating new ideas. On-demand 
manufacturing will help meet this fast-paced product lifecycle by printing customized 
parts as needed without material waste or the need for expensive tooling. Mass-
Customization Through Digital Manufacturing can allow consumers to customize 
products for their specific applications without the high costs of specialty tooling or hand 
made products. Each product can be replicated multiple times without affecting the cost 
to the consumer or the on-demand manufacturer. On-demand manufacturing with current 
3D printer technology is ideal for accessories related to the hobby industry. The model 
railroad category has the largest sales numbers of any hobby category and shows the 
largest potential for success in on-demand manufacturing. 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER THREE 
DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESS 
 Overview 
 
A key process for designing modular customized products will be discussed in 
this chapter. The process overview will be explained in depth with directions to help a 
designer accomplish the goal of creating unique customized designs. Concept 
development will be a critical topic in this chapter. The products that will be designed in 
this chapter will originate as sketches and be generated into a computer model. The 
computer model will help answer questions about the product before it is turned into a 
prototype and the final model. Therefore, the designer can obtain overall measurements 
of the product as well as product volume and weight. In some instances the consumer will 
be required to assemble or install extra components such as lights into a street lamp or a 
body onto a locomotive chassis. In this case the computer model will allow the designer 
to account for these additions by planning ahead to help avoid any issues in the at-home 
assembly process. Finally, in this chapter we will describe three scenarios for selling the 
final product to customers and consumers. A mock website will be created with the 
company name of Red Earth Customizations chosen for this study.  
 
 
 
 
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Procedures and Methods 
1. Research 
The plan of approach for Mass-Customization Through Digital Manufacturing 
will start with identifying an area of need. This area should be researched to understand 
the market and products in that market. For this study we will focus on model railroads in 
the hobby market category. Secondly, a product category should be chosen from this 
particular market, such as locomotives, accessories, scenery, buildings, etc. This product 
line should conform to past and present products, and should be on the cutting edge of 
hobby design. Each product needs to be studied closely to understand characteristics of 
each design. By utilizing the knowledge of past and present designs, the designer should 
be able to categorize each design into a certain category. Within each category of the 
designs, the designer must have knowledge of the techniques used to assemble each 
product and how they will function on the vehicle. Large-scale vehicles and small-scale 
vehicles are not completely identical; therefore each part will require special detail in 
assembly to offer the perception that the part is the same as a full-scale part. The designer 
will be able to research new and old parts alike to design new innovative products that 
can be customizable on a scale level. The designer will need to understand the mechanics 
involved with their platform and the requirements of each design created. The designer 
will list customizable features that are available for each part and will only provide the 
end user with those listed options. 
 
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FIGURE 38: Research Flow Chart 
 
A mock e-commerce website will be created with each feature that the consumer 
can choose on-demand. Upon selection the digital file will be chosen and can either be 
downloaded in a digital file format, or the part can be manufactured and shipped to the 
end user for an additional fee that includes the cost of manufacturing. If the consumer 
chooses to download the file, they will not have to pay the fee upfront for manufacturing 
and will be able to take the downloaded file to their preferred on-demand manufacturing 
site for manufacture. 
2. Development 
? Concept ideation will include concept images, computer models, and prototypes. 
? On-demand manufacturing will be used to manufacture a set of scale parts.  
? E-commerce: An e-commerce mock website will be created to sell digital files or 
a final manufactured product. 
Identify Market 
? Hobby 
? Toys 
? Decorative 
Art 
Identify Product 
Category 
? Locomotives 
? Accessories 
? Scenery 
? Buildings 
 Customization 
Requirements 
? Body Style 
? Scale 
? Attachment 
Methods 
 
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FIGURE 39: Development Flow Chart 
 
3. Implementation 
? Sales: Sales of the files/ product will prove that the concept is valid and can be 
beneficial for designers to pursue. 
All research will be based on information gathered from hobby magazines, Internet web 
pages, brochures, catalogs, encyclopedias, and other library sources. The primary goal of 
this thesis is to develop a new method for on-demand manufacturing that will be 
beneficial for the future of digital manufacturing and increase small business capabilities. 
 
