A Minimalistic Approach to Adaptive, Emergency Relief Structures Embodied by 
Promoting a Downsized Way of Life 
 
by 
 
Joseph Darnell Brown 
 
 
 
 
A Thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of 
Auburn University 
in partial fulfillment of the 
requirements for the Degree of 
Master of Industrial Design 
 
Auburn, Alabama 
August 3, 2013 
 
 
 
 
Keywords: Minimalism, Adaptive, Emergency Relief Shelter, Downsized 
 
 
Copyright 2013 by Joseph Darnell Brown 
 
 
Approved by 
 
Christopher Arnold, Chair, Associate Professor 
Clark Lundell, Professor and Head 
Jerrod Windham, Associate Professor 
Carl A. Exford, President, Exford Architects, Birmingham, Alabama 
 
 
 
ii 
 
 
 
 
Abstract 
 
The aftermath of a natural disaster can be devastating. Thus, we all must become aware 
of the importance of having a plan before and after their occurrence. The tornado that swept 
through Birmingham, Alabama, and Hurricane Katrina that devastated the Gulf Coast are 
examples of natural disasters that took the lives of and left people homeless. Often times after a 
natural disaster, people are dismantled psychologically, food is scarce, and homes are destroyed. 
Therefore, the development of a modular system, from a single building unit, will be beneficial. 
In the time of crisis, the last thing on a family?s mind should be the concern of being homeless.  
Given the recent natural disasters and a busy summer storm season expected in 2013, 
what a better time for us as a nation to reexamine the way we live and allocate resources for 
those in need. Amid a rapidly growing population and infrastructures the world?s exposure to 
natural hazards is inevitably increasing; therefore, we cannot afford to continue allowing our 
appetites, dwellings, expenses and livelihoods to grow. With the economy in an upswing from 
2009?s fall, new, energy conscious innovations should be leading the surge into the future of 
emergency relief and community development. This approach first addresses the need for a plan 
to house individuals after being displaced due to natural disasters. Furthermore, this approach 
draws attention to the need for the United States to become more cognizant of the built 
environment and the manner in which we consume natural resources. Lastly, this approach 
introduces solutions for addressing a longer term, smaller community development which will 
utilize and transform emergency relief structures into permanent dwellings. 
iii 
 
 
 
Acknowledgments 
 
"God grant me the Serenity to accept the things I cannot change; courage to change the things I 
can; and wisdom to know the difference." 
- Reinhold Niebuhr 
 
 The author would like to thank Carl A. Exford, President of Exford Architects, for his 
thoughts on the built environment, and for his unyielding devotion from inception to completion 
of this milestone. Furthermore, thanks are due to Department Head, Clark Lundell, Professor, 
Jerrod Windham, and Professor, Christopher Arnold for their support and deliberation that 
complimented and promoted achievement of this Masters of Industrial Design trek.      
 It is with adoration and earnest thanksgiving that I salute my mom, Mrs. Darlene H. 
Brown, for her words of encouragement and dedication throughout this long and tedious, yet 
rewarding and grateful expedition. Appreciation and love is extended to: Jennifer Brown, 
Clarissa Brown, Barbara Harris, LaShaunt? Matthews and the Matthews Family, Donald Pugh, 
Halston Sleets, Matthew Harris, Wesley Davis, Cornelius Woods, Sean Kennedy, Exford LLC., 
and all others that kept me motivated along this journey. To anyone that I failed to mention, 
thanks, and may God continue to bless each of us is my prayer. 
 
 
 
iv 
 
 
 
Style Used: APA 
Software Used: Microsoft Word, Autodesk Revit Architecture, Adobe Photoshop, Rhinoceros, 
 Adobe  Acrobat, Autodesk AutoCAD  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
v 
 
 
 
Table of Contents 
 
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii 
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................ iii  
List of Figures and Tables............................................................................................................ ix  
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. xiii 
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 
            A. Proposal and Literature Review   ................................................................................. 1 
1.0 Living Beyond our Means   .................................................................................................. 20 
 1.1. Sense of Scale   ........................................................................................................ 20 
           1.1.1. Energy Consumption   ................................................................................ 21 
 1.2. Less is More: Mies van der Rohe   .......................................................................... 22 
           1.2.1. Modern Movement  .................................................................................... 22 
           1.2.2. Minimalism   ............................................................................................... 24 
 1.3. Homelessness Perspective   ..................................................................................... 26 
           1.3.1. Homelessness in the United States   ........................................................... 26 
           1.3.2. Natural Disaster Displacement   ................................................................. 27 
            1.4. Focus Abstracted   .................................................................................................... 27 
2.0 Resource Reduction   ............................................................................................................ 29 
 2.1. Pre-Industrial Revolution   ....................................................................................... 29 
 2.2. Post-Industrial Revolution   ..................................................................................... 29 
vi 
 
           2.2.1. Natural Resource Depletion   ...................................................................... 30 
 2.3. Embodied Energy .................................................................................................... 31 
 2.4. Global Warming  ..................................................................................................... 34 
3.0 Natural Disaster   .................................................................................................................. 36 
 3.1. Hurricanes   .............................................................................................................. 36 
           3.1.1. Hurricane Katrina  ...................................................................................... 36 
                     3.1.1a. Survival Account of Hurricane Katrina Victims   ........................... 38 
                                3.1.1b. Characteristics of Disaster Recovery   ............................................ 39 
                     3.1.2. Hurricane Sandy  ......................................................................................... 39 
                     3.1.2a. Survival Account   ........................................................................... 40  
         3.2. Tornados   ................................................................................................................... 42 
           3.2.1. Alabama tornados of 2012   ........................................................................ 42            
4.0 Necessities of Life  ............................................................................................................... 44 
 4.1. Water   ...................................................................................................................... 45 
          4.1.1. Purification   ................................................................................................. 46 
 4.2. Food   ....................................................................................................................... 46 
           4.2.1. Gas Utilization   .......................................................................................... 47 
                     4.2.1a. Propane and Camping Stoves ......................................................... 47 
           4.2.2. Solar Power   ............................................................................................... 48 
                      4.2.3. Canned Heat   .............................................................................................. 48 
           4.3. Public Health   ........................................................................................................... 49 
           4.3.1. Waste and Sanitation  ................................................................................. 49 
                     4.3.1a. Composting   ................................................................................... 49 
vii 
 
                                4.3.1b. Chemical Toilet   ............................................................................. 50             
           4.4. Shelter   ..................................................................................................................... 51 
5.0 Government Assistance Programs & Responses   ................................................................ 53 
            5.1. Federal Emergency Management Agency   ............................................................. 53 
           5.1.1. FEMA Trailer and Earthquake Shacks (cottages)   .................................... 55 
                     5.1.1a. FEMA Trailer Usage   ..................................................................... 55 
                                5.1.1b. FEMA Trailer Characteristics   ....................................................... 56             
                                5.1.1c. FEMA Trailer Formaldehyde Exposure  ........................................ 57 
                                5.1.1d. FEMA Trailer Storage   .................................................................. 58             
            5.2. American Red Cross   .............................................................................................. 60 
            5.3. Common Challenges after a Natural Disaster   ........................................................ 60 
6.0 Housing Analysis & Alternatives   ....................................................................................... 64 
 6.1. Predicted Housing Market   ..................................................................................... 64 
           6.1.1. Single Women, Recent Graduates   ............................................................ 65 
 6.2. Relocation Prevalence   ............................................................................................ 65 
 6.3. Small Homes   .......................................................................................................... 66 
            6.4. Housing Alternatives: Modular Construction   ........................................................ 68 
7.0 Design Principles for Small Dwellings   ............................................................................... 70 
 7.1. Proportion   .............................................................................................................. 70 
 7.2. Modularity  .............................................................................................................. 70 
 7.3. Scale   ....................................................................................................................... 71 
            7.4. Transparency and Spatial Layering   ....................................................................... 71 
            7.5. Hierarchy and Procession   ...................................................................................... 72 
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            7.6. Light   ....................................................................................................................... 72 
            7.7. Multifunctionalism   ................................................................................................. 73 
            7.8. Simplicity   ............................................................................................................... 73 
            7.9. Economy   ................................................................................................................ 73 
8.0 Design   ................................................................................................................................. 74 
 8.1. Stages and Characteristics of Disaster Recovery ..................................................... 74  
 8.2. Cost Analysis   ......................................................................................................... 77 
 8.3. Design Methodology   .............................................................................................. 79 
          8.3.1. Design Criteria  ............................................................................................ 79 
          8.3.2. Modularity and Tongue and Groove Connections   ..................................... 80 
 8.4. Composition and Materials   .................................................................................... 83 
 8.5. Packing, Shipping, and Distribution  ....................................................................... 86 
 8.6. Assembly & Disassembly  ....................................................................................... 89 
 8.7. Use   ......................................................................................................................... 97 
         8.7.1. Water Supply and Waste Management   ....................................................... 97 
         8.7.2. Security, Food, and Temporary Power   ..................................................... 101 
 8.8. Storage and Portability   ......................................................................................... 102 
            8.9. Sketches & Final Design Imagery   ....................................................................... 103 
9.0 Application & Further Development   ................................................................................ 116 
 9.1. Design Criteria Applied   ....................................................................................... 116 
 9.2. Minimalism Applied   ............................................................................................ 118 
References   ............................................................................................................................... 120 
 
ix 
 
 
 
List of Figures and Tables 
 
Figure 1: Bruegger's  ................................................................................................................... 20 
Figure 2: Versailles  .................................................................................................................... 21 
Figure 3: Barcelona Pavilion  ..................................................................................................... 22 
Figure 4: Barcelona Chair  .......................................................................................................... 22 
Figure 5: Paper Log House  ........................................................................................................ 24 
Figure 6: Belk Activity Center  ................................................................................................... 27 
Figure 7: United States Fossil Fuel Consumption  ..................................................................... 31 
Figure 8: United States Energy Consumption  ........................................................................... 33 
Figure 9: Typical Building Embodied Energy  ........................................................................... 33 
Figure 10: Annual World Greenhouse Gas Emissions, in 2005, by sector ................................ 34 
Figure11: Intensity Forecast Weather Graphic  .......................................................................... 37 
Figure 12: Hurricane Sandy Threat Image ................................................................................. 40 
Figure 13: Trussville, Alabama after April 27, 2011 Tornados  ................................................. 42 
Figure 14: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Necessities of Life Quote ............................................ 44 
Figure 15: Facts about Water  ..................................................................................................... 45 
Figure16: Coleman PerfectFlow Propane Stove  ........................................................................ 47 
Figure 17: Global Sun Oven by Solar Town  ............................................................................. 48 
Figure 18: Reusable Heating Kit by Brennan?s Catering  .......................................................... 48 
Figure 19: Sun-Mar Excel Ne Non-Electric Composting Toilet  ............................................... 49 
x 
 