  
Concept 
Ideation 
? Concept Images 
? Computer Models 
? Prototypes 
On-demand 
Manufacturing 
? 3D Printed Scale Parts 
e-commerce  
? Mock website 
? Sell Product 
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FIGURE 40: Implementation Flow Chart 
Product Need 
Product Design 
Digital Manufacturing 
? 3D Printed Parts Files Created 
? Files Uploaded to E-Commerce 
Site 
User Selects Custom Options 
? Style 
? Scale 
? Attachment 
User Selects Purchase Method 
? File Download 
? 3D Printed Part 
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FIGURE 41: Complete Process Flow Chart 
 
 
  
Identify Market 
?Hobby 
?Toys 
?Decorative Art 
Identify Product 
Category 
?Locomotives 
?Accessories 
?Scenery 
?Buildings 
 Customization 
Requirements 
?Body Style 
?Scale 
?Attachment Methods 
Concept Ideation 
?Concept Images 
?Computer Models 
?Prototypes 
On-demand 
Manufacturing 
?3D Printed Scale Parts 
e-commerce  
?Mock website 
?Sell Product 
Product Need Product Design 
Digital 
Manufacturing 
?3D Printed Parts Files 
Created 
?Files Uploaded to E-
Commerce Site 
User Selects 
Custom Options 
?Style 
?Scale 
?Attachment 
User Selects 
Purchase Method 
?File Download 
?3D Printed Part 
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Opportunity and Design Strategy 
Opportunity can be found in many areas of model train building. The key is to 
pinpoint the areas where the largest customization typically takes place in modeling and 
focus on that specific area. The concept development process for this study will focus on 
the idea of selecting individual parts to create a final product. The final product will need 
to be customizable and scalable to match the needs of the consumer and to fulfill the 
requirements of this study. The models developed in this study are intended to illustrate 
the theory presented in this study. 
Customization 
Mass production is not ideal for customized products mainly due to the large 
number of design possibilities and materials required to manufacture each product. To 
understand this better we will need to develop a customization Punnett Square. Reginald 
C. Punnett developed the diagram known as the Punnett square to help biologists 
determine genetic probabilities of offspring. In this study the Punnett square will list all 
possibilities of products that can be created from a set number of parts. The user will be 
provided a number of options to select to create their customized design. The Punnett 
square will grow as more options or selections are added. This study will be limited to 
three options with three selections for each option, but it can be as large or small as the 
designer wishes. To understand the square better, we need to know the number of 
selections required, along with the number of choices for each selection. Figure 42 
requires two selections to be made to complete the product. The chart uses generic 
variables that correlate to a specific part. Each selection has three options available, 
making this a 3x3 square. We need to multiply the square in order to find the total 
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number of unique designs available. In this instance 3x3 = 9; therefore, we will have nine 
unique designs. For this example we will use generic variables to demonstrate the final 
outcome of a custom product. 
 
FIGURE 42: Two Option Punnett Square 
 
The Punnett square can be modified to have more than two selections resulting in a larger 
possible outcome. A 3x3x3 matrix would create 27 unique designs that would allow the 
consumer to select their own customized design. This study will be limited to a 3x3x3 
concept to help simplify the design process. Figure 43 allows the consumer to choose the 
front or rear selection as desired, but they will be prompted to choose the Accessory 
selection only after the front selection has been chosen. The first step in making a 
selection would be to choose the ?Front? selection: A, B, or C. The second step would be 
to choose the ?Accessory? selection: 1, 2, or 3. The final step the user would need to 
select the ?Rear? selection: i, ii, iii. If at any time ?Selection 1? is changed, then 
?Selection 2? will require a change as well. 
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FIGURE 43: Modified Punnett Square Requiring Three Selections 
 
 
FIGURE 44: Modified Punnett Square Showing C, 3, ii Selected 
 
Nine individual parts are required for a 3x3x3 matrix to work correctly. Each part 
must be modular and interchangeable with other parts in the set. The entire theory of 
customized designs will fail if even one part is designed without this goal in mind. The 
problem with adding multiple selections to a Punnett square is that the options start 
relying on previous selections as they do in a hierarchy chart. The hierarchy chart 
example in Figure 45 demonstrates a process where options are narrowed down to create 
a finalized product. The hierarchy chart and the Punnett square accomplish the same goal 
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and will produce the same outcome. Unfortunately the hierarchy chart and Punnett square 
methods become cumbersome as more than two selections are required. These two 
methods do not work as efficiently if options are chosen in a random order.  
 
  
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FIGURE 45: Customization Hierarchy Chart with B, 3, i Selected 
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The hierarchy chart in Figure 45 has the same number of components as the 
previous square example, but the user must make their selections from left to right. This 
is known as a parent and child relationship. This relationship is important if one option is 
not available or will only work with one specific design. The chart demonstrates a one 
direction process where option B, 3, i has been chosen. If the user changes their mind and 
decides to change to option C, the entire selection process must be restarted. This chart 
forces the user to make selection A, B, C first, 1, 2, 3 second, and finally i, ii, iii. To 
prevent a funnel effect when selecting options, the consumer needs to have freedom to 
change a selection without it affecting other selections. Figure 46 is a simplified variation 
of the Punnett square and hierarchy list that will be implemented later in the study to help 
make the selection process easier for the consumer. 
 
 
FIGURE 46: Modular Customization Selection List  
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Product Concepts 
Concept sketches will be used to provide direction for customized parts that will 
be developed for this study. The sketches in this section are modular train locomotive 
parts that will be used to create a final product. The concepts developed in this section 
will correspond with a specific square in Figure 46. There will be nine individual designs 
created; of which three will be locomotive front sections, three accessories, and three rear 
locomotive sections. In this phase the designer will need to consider characteristics of 
each part that will be affected as other parts are changed.   
 
 
FIGURE 47: Locomotive Concept Images 
 
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The conceptualization in this phase of development is critical and will determine 
the outcome of the final product. The concept sketches have been designed with a 
selection of critical elements that are mandatory for the train locomotive chosen for the 
study. Each component will be required to mate correctly to each part it interacts with, 
without jeopardizing any other configuration. The most critical area of the design for this 
prototype is the mating surface between the front section and rear section. The accessory 
will also be an important consideration in the design. The accessory will be adaptive and 
will change as different selections are made for the front and rear.  
Computer Models 
The computer model section is dedicated to developing the computer models 
needed to print finalized concepts on the 3D printer. SolidWorks is the 3D modeling 
software that will be used for this study. SolidWorks is capable of calculating material 
weights, densities, volumes, areas, and many other specifications that will be useful to the 
designer as he or she develops parts. Computer modeling is a critical portion of the 
design phase because it can pinpoint any issues with the design or assembly of parts. 
Once the nine major parts are designed, a design table will be created to generate each of 
the 27 unique designs. The designer will then be able to see each configuration and make 
adjustments as needed to fine-tune the individual parts. SolidWorks is also capable of 
rendering the final models to help provide the designer and consumer with a 3D image of 
what the part will look like once finished. Upon approval of the final designs, 27 *.STL 
files will be created from the single SolidWorks file. The *.STL files can later be 
imported into MakerBot?s MakerWare software.  
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FIGURE 48: Nine Individual Locomotive Parts 
 
The computer models have been developed using SolidWorks 2013. Each model 
has been designed with care to ensure the critical design element is cohesive between all 
components. The nine computer models have been tested and confirmed with the use of a 
customization chart.  
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Customization Chart 
The customization chart is designed to ensure the Gestalt of the product has been 
considered and that each part complements the next and the whole. The designer must 
layout each variation into a chart to guarantee that each of the 27 concepts will produce a 
quality result. 
The designer will insert the final computer image of each variation into a chart as 
a visual reference. Figure 49 is an example of this method using the modified Punnett 
Square with the nine individual parts to create the 27 unique variations. The designer 
should use the modified Punnett Square over the hierarchy chart for this step because the 
hierarchy chart will only show individual parts, whereas the modified Punnett square will 
show the final image of each product. 
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FIGURE 49: Customization Chart using the Modified Punnett Square 
 
 
 
 
 
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Selling Final Product 
We can assume that there are two types of people who would be interested in 3D 
printed products. We can break them down into two very simple categories, those with 
3D printers and those without. The people with 3D printers can be broken down into 
hobbyists and entrepreneurs. The statistics previously shown in this study proves that of 
the 300 million people in the United States in 2010, only 40,800 were professional 
designers. The information suggests that there is a large portion of the population that 
does not have a need or the skill set to own a 3D printer but still may desire the ability to 
easily purchase on-demand parts. This study will ensure that all 300 million people are 
capable of purchasing parts easily and on-demand. This study will allow anyone with or 
without a computer or 3D printer the opportunity to purchase these 3D printed parts no 
matter their skill level. However, when we discuss selling a product, we do not 
necessarily suggest a physical 3D printed part. In this study we have three solutions for 
selling the final product.  
 