Figure 20: Chemical Toilet Porta Potti  ...................................................................................... 50 
Figure 21: FEMA Emblem  ........................................................................................................ 53 
Figure 22: San Francisco Earthquake Shack  ............................................................................. 55 
Figure 23: FEMA Trailer  ........................................................................................................... 55 
Figure 24: American Red Cross  ................................................................................................. 60 
Figure 25: Meals Ready to Eat ................................................................................................... 61 
Figure 26: Relocating Plans by Age Group and Year ................................................................ 65 
Figure 27: Tiny Surf Shack Home  ............................................................................................. 66  
Figure 28: Approximate Number of People Displaced and/or Homes Damaged by Natural    
                 Disasters in the United States from 2001-2012  ........................................................ 78 
Figure 29: Long-bed pick-up truck transporting plywood  ......................................................... 80 
Figure 30: Floor Plan  ................................................................................................................. 81 
Figure 31: Tongue & Groove Connection at door  ..................................................................... 82 
Figure 32: Structural Insulated Panel  ......................................................................................... 83 
Figure 33: CeraMixTM  ................................................................................................................. 83 
Figure 34: View of Adjustable Footing and Clerestory for Passive Lighting  ........................... 84 
Figure 35: Passive heating, cross ventilation Diagram  .............................................................. 85 
Figure 36: 45' truck transporting systems. Box A shows panels  ............................................... 86  
Figure 37: Packaging Content Exploded View  .......................................................................... 87 
Figure 38: Site Distribution View  .............................................................................................. 88 
Figure 39: Exploded assembly view  .......................................................................................... 89 
Figure 39: Framing assembly ..................................................................................................... 90 
Figure 40: Extruded Aluminum Column Plan Detail  ................................................................ 90 
Figure 41: Wall Panel Interlocking Connection Detail............................................................... 90 
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Figure 42: Floor and roof framing detail  ................................................................................... 90 
Figure 43: Assembly Step 1 ........................................................................................................ 91  
Figure 44: Assembly Step 2 ........................................................................................................ 91 
Figure 45: Assembly Step 3 ........................................................................................................ 92 
Figure 46: Assembly Step 4 ........................................................................................................ 93 
Figure 47: Assembly Step 5 ........................................................................................................ 93 
Figure 48: Canopy and Overhang ............................................................................................... 94 
Figure 49: Porch Addition .......................................................................................................... 94 
Figure 50: Panel Assembly ......................................................................................................... 95 
Figure 51: Clerestory and Miscellaneous Panel Assembly......................................................... 95  
Figure 52: Wall Section Typical  ................................................................................................ 96  
Figure 53: Section View ............................................................................................................. 97 
Figure 54: Wall Section view through shower and catchment system  ...................................... 98 
Figure 55: Section view through chemical toilet ........................................................................ 99 
Figure 56: Enlarged Section view through chemical toilet  ........................................................ 99 
Figure 57: Section view looking at shower curtain and toilet door  ......................................... 100 
Figure 58: Door plate and hardware  ........................................................................................ 101 
Figure 59: Section view looking at lighting fixtures ................................................................ 101 
Figure 60: View of dresser and clothing rod hanger  ................................................................ 102 
Figure 61: Enlarged view of dresser and clothing rod hanger .................................................. 102 
Figure 62: Portable  ................................................................................................................... 102 
Figure 63: Sketches  .................................................................................................................. 103 
Figure 64: Wireframe View  ..................................................................................................... 104 
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Figure 65: Plumbing Wireframe View  .................................................................................... 104 
Figure 66: Furniture Wireframe View  ..................................................................................... 104 
Figure 67: Package View of Assembly Instructions  ................................................................ 105 
Figure 68: Building Section View  ........................................................................................... 106 
Figure 69: Enlarged Section through shower ........................................................................... 107 
Figure 70: Site Plan  .................................................................................................................. 108 
Figure 71: Front Elevation  ....................................................................................................... 109 
Figure 72: Right Side Elevation  ............................................................................................... 110 
Figure 73: Rear Elevation  ........................................................................................................ 111 
Figure 74: Left Side Elevation  ................................................................................................. 112 
Figure 75: Interior View at Dresser and Beds  ......................................................................... 113 
Figure 76: Interior View from Entry  ........................................................................................ 114 
Figure 77: Perspective View  .................................................................................................... 115 
Figure 78: Unit Adjacency Expansion View  ........................................................................... 118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
xiii 
 
 
 
List of Abbreviations 
 
CIA Central Intelligence Agency 
EOP Emergency Operations Plan 
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency    
FRP Fiber-reinforced Polymer 
HDPE High Density Polyethylene 
SIP Structural Insulated Panel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1 
 
Introduction 
 
A. Proposal and Literature Review 
 
Problem Statement 
 
Most do not become concerned with natural disasters until they or their family members 
are affected. Nevertheless, what if there were measures taken before hand that aided in a quick, 
less worrisome recovery for those following the aftermath of a natural disaster? Many lives could 
be spared from psychological and devastating hardships. According to reality statistics, about 40 
million people move annually in the US. Nearly three-fourths of the United States population 
moves an average of once every five years. As a result of this constant relocation the cycle of 
embodied energy production continues. The single most important factor in reducing the impact 
of embodied energy is to design long life, durable and adaptable buildings. According to 
Kueber?s (2008) article on embodied energy, ?The greenest building is one that?s already built.? 
As a culture, we should challenge ourselves to question how natural resources are used. 
One solution to address the overuse of resources and to relocation tendencies would be to create 
a portable, modular residence that could be added on to and even downsized to accommodate 
changes in a homeowner?s needs. These are serious matters that we must prepare for. The 
development of a modular, emergency relief shelter is a useful solution to most, if not all of the 
above mentioned concerns. 
 
 
2 
 
Need for Study 
 
Current emergency relief housing solutions have not adequately prepared us for the 
devastating aftermath of a natural disaster. Typically after a natural disaster, people are 
dismantled psychologically, food is scarce, and homes are destroyed. In the time of crisis, the 
last thing on a family?s mind should be the concern of being homeless. Natural disasters are 
inevitable, thus, it is imperative that we look for a solution that addresses the concern of housing 
displaced individuals after their occurrence. The development of a modular emergency relief 
system will be beneficial, introducing a new approach to multi-faceted, modular, and sustainable 
design. 
 