  
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FIGURE 50: Business Model Flow Chart Structure 
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Selling Physical Products to Consumers 
The original method of selling physical parts to consumers is the most common 
and understood. For the purposes of this study, this method of sales starts with the 
consumer visiting the Red Earth Customizations website, choosing the product they want, 
and purchasing it. In return, Red Earth Customizations will take the order, print the 
design, and mail it to the consumer. Red Earth Customizations will charge for material 
and labor costs associated with this method. 
 
 
FIGURE 51: Physical Product Being Shipped 
 
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Selling Digital Files to Consumers Worldwide 
A variation of the above method is designed to target the at-home hobbyists who 
own their own 3D printer. In this instance the consumer will visit the Red Earth 
Customizations website. They will go through the product selection process and confirm 
and pay for their design. A digital file will then be provided to the consumer to download. 
The file will have a single user license that can only be used on one machine. The file 
will not work on other machines if the consumer tries to sell the file or gives it to 
someone else. This method of sales is preferred due to the lack of manufacturing labor 
involved in the process. Apple iTunes has been successful in this approach of selling 
digital music and video files. Record companies are able to reduce material costs and 
retail costs by using digital files rather than compact discs. The same method of savings 
can be applied to this study for the use of 3D printed parts. The designer is capable of 
selling the digital files multiple times and to multiple users without the need for investing 
in materials.  
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FIGURE 52: Digital File Purchase 
 
  
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Selling Digital Files to Small Businesses Worldwide 
An alternate solution to selling digital files is to set up a franchise of small on-
demand factories that are dedicated to printing 3D parts. Hobby stores who adopted this 
concept could purchase popular files and have them printed in house multiple times. The 
business would be capable of purchasing a license to use the files on multiple 3D printers 
at one time. The digital files are the property of the store, but shall not to be sold to 
consumers. Each store would be capable of printing and supplying specific parts for their 
region without stocking shelves with products that may not sell. Consumers would visit 
their local hobby store, choose a design from a library of parts and purchase the selected 
design. The customer would be able to observe their part as it is being manufactured on-
demand directly in front of them.  
 
FIGURE 53: Hobby Store 3D Printing 
 
Summary of Chapter 
Chapter three is the developmental phase of creating a process for customizing 
products that can be created with rapid prototyping technologies. The process is designed 
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to provide a guideline to designers to help them design products that can become unique 
customized parts. The development started with a method of arranging nine individual 
parts to create a set of 27 unique design concepts. Various flow chart options are 
provided to the designer to help them design a customized product. A set of nine 
individual parts was developed once the process was determined. Below is a product 
lifecycle flow chart that iterates that each product can be continuously updated. 
 
FIGURE 54: Product Development Life Cycle 
 
The development process began with a series of sketches, followed by 3D models 
created in SolidWorks. The models were rendered and inserted into a customization chart 
to show the 27 possible variations of products available to the consumer. The 
customization chart is used to allow the consumer to select the product options they 
Concept 
Sketches 
3D 
Computer 
Models 
Rendered 
Images of 
Parts 
Customize 
Chart 
Selection 
of Parts 
Sales 
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desire, followed by the purchase of the parts. The life cycle will start over as new parts 
are conceptualized and inserted into the product lineup. Equally as important to the 
development of the product is the method of selling the product. Three business strategies 
for selling the products are introduced in this chapter with the strongest recommendation 
in digital file manufacturing.
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CHAPTER FOUR 
APPLICATION OF PROCESS 
Overview 
It is critical to understand all elements of the design phase and how each will 
affect the final product. There are many variables that can affect the quality of the final 
product as well as cost. This chapter will focus on the development of a final product and 
branding the product line. 
3D Personal Printer 
The 3D printer being used for this study is an experimental MakerBot Replicator 
2X. The printer was chosen for its entry-level pricing and high quality. The Replicator 2X 
is a dual extruder system capable of printing two colors during a single printing process. 
MakerBot is currently selling the Replicator 2X for $2,799 through their E-commerce 
website.   
 