3 
 
Literature Review 
 
When analyzing the current lifestyle of the American culture, the concern to address the 
way we build and live, smaller rather than larger, is revealed. Furthermore, attention should be 
given to reduction that focuses on living with the necessities only needed to sustain life; this is 
the reality of what people are faced with after they have their homes destroyed by natural 
disasters. We should become aware of the importance of having a plan after any natural 
devastation. This research should stimulate one to think about the things we can do without and 
still sustain life. With this in mind, this review and ultimately this thesis will address the need for 
the following: creating an easily adaptable, modular system that provides emergency housing for 
the homeless after a natural disaster; creation of such a system that questions the cultural norms 
associated with buildings and incorporates only the minimums needed to sustain life. Emphasis 
will also be placed on the reduction of embodied energy to reduce waste and to increase 
effectiveness at a small scale. In addition, an analysis of the flaws of current solutions for 
emergency relief systems, such as the FEMA trailer, will be discussed. 
Just as Henry Ford?s assembly line, modular construction dates back over a hundred 
years. The idea of modular housing in the United States became prominent after World War II 
when returning troops were in need of small, economical housing. As a result of housing 
shortages, time did not permit traditional construction, thus modular construction was looked to 
more for rapid production. Hutchings (1996) writes, ?modular construction is not only faster and 
more efficient, it also produces a better quality product than stick-built construction? (p. 4). 
When man invented machine, many of the flaws, dissimilarities, and inefficiencies of hand built 
homes were eliminated. Assembly line produced, factory built homes increase consistency and 
4 
 
decreases error because of machine-based repetition. According to Hutchings (1996), ?modular 
construction eliminates the need of doing a major portion of the construction work in the rain, 
wind, snow, or unbearable temperatures, which affects how construction workers perform? (p. 
4). Often times, schedules are delayed due to incontrollable weather patterns.  In some cases, to 
prevent damaging interior parts, the building has to be covered, which would be eliminated in 
prefabricated construction which is done completely within a factory. As technology and 
machinery begin to take new heights, construction methods evolved, offering several benefits to 
producers, clients, and the environment. 
In design, the ideas of modularity and sustainability are not new concepts. As designers, 
it is the way we explore these terms that sparks innovation. One eventual benefit of modular 
homes is sustainability. The term sustainable encompasses a range of ideas from materials and 
technologies to efficiency and cost. History shows that Sustainability was even evident in 
Agrarian communities which heavily relied on the environment. The Industrial Revolution began 
to explore the energy of fossil fuels. As human begins to splurge and sustainable practices were 
overtaken by the need for time and productivity, the twentieth century began to expose problems 
of the exploitation of fossil fuel resources; utilization of non-renewable resources had become a 
way of life. Presently, because of the extensive use of nonrenewable resources, the twenty-first 
century is experiencing the threat of greenhouse emissions and impacts on the ozone layer; a 
topic which will be discussed later in this paper relative to the perspective of global warming.   
The proliferation of mass-production generated by the Industrial Revolution made life 
much more convenient, but since its inception, the Earth?s natural resources have been exhausted 
at more rapid rates. The advent of complex machinery marked an unhealthy human to 
environment relationship, thus producing the world as we know it today.     
5 
 
 According to McLamb (2008): 
As the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed every aspect of human life and 
lifestyles ? fro m human development, health and life longevity, to social 
improvements ? its human impact on natural resources, public health, energy 
usage and sanitation would not begin to register in the world?s psyche until the 
early 1960s, some 200 years after its beginnings. (p.1) 
Over the years, more efforts have been directed toward measuring and reducing the 
amount of embodied energy, or energy used to generate and occupy buildings. One way to 
address embodied energy is to design for modularity and portability. Staib (2008) writes: 
In America in the last quarter of the 19th century the steel frames of the ?Chicago 
School? represented the start of a long process of development that continued up 
until the creation of the post-war skyscrapers in New York and Chicago. On the 
other hand, there was also a booming industry of individually built, single family 
homes which, both as fixed and mobile homes, could be self-built by the residents 
thereby realizing countless variations of the American dream of building one?s 
own home. (p.26) 
Typical building construction should be reexamined. According to Staib (2008), ?in 
principle, every building is a composition of walls, floors, and roof. Independent systems have 
been developed for each and every discrete section of a building over the years.? (p. 9). 
Furthermore, smaller scale buildings will have to encompass several different systems within a 
defined space. Thus, individualized, sectioned spaces will not be feasible. Incorporating several 
functions within one space  produces more sustainable, more easily adapatable, free flowing 
spaces. A prefabricated, modular sytem lends itself to this simplification while preserving 
6 
 
adapatability. One of the most challenging aspects of developing a small living space is 
designing for one?s personal belongings and incorporation of products essential for life. For 
example, Japanese architect Kazuya Morita?s 557-square-foot "shelf pod" is a home that 
effectively takes advantage of wall space. The concept behind this design is an effective 
precedent study but should be altered to a maximum 200 square feet footprint and should be 
portable. Nevertheless, Morita?s study, along with many others, are useful starting points for 
designing prefab, modular structures. One reason why smaller homes are more sustainable than 
larger homes is because fewer building materials and servicing. In addition, the larger a home is, 
the larger the HVAC and electrical systems have to be to comfortably service the home.  
One way to approach reducing the impact of embodied energy is to design long life, 
durable and adaptable buildings. According to Kueber?s (2008) article on embodied energy, ?The 
greenest building is one that?s already built.? 
Portable architecture has its place in a crowded city, especially in the event that a slot of 
land is not readily available to accommodate a new structure. Fairs writes (2009), ?with urban 
centers increasingly running out of development space,? many architects are looking for new 
ways to slot small green buildings into the city without requiring additional infrastructure? (p. 
248). With the ideas of portability, modularity, and sustainability, amalgamate, the fields of 
Industrial Design and Architecture work together. 
This study will expound on the advantages of living in a portable, modular home. 
Modular homes that lend themselves to portability could be dismantled and moved to another 
location. This is yet another driving mechanism of this thesis, which promotes the idea of a 
portable home or RV. This will give homeowners the freedom to move their homes and relocate 
7 
 
with ease, an important cultural aspect of the United States. According to Brenoff of AOL Real 
Estate (2011): 
Housing experts predict that demand for compact homes in the U.S. will increase 
in the coming decades. There is a fast-growing population who need less-
expensive first-home options: single women, baby boomers who want to 
downsize, and recently graduated students. The idea also resonates with seniors 
who would like to age in place; by constructing one of these small homes in the 
backyard, they are able to live near an adult child and still maintain privacy and 
independence. (p.2) 
Staib (2008) draws an analysis of prehistoric times with the quote, ?To avoid having to 
search for the required building materials after each and every change of location, the nomads 
collected materials which could be quickly and easily assembled, after a time dismantled and 
simply taken with them? (p. 14). This goes to show us that the idea of portable housing can be 
traced back as far back as the existence of the nomads. It would be ideal to be able to move a 
house into any desired location. Most people do not remain at the same residence their entire 
lives; thus, portable housing would be very beneficial to them. In addition, portability could 
allow better matching of people to jobs who are currently unable to move to a better job becase 
they cannot sell their homes. Single-family houses are great for modular construction because 
they are built using a smaller footprint. As people graduate from college, they will soon be 
looking for smaller, economical dwellings to reside in. Staib writes (2008), ?alongside mass 
housing construction in housing estates, there was great demand for single-family houses? (p. 
25).  
8 
 
About 40 million people move annually in the United States and nearly one out of every 
five Americans move in an average year (Jasper, 2000). In the event of a natural disaster, those 
affected do not always have the option to move. Whether leaving a residence at one's will or 
because of distraught circumstances people could be benefit from a portable, prefabricated, 
modular residence that can be added on to or downsized to accommodate needs.  
In addition to the growing need for smaller, more portable dwellings for economic 
reasons, it is important that designers address the concerns of emergency shelters. Sandoval 
(2010) writes, ?The Unidad Dionisio team is developing a strategy to provide affordable, and 
self-sustaining shelters that evacuees can quickly construct with little actual training?. It is 
apparent that individuals are seeking to tackle this problem, but a solution to this problem still 
waits to be resolved. Sandoval (2010) goes further to state that: 
The basic shelter can accommodate two families during crisis times. It can then be 
adapted and fully outfitted for a single family home once the crisis has passed. Part of the 
urban planning phase of this project will involve developing settlement patterns that can 
be de-intensified to accommodate municipal standard road widths, so that the remaining 
shelters form a ?pre-developed? community. The modular units can be relocated, or 
added on to another shelter to increase the living space, thus accommodating a range of 
housing needs post-disaster. 
Similar to the vision of such a system, Buckminster Fuller?s vision and development of 
his Dymaxion House received criticism for its inflexible design which completely disregarded 
local site and architectural idiom, and its use of energy-intensive materials.  
The incorporation of ?sustainable? materials and practices and modularity is sometimes 
argued against because its initial cost can be more for construction. According to Shedroff 
9 
 
(2009), ?sustainable solutions don?t always cost more than unsustainable ones? (1997, p. xviii). 
Most modern technology costs more from the onset, but the savings over the lifespan of the 
product usually exceeds this initial cost. For instance, incorporating solar panels into a building 
might cost a lot upfront, but the return it gives in reducing electrical cost, overtime will meet and 
exceed this price.  
Shedroff (2009) goes on further to indicate that ?Our economic system rarely includes all 
of the social and environmental costs and impacts of products and services of the items we buy, 
the producers of sustainable solutions try to compensate for these cost. Doing this can cost more 
up-front, but often costs less over time since these solutions may prevent problems later? (p. 
xviii). As Shedroff illustrates, it is important to analyze social and environmental impacts of a 
design. 
Being affected by a natural disaster can alter the way we think and the way we reside. At 
times, a natural disaster can destroy belongings and homes, leaving families to start over in an 
emergency relief structure. Putting things into perspective, during the current economical times 
of the United States, our culture should really be looking at means of reduction instead of only 
being forced to resort to it after a natural disaster. The prices of food, gas, and other 
commonalities have all increased, making it more apparent why the conservation of resources 
and downsizing is important.  
One of the first steps to take should be to reexamine how we build and occupy dwellings. 
A minimalistic approach will strip down, eliminating waste, thus circumventing the economic 
and energy-related problems we are presently faced with. The ideas that drive Sandoval?s 
concept are very similar to the approach of the design of the emergency relief system derivative 
of this thesis. The results of this thesis should encompass the use of an inclusive design that 
10 
 
includes solving how one packages, ships, sets-up, and dismantles such a structure. The design 
will propose a modular emergency relief system that can house 1 - 4 persons after a natural 
disaster. 
 
11 
 
Objectives of Study 
 
? To develop a low-cost, modular system that can be used in a variety of conditions. 
? To design a system that can be easily set-up and disassembled by those who will occupy 
it. 
? To develop a low-cost, modular system that can be used as a long-term shelter for 
individuals displaced after natural disasters. 
? To develop a low-cost, modular system that can house a small, two person family, as well 
as be flexible enough to increase in size, through replication of systems, to house a two-
four person family. 
? To explore sustainable building materials and practices that can be incorporated into this 
design. 
? To research New Orleans and Birmingham because these areas all have suffered from 
natural disasters. 
? To explore the above mentioned areas and the available resources in Alabama, in an 
effort to use native, plentiful building materials. 
? To develop a product and explain how it is packaged, shipped, packaging, assembled, 
disassembled, and how it provides storage. 
? To show the application of the design. 
? To include rules of modularity in the proposed system. 
? To research the living aftermaths of:  the 2005 Hurricane Katrina that devastated New 
Orleans, the April 2011 Tornado outbreak of Alabama, and the 2012 Hurricane Sandy 
that struck Eastern United States. 
12 
 
? To form my design criteria from research of the aftermath of recent natural disasters of 
the world. 
? To make each system adaptable for each household and site characteristics. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
13 
 
Definition of Terms 
 
Embodied energy- is defined as the sum of energy inputs (fuels/power, materials, human 
resources etc) that was used in the work to make any product, from the point of extraction and 
refining materials, bringing it to market, and disposal / re-purposing of it. Embodied energy is an 
accounting methodology which aims to find the sum total of the energy necessary for an entire 
product lifecycle. This lifecycle includes raw material extraction, transport, manufacture, 
assembly, installation, disassembly, deconstruction and/or decomposition. 
Holism- is the idea that all the properties of a given system (physical, biological, chemical, 
social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) cannot be determined or explained by its component 
parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave. 
The term holism was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts. 
Minimalism- describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and 
music, where the work is stripped down to its most fundamental features. As a specific 
movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post?World War II Western Art, most 
strongly with American visual arts in the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is rooted in the reductive 
aspects of Modernism, and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a 
bridge to Postmodern art practices. 
Modularity-  the degree to which a system's components may be separated and recombined. 
Sustainability- the capacity to endure 
Prefabricated homes- often referred to as prefab homes, are specialist dwelling types 
of prefabricated building, which are manufactured off-site in advance, usually in standard 
sections that can be easily shipped and assembled 
14 
 
Presumptions 
 
? An emergency relief system will be beneficial for those affected by natural disasters. 
? Natural disasters occur often in the United States. 
? It is important to have a recovery plan prior to the occurrence of natural disasters. 
? An approximation of the actual number of individuals displaced by natural disasters. 
? The economy still has not fully recovered from its decline. 
? Greenhouse gases and depletion of the ozone layer are problems. 
 