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FIGURE 55: MakerBot Replicator 2X ? Experimental 3D Printer (MakerBot) 
 
  
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Materials 
MakerBot offers a range of materials and colors of plastic filament that can be 
used in their Replicator 2X. The printer is capable of printing Acrylonitrile Butadiene 
Styrene (ABS), Polylactic Acid (PLA), and Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA). ABS and PLA 
come in an ever-growing assortment of colors, while PVA is only offered in a natural 
color. ABS and PLA are common thermoplastics, meaning they become soft when heated 
and can be formed into various shapes to create a final product. ABS is known for its 
impact resistance and strength and is used in many durable products. PLA is a material 
that is created from renewable resources such as cornstarch and sugar cane, resulting in a 
more ecofriendly product. PVA is a water-soluble material that provides support to the 
part as it is printing. The material can easily be removed from the part when water is 
introduced to the part. The materials are typically sold in 1kg (2.204lb) spools and come 
in various diameters. The Replicator 2X uses a 1.75mm filament that is offered in 
numerous color options.  
 
  
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FIGURE 56: MakerBot - Roll of Blue Plastic Filament (MakerBot) 
 
 
 
FIGURE 57: MakerBot - Roll of Natural Plastic Filament (MakerBot) 
 
  
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Material Cost 
Material properties and cost are important factors that need to be considered when 
printing parts that will be sold to consumers. ABS and PLA prices on MakerBot?s 
website range from $43 for natural filament without colors, $48 for standard colors, $55 
for neon colors, and $90 for glow in the dark filament. MakerBot currently offers 27 
colors in ABS and 7 colors in PLA, with the promise of more to come in the near future. 
However, parts printed on the 3D printer will only use a fraction of material that is on a 
roll. To calculate the cost of material accurately, we need to break the cost down further. 
If we assume the final product will be painted, then we can use natural PLA or ABS for 
this application. To determine an accurate cost of material we need to find a smaller unit 
of measure that is more suitable for calculating these types of parts. The industry standard 
for 3D printed parts is the cubic inch and will be ideal for our application. To obtain the 
volume of material being used, we need to understand that 1kg of ABS is equal to 58 
cubic inches while 1kg of PLA is equal to 48 cubic inches of material (Team Bastech). 
Figure 58 shows that ABS is 21.6% cheaper to print than PLA. For this reason, this study 
will use ABS for its significant cost savings and durability. 
 
ABS PLA 
1 Spool = 1kg (58in?) = $43 1 Spool = 1kg (48 in?) = $43 
$43 / 58in? = $0.74 per in? $43 / 48in?  = $0.90 per in? 
FIGURE 58: Material Cost per in? 
 
  
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MakerWare 
The Replicator 2X is capable of printing a wide range of parts and is only limited 
by the user?s imagination. The process of printing a part on the 3D printer requires the 
translation of a solid model into a numerically controlled language known as G-code. 
This code can be created using various types of software that can be acquired on the 
Internet. The G-code is populated when a computer model is inserted into the program. 
The software will slice the model into layers that correlate to the height of the print layer 
defined by the software. MakerWare is proprietary slicing software developed by 
MakerBot for exclusive use with their printers and is the software that will be used for 
this study. The software has an easy-to use layout that allows the user to determine which 
extruder will be used, what material will be used, and the size and placement of the 
product on the print bed. 
 
  
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FIGURE 59: MakerWare Software 
 
MakerWare will output the G-Code into a file format (*.x3g) that can be saved 
onto an SD external media drive. The Replicator 2X will read the file and run through a 
series of prompts. Once the operator has confirmed the build in the machine, the printer 
will start extruding material to create the final product. 
Slicing 
There are a few variables that are adjustable when 3D printing. Quality is 
determined by layer resolution, infill percentage, number of shells, and the layer height. 
The infill is the core of the part and determines how much support is inside the part. The 
3D printer is capable of printing solid parts as well as hollow parts. Hollow parts are less 
structural, but take less time and material to build. More infill means that the part will be 
stronger and cost more, but will be more structural. Less infill means the part will have 
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less internal structure, cost less, and will be ideal for appearance models. The numbers of 
shells also help determine the strength of the part. Shells are printed only along the 
perimeter of the part and increase part strength as the shells increase. Layer height is the 
most critical variable when trying to make a high quality part. The part becomes more 
defined as the layer height gets smaller, but the time and cost rise significantly per print 
cycle (MakerBot). This study will use the predefined medium setting as seen in the 
MakerWare image in Figure 60. 
 