 
15 
 
Scope 
 
? This study will develop a modular framing system that anticipates further development 
outside of the scope of this thesis project. 
? This study will mostly address the concerns of native Alabama and native Louisiana 
residents who were affected by natural disasters from 2011 and 2005 respectively. 
? This study will not develop, in its entirety, a mechanical, conditioning, electrical, or 
waste management system, but concepts for these systems will be addressed. 
? This study will develop concepts for the interior layout and conceptualization of furniture 
which also can be further developed outside of the scope of this thesis project. 
 
Limitations 
 
? In developing a system for these states, heavy considerations will be placed on material 
usage and cost will be analyzed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
16 
 
Procedures & Methods 
 
A. Procedure: 
? Analyze the way the American culture currently lives. 
Method: 
? Study the average size of families. 
? Analyze the housing market to see how long people stay located at a particular residence. 
B. Procedure:  
? Include all areas of exploration in research so that this system can lend itself to be used 
after a natural disaster. 
Method: 
? Explore the environments and cultures of New Orleans, Louisiana; Birmingham, 
Alabama; Tuscaloosa, Alabama; and potentially, New Jersey, and New York because 
these areas all have suffered from natural disasters. 
? Formulate a design that is based on the findings of this exploration. 
C. Procedure: 
? Identify New Orleans natives to ascertain their thoughts of the aftermath of the 2005 
Hurricane Katrina. 
Method: 
? Conduct phone, email interviews with New Orleans natives. 
? Analyze the survey to see their immediate needs, reoccurring responses etc. 
? Draw conclusions from the survey. 
D. Procedure: 
17 
 
? Develop a system that is modular. 
Method: 
? Research tradition building practices to derive a building unit. 
? Model possible solutions. 
? Analyze different ideations. 
? Chose one design to develop. 
E. Procedure: 
? Incorporate sustainable practices. 
Method: 
? Research building materials in the United States. 
? Develop a low-cost system which is able to be personalized for a particular culture and 
household size. 
F. Procedure: 
? How to educate occupants on how to use the system. 
Method: 
? Design the system so that occupants can easily assemble and disassemble it themselves. 
 
18 
 
Anticipated Outcomes 
 
The deliverable of this project will be: 
? A new approach to multi-faceted, modular, and sustainable design. 
? Better preparation of housing the homeless after a natural disaster. 
? The development of a low-cost, modular system, from a single building unit, that serves a 
dual purpose. 
? A system that is portable, easily assembled, and disassembled by its consumer. 
? A system that is adaptable and personalizable for each household and site. 
This research project will: 
? Address the need for emergency housing by implementing a measure that speeds up 
recovery after a natural disaster in a minimalistic, sustainable, and portable way.  
? Take advantage of sustainable design. 
? Optimize embodied energy by reducing the practice of wasting resources. 
? Analyzing the current lifestyle of the American culture with concerns of addressing the 
way we build and live, and offering theory, energy statistics and data as to why 
downsized lifestyle should be promoted.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
19 
 
Long-range Consequences: 
? Reduction of embodied energy that is associated with fabrication of new buildings. 
? Stimulate one to consider the necessities of life and how one can sustain in a building that 
provides access to these necessities. 
? Stimulation of the American culture to live in smaller, more sustainable dwellings. 
? By adding more modules, this design will lend itself to become new, permanent 
construction. 
? This system will present a solution that stimulates Americans to live as minimal as 
possible with the Necessities of Life. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
20 
 
1.0  Living Beyond Our Means 
 
1.1. Sense of Scale 
 
 Why as a country must we do everything BIG? On several occasions, I have conversed 
with International Americans about the size of things in their native countries in comparison to 
those same things in the United States, and the information gained has been consistent across the 
board. Simply put, the underlying fact of the matter is that, Americans do things much bigger. 
Drawing analysis from Sarah Z. Wexler, writer at Allure Magazine, according to Megan Gibson 
of the U.S. Times Magazine, ?from breast implants to megachurches to Hummers to 
McMansions, Americans supersize in many ways? (p. 1). In the year of 2009, the excess 
spending of Americans became apparent. Home foreclosures were at all time highs, the debt to 
savings ratio of Americans was as grim as it was since the Great Depression, sales from the Big 
Three automakers were dropping, the cost of 
living was higher, the unemployment rate 
soared, and the economy was flustered; 
America was on the brink of another 
recession. Wexler writes, ?Americans had 
been guilty of living large - accumulating 
huge amounts of (it turns out apocryphal) 
wealth in the pursuit of supersizing our 
homes, cars, businesses, and food portions? (p. I).  
Figure 1: Bruegger's, Inc., World's Largest Bagel Troy, New York, 
2004 
Photograph by Orlando Sentinel/Polaris 
21 
 
1.1.1. Energy Consumption 
 Larger objects, products, and food portions usually require the use of more energy. The 
United States possesses most of the resources to go big making it apparent that Americans are 
close to the top of most major resource consumption lists. Facts about the energy consumption of 
Americans make this argument quite relevant. The United States is the second largest energy 
consumer in the world. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook, the 
United States is second to the European Union in external debt. Second to China, the United 
States consumes more resources than any other country. 
One of the most apparent energy guzzlers of today is the American home. Wexler writes, 
?sizes of the average American home have increased 120% in the last 50 years. It's staggering. 
And in that time, the number of people who live in those homes has decreased? (p. 2). According 
to the United States Energy Information Administration, roughly 41% of total U.S. energy 
consumption in 2010 was used in buildings, 
or about 40 quadrillion Btu. With the 
economy still in the recovery process, the 
housing market beginning to reignite. 
Furthermore, the construction of inefficient 
buildings should be a thing of the past. We 
should be out with old and in with new 
approaches that foster a more energy conscious lifestyle. It is imperative that an approach 
towards a smaller, more energy conscious lifestyle is examined. 
 
 
Figure 2: Biggest, Privately Owned Home in United States 90,000ft.2 
Versailles House located in Windermere, Florida 
Photograph by Orlando Sentinel/Polaris 
22 
 
1.2. Less is More: Mies van der Rohe 
 
1.2.1 Modern Movement 
The world renowned German-American architect, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe best states 
it in his noted aphorism, ?Less is more?. Along with his other fellow pioneers of the Modern 
Movement of Architecture, Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, Mies van der Rohe 
established a new architectural style that emphasized clarity and simplicity. Furthermore, this 
Modern Movement aimed to influence designers to create designs that were stringently 
derivative of their purpose. For instance, Mies van der 
Rohe?s Barcelona Pavilion is a Modernist example 
known for its simplistic form. To supplement this 
building, Mies van der Rohe also developed the 
Barcelona Chair. This can be deemed a cohesive design 
since both the building envelope and the furniture it comprises were both designed by the same 
architect. Features of these structures include the pavilion, an open floor plan and a roof 
supported by small plates which generated a floating roof appearance; the chair, which is heavily 
hand-crafted. With their simplistic, cohesive approaches, both the pavilion and the chair 
supplemented each other and are common in the field of architecture and industrial design. 
Further expounding upon Mies van der Rohe?s Barcelona 
Pavilion and Barcelona chair, this amalgamate presents a holistic 
approach to design. Holistic approaches seek to demonstrate the 
idea that a system in its entirety is greater than its individualized 
Figure 3: Barcelona Pavilion 
Figure 4: Barcelona Chair 
23 
 
components. All-inclusive architectural and industrial designs are the essence of holism. 
Incorporating the ideas of inclusiveness and simplicity further aligns designs with a modern 
approach. 
By following the dictum, ?Less is more,? designs is done in a manner that omits excess 
and unnecessary detailing. Have you ever opened a product and found that some of the added 
buttons were only included for aesthetics? What about visited a building and wondered, what 
was the basis behind that extra set of doors that exceeded the requirement for the space? These 
extras might look good but are not necessarily required for the product to operate effectively. As 
designers, we should be reminded that the notion of less being more exists in its purest form 
when reflecting towards nature. Most the building blocks of the products and buildings we 
design can start from nature. For example, the Convertible Structure Solutions, Inc. uses the 
renewable, natural resource bamboo in its bio-fiber designed modular housing (Convertible. n.d. 
p.1). Other natural, unconventional building materials that are currently being explored are 
spider silk which can be spun into a variety of shapes and cardboard which can be used to build 
buildings without having to be processed into lumber.  
The Modern Movement exposes materials, exhibits them in their true forms, and does not 
manipulate them to represent the likeness of another; the essence of an object?s use and purpose 
should be evident.  
World War II spawned the demise of the Modern Movement. As many troops returned 
home they were in need of immediate housing thus quick modular structures were fabricated. 
Although, in this instance, troops were not affected by a natural disaster, an analysis of this 
displacement and housing can be compared to the same likeness of natural disaster displacement. 
The Case-Shiller index shows that U.S. housing prices declined at the beginning of the 20th 
24 
 
century due to mass-production techniques that made construction more affordable. 
Nevertheless, ?Unparalleled economic booms in the second half of the twentieth century resulted 
in an explosion of housing cost, size, and architectural befuddlement? (Gauer, p. 11).   
 
1.2.2. Minimalism 
 Minimalism strips objects, buildings down to their bare essentials to reveal its underlying 
character and structure. The fa?ade of a typical building is made of a few, basic building blocks: 
an exterior cladding and some sort of structural element. Other key components of the envelope 
of a building include the building?s foundation and roof. Each of the elements, foundation, 
cladding, structure, and roof, has all been addressed in a plethora of ways. For example, there is 
the standard brick veneer, concrete masonry unit, and vinyl siding exterior cladding; slab on 
grade and t-shaped make-up foundation types; the typical structure for buildings is made from 
either metal or concrete members; lastly, 
the typical roofs are metal, polyvinyl 
chloride, and asphalt. With this in mind, 
what happens when designers explore non-
conventional building materials to create 
structures? This can result in structures 
such as Shigeru Ban?s recycled cardboard 
paper-tube design used to quickly and efficiently house disaster victims, or utilization of phase 
changing materials which are manipulated for comfort according to the temperature outside, or 
foundations made of used beer crates filled with sand and made watertight with tarpaulin roofs, 
the possibilities seem endless and should be explored further. A minimalistic approach to design 
Figure 5: Paper Log House, Architect: Shigeru Ban 
25 
 
encourages exploration into a simplified way of life. The American Dream teaches, directly or 
indirectly, that a person will take a standardized test, soon decide on a college major, and then 
matriculate to the college or university of his or her or a parents? choice. After studies are 
complete, he or she then marries, finds a home, then begins a family; this becomes a rhythmic 
life cycle and to most is the American Dream, or so we have been taught. Much of that argument 
cannot but altered but the subject of the preconceived notion about a dream home to dwell in is 
worth revisiting. Gauer writes, ?We live in an age of astonishing excess, when having and 
wanting more is a cultural mandate. We use our brains and energy to work hard, and big house or 
apartment is often the visible reward for our effort? (p. 12). ?The ideal of a freestanding house 
with a yard is often cited as a primary cause of suburban sprawl. Yet it remains a staple of the 
American dream and a norm for much of the country? (Gauer, p. 7) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
26 
 