 
FIGURE 60: MakerWare Slicing Settings 
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Printing 
 
 The design of each part will be printed in this phase of the study to determine if 
any changes need to be made to the final product. The first printed parts will be non-
painted prototype parts and may be identical to the final printed part if nothing requires a 
change. Quality will be reviewed during this phase, while confirming fit and finish before 
the design is finalized.  
Prototype Parts 
  
FIGURE 61: 3D printed Prototype Parts with Raft and Support Material 
 
  
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Final Product 
The final product for this study is the part that is ready to be sent to the consumer. 
The part will be acquired in its raw form, meaning that the part will be unpainted. The 
hobby industry is known for their passion for creating products that they had a hand in 
creating. The consumer will have a greater attachment to the 3D printed part if they are 
able to paint the part to match their requirements. The image in Figure 62 displays the 
final product in the raw form, while Figure 63 illustrates the final painted product.  
 
 
FIGURE 62: Image of Unpainted Locomotive Parts 
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FIGURE 63: Three Painted 3D Printed Locomotives Utilizing All Nine Components  
 
Branding 
Branding is a critical element to any design. The name of a company must be 
unique and it often helps if there is meaning to the name. A company logo can be 
beneficial to help promote a product and create brand awareness for those products. This 
section will be dedicated to creating a limited brand identity for the set of 3D printed 
parts developed in the previous sections. The scope of this study will only include the 
branding of the Red Earth Customizations Logo and a mock website design. 
Company Name 
The company name chosen for this study is Red Earth Customizations. The 
company name has a deeper meaning to the author than it may appear on the surface. To 
break the name down further we can discover that Red was derived from the Hebrew 
meaning of Adam. Earth is derived from the Adam in the Old Testament and is also a 
play on words in Hebrew of adamah, meaning Earth. Therefore, Red Earth 
Customizations can essentially be defined as Adam?s Customizations. A logo is often the 
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next phase of branding that follows the creation of the name. The logo will be designed to 
help strengthen the brand and provide an identity for the company. 
 
Company Logo 
With the name Red Earth Customizations chosen for the company, a logo concept 
needs to be developed. The font chosen for the text is Neuropol, which has been modified 
slightly to maximize the best results. An icon for Red Earth Customizations should be 
chosen carefully to help support the product being sold by the company, while defining 
the characteristics of the company. The logo development for this logo started with a map 
of the western hemisphere of Earth derived from the company name. Secondly, a gear 
was used because it is a mechanical part that can be seen as a symbol of functional 
innovation throughout history. The last element to the logo design is the compass rose, 
which is often associated with navigation and pioneering new endeavors. 
 
FIGURE 64: Logo Development 
 
  
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FIGURE 65: Logo Design 
 
Mock Website Development 
A website is needed to allow the consumer to make each selection needed to develop 
their own unique product. An intuitive interface should be developed to help the user 
make selections. The interface should have images of each individual part available for 
the product. The results of selecting a specific part should be shown instantly in a real-
time visual interface. At any precise moment the user can see their product as it would be 
3D printed and shipped to their door.  
Figure 66 demonstrates the suggested method of laying out a selectable chart with 
each of the nine options. The options can be chosen in any order and does not funnel the 
user into a specific direction. The figure shows that a user can change any selection 
during the customization process without having to restart the selection process. 
  
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FIGURE 66: Options Selected B,3,i 
 
  
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FIGURE 67: Website Screenshot of Product Selection Process 
 
 
FIGURE 68: Website Screenshot of Real Time Display 
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FIGURE 69: Website Screenshot of Finalized Product Chosen 
 
  
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Summary of Chapter 
Chapter four introduces the MakerBot Replicator 2X personal 3D printer and the 
items needed to make the printer operational. The printer is an additive manufacturing 
machine that extrudes plastic material to make a part. Materials are an important 
consideration when developing 3D printed parts. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 
was chosen as the primary material due to its durability and affordable cost of $0.74 per 
in?. The chapter discusses the use of MakerBot?s special software, MakerWare, for 
preparing files to print. MakerWare uses a slicing effect to create special code, G-Code, 
that can be read by the Replicator 2X.  
 Chapter four goes on to use the information gathered from the previous sections 
to develop a set of prototype parts. The parts are then studied to correct any issues in the 
printing process. After the prototype designs were approved, the final products were 
printed and painted. As the chapter progresses, the focus is shifted toward brand identity. 
A company name, logo, and website are designed to sell the final product.  
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
CONCLUSIONS 
 
Summary of Study 
 
The study of digital file manufacturing started with a goal of introducing rapid 
prototyping and customization into a world of consumer products. Customization is the 
future of new products, and 3D printers are the future of manufacturing. A process was 
created in the study to help designers plan for the future of 3D printing. The term on-
demand is a very important concept for this study. On-demand manufacturing represents 
a new direction in product development where the consumer requires a product 
immediately rather than waiting.  
The information in this study was collected and documented using photographs, 
charts, and graphs. The study is designed to be a guideline for developing digital 
manufacturing files, while also creating a process for starting an on-demand 
manufacturing company. 
 Chapter one is the introduction to the study that informs the reader that consumers 
desire to be different and stand out above their peers. Customization has been the answer 
for years, but there are limitations. Traditional manufacturing is not conducive to 
customization and can limit product innovation. The study stresses the need for new 
products and is the basis for the research. 
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 Chapter one includes definitions for key terms, as well as the literature review 
defining the need for the study through factual evidence.  
 Chapter two is the culmination of design research that takes a funnel approach to 
narrow the scope of the project into a pinpoint direction for the study. The study begins 
with the invention of interchangeable parts and transitions into customization. Examples 
of customization are included in the study with supporting evidence of each company 
growing. The study begins narrowing down to digital manufacturing and the use of rapid 
prototyping machines and 3D printers. The heart of the chapter becomes apparent with 
the introduction of the hobby industry and the opportunity in railroad modeling. The rest 
of the chapter is dedicated to confirming the need and potential success in model 
railroading for this study.  
Chapter three is dedicated to developing a process through the use of a concept 
design. The study uses modeling a customized locomotive as the center for the design. 
An introduction to the Punnett square and a hierarchy chart detail methods of developing 
the design, while also showing the problems with each. A modular customization 
selection list is created as a variation of the Punnett square and the hierarchy chart. 
Sketches are then used to develop concepts to create customizable parts that can be 
developed on the 3D printer. The sketches are then translated into three dimensional 
computer models that can be manipulated and studied in further detail. A modified 
Punnett Square is used in product development to allow each design variation to be 
considered while designing the final product. Chapter three is concluded with three 
directions that are detailed in this chapter for a designer to sell their customized products 
to consumers globally. 
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Chapter four discusses many of the tools and materials that will be used in the 
study to fabricate the final parts along with the development of the product. The product 
is a modular model locomotive for the model railroading industry. The locomotive has 
nine individual parts that create a set of 27 unique combinations of locomotives.  
Recommendations for Further Studies 
Future designs will vary as new technology grows and becomes more reasonably 
priced. Technology is a fast moving industry and will change the outcome of this study 
over time. As time progresses, the results of study should evolve and encompass new 
technology to remain innovative. Implementation of this process into hobby stores would 
provide useful results for a future study and would provide important test data to prove 
the study is beneficial. Alternate studies would be beneficial to reinforce the concept of 
on-demand manufacturing. Open source information and data are constantly changing the 
way technology is approached and can easily make all intellectual property unprotected 
from at home part replicating. Stealing intellectual property is also known as pirating and 
became popular when Napster, a peer-to-peer file sharing service, violated copyright 
laws. The same problems Napster faced in 2000 will be evident in any digital files if 
precautions are not taken. It is recommended that on-demand manufacturers instill ethics 
in their product development to ensure intellectual property remains safe. A guideline for 
on-demand manufacturing should be developed to make each manufacturer or 3D printer 
owner accountable for anything they fabricate. Accountability is not only limited to 
pirating products or digital files, but is also critical to ensure that liability for any 
damages a product may cause is accounted for by the manufacturer. The accountability 
will ensure that manufacturers make quality products that are safe for consumers.  
130 
 
Manufacturers who are capable of replicating iconic products at home no longer 
need designers and engineers to make consumer products. 3D printers are currently 
experiencing large growth in the technology industry. This effect is causing the market to 
be flooded with open source product designs. A large fear with open source product 
design is the quality of part. A seven-year-old child can design a car steering wheel and 
offer the downloadable file online for free. Unfortunately the person downloading the file 
does not know if an engineer or a child designed the file. This will create liability issues 
in the industry, causing products to ultimately suffer. A new study needs to be created as 
the growth becomes less unstable and regulations are implemented on open source 
products. 
Synopsis 
This thesis is intended to create a process to help designers embrace the future of 
technology. The study also offers a set of guidelines for designers to develop unique 
modular concepts that can be printed on 3D printers. Manufacturing methods may change 
as technology advances, but the processes listed in this study should remain similar. 
This study offers designers an innovative solution for new technology 
advancements and will hopefully allow them to develop innovative products for the 
future. Solutions are provided to help designers conceptualize customizable products, 
while also laying out a business strategy for selling final products. The outcome of this 
study is a set of 27 unique N-Scale locomotive train bodies that were created using the 
process and guidelines set forth in this study. The outcome of this study provides 
designers with three business models for selling customizable products. Businesses who 
prefer not to design products have the option of downloading digital files that will allow 
131 
 
the company to manufacture products with minimal overhead costs. To prove this theory 
a set of 27 unique N-Scale locomotive train bodies were created using the process and 
guidelines set forth in this study. The final customizable locomotive will be sold on Red 
Earth Customizations mock e-commerce website, but it is only a small portion of this 
study.  
The study proves the concept of customized products through digital 
manufacturing is a plausible alternative to traditional manufacturing methods. 
Customized products will provide consumers with a plethora of options so they can be 
different than the next person on the street. On-demand manufacturing will help develop 
the future of customization and can potentially revolutionize manufacturing the world 
over. This study will help carry customizable on-demand manufacturing into fruition, and 
will also allow the 300 million people in the United States with the ability to purchase on-
demand parts. The study accounts for consumers with and without 3D printers, and 
provides three directions that can evolve manufacturing into a more personal experience. 
Findings 
 The findings of this study show that on-demand at home 3D printer technology 
still has major improvements that need to be addressed before quality products can be 
sold to consumers. With current FDM style printing there are two major factors that 
determine the cost and overall success of the final product. The two major factors that are 
critical to the development are the time that it takes to build the product and the 
resolution quality of the product. As the resolution quality of the product increases, so 
does the time it takes to build the product, thus increasing cost. As 3D printer technology 
improves and is developed further, quality will increase, time to build the product will 
132 
 
decrease, thereby, resulting in a lower cost to build each product. This trend will only 
make on-demand manufacturing grow and become more desirable as time progresses. 
This study illustrates that customization is a critical aspect of new product 
development and will become more evident as time progresses. New product 
development strategies should evolve as manufacturing methods grow and become more 
versatile. Designers who are focused on the Gestalt of a product can develop numerous 
products using minimal parts and labor to do so. This study defines a process that can 
help the future of product design evolve with technology by using an example of a model 
train. Twenty-seven unique model locomotives were developed in this study using only 
nine individual parts and the process outlined throughout this study.  
3D printer technology may not become prevalent and may not be practical in 
every home in the near future, but the possibility that a consumer will be able to purchase 
a 3D printed part can almost be guaranteed. This study defines three critical options that 
would allow small businesses and large businesses the opportunity to sell customizable 
3D printed parts to consumers while still providing the at home user the same luxury. 
President Obama stated in his 2013 State of the Union Address that 3D printing will 
revolutionize the future of manufacturing. He later implied that the next manufacturing 
revolution will arrive on the build surface of 3D printers and will be capable of 
displaying the coveted ?Made in USA? logo. 
133 
 
 
FIGURE 70: Made in USA logo 
  
134 
 
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