1.3. Homelessness Perspective 
 
1.3.1. Homelessness in the United States 
 The United States is home to many of the wealthiest people in the world. From 
Microsoft?s Bill Gates, to the Walton family of Wal-Mart, many have well above their means for 
living comfortably and to sustain life. On the other hand, Richard Florida, Editor at Large at The 
Atlantic Cities, writes that the National Alliance to End Homelessness estimates that six-hundred 
thousand Americans are currently homeless. This figure breaks down to display a distressingly 
high rate for the United States with 21 homeless per every 10,000 people across the country. 
According to the National Policy and Advocacy Council on Homelessness, in 2005, there were 
about 100 million people in the world who were categorized as homeless. This number is a small 
proportion of the seven billion population of the world, yet it is alarming.  
Most people are fortunate to have homes and are not necessarily homeless from the onset. 
Whether mud, straw, light gauge steel, or masonry constructed, housing can be deemed an 
essential element to the development of many cultures. According to the author Barakat, 
?Housing is a complex asset, with links to livelihoods, health, education, security and social and 
family stability. Housing is also an extremely vulnerable asset, and the destruction of homes or 
their loss through displacement or dispossession is one of the most visible effects of conflict and 
natural disaster? (p. 1).In many instances, the path of a tornado?s destruction can be seen. 
Moreover, there are some who are fortunate enough to escape natural disasters with minimum 
damage done to their homes; others have severe, yet fixable damage, while others lose their 
homes completely. Bumgarner writes, ?Mankind has always faced nature?s obstacles of disease, 
famine, flood, earthquakes, volcanoes, and other avenues to calamity? (p. 2). If completely 
27 
 
destroyed, that American Dream home is gone or unavailable and most individuals are faced 
with the same immediate response of finding temporary housing. 
 
1.3.2. Natural Disaster Displacement 
With this in mind, let us now 
examine statistics of individuals 
displaced due to nature occurrences in 
nature. According to the United States 
Department of Housing and Urban 
Development, ?a majority of homeless 
people counted were in emergency 
shelters or transitional housing 
programs, but nearly 4 in 10 were 
unsheltered, living on the streets, or in cars, abandoned buildings, or other places not intended 
for human habitation? (p.2). 
 
1.4. Focus Abstracted 
 
 Amid the rapidly growing population, the world?s exposure to natural hazards is 
inevitably increasing, therefore, we cannot afford to continue allowing our appetites, dwellings, 
and expenses grow. With the economy in an upswing from 2009?s fall, new, energy conscious 
innovations should be leading the surge into the future of emergency relief and community 
development. This approach first addresses the need for a plan to house individuals after being 
Figure 6: Residents left Homeless after April 27, 2011 
Belk Activity Center, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 
Photograph by: Butch Dill/AP 
 
28 
 
displaced due to natural disasters. Furthermore, this approach draws attention to the need for the 
United States to become more cognizant of the built environment and the manner in which we 
consume natural resources. Lastly, this approach introduces solutions for addressing a longer 
term, smaller community development which will utilize and transform emergency relief 
structures into permanent dwellings. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
29 
 
2.0  Resource Reduction 
 
2.1. Pre-Industrial Revolution 
 
 The Pre-Industrial Revolution prompted individuals to do more for themselves instead of 
relying upon the advancement of technology; communities were knit closely because of this. 
During this time, manufacturing was done with natural elements. For example, the windmill used 
wind power to turn grain into flour and clothing was made locally using animal hides and furs. 
This may seem a bit primitive for today's, modern society, but the fundamental issue of energy 
and resource conservation is the matter at hand. 
 
2.2. Post-Industrial Revolution 
 
 The Industrial Revolution introduced machinery and more technologies. The hand-
delivered, handwritten message was done away with by telephones, horse and buggy saw its 
demise to motor powered vehicles, and construction of roads and other infrastructure spurred as 
transportation and communication reached a new height. The growth of heavy industry 
brought a flood of new building materials?such as cast iron and steel for structures, and the 
curtain wall glass system. These building materials allowed architects and engineers to design 
and build structures that the world had only dreamed of. The function, size, and form of 
buildings now soared to new heights; the world had now become one non-cognizant of waste yet 
awed by its many explorations. Heavy machinery and mass production were among the 
30 
 
advancements of the Industrial Revolution. Eventually, as the Industrial Revolution began in the 
17th century but the environmental movement began in the 20th century, there was a noticeable 
yet unspoken rise in toxins and carbon emissions into the ozone layer; these big machines had to 
be powered in some form or fashion. 
 
2.2.1. Natural Resource Depletion 
 The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in Earth?s ecology and humans? 
relationship with their environment. In addition, the Industrial revolution had a great impact on 
the building industry. Mass production allowed architects and builders to apply ornamentation in 
amounts and details previously unseen to housing. Moreover, the Industrial Revolution brought 
with it profound effects on human development, health and life longevity, to social 
improvements and the impact on natural resources, public health, energy usage and sanitation. 
 As humans, well-being of ourselves and of the environment has been jeopardized for the 
ability to have things faster, more convenient, and readily available. When these conveniences 
become a devastating mockery, their effects should be examined, lessened and reversed. 
McLamb writes, ?It wasn?t that the Industrial Revolution became a stalwart juggernaut 
overnight. It started in the mid-1700s in Great Britain when machinery began to replace manual 
labor. Fossil fuels replaced wind, water and wood, used primarily for the manufacture of textiles 
and the development of iron making processes? (p.1). The Industrial Revolution movement was 
a great facilitator of advancement that potentially became exploited.  
31 
 
With growth in mind, it is obvious that the Industrial Revolution propelled the world 
population. According to 
McLamb, human population 
growth is indelibly tied 
together with increased use 
of natural and man-made 
resources, energy, land for 
growing food and for living, 
and waste by-products that 
are disposed of, to 
decompose, pollute or be recycled. This exponential population growth led to the exponential 
requirements for resources, energy, food, housing and land, as well as the exponential increase in 
waste by-products? (p. 2).  
 
2.3. Embodied Energy 
 
 Edminister writes, ?Embodied energy is the total energy necessary for an entire product 
lifecycle, including raw material extraction or harvesting, production, assembly, installation, use, 
disassembly or deconstruction, disposal or decomposition, and all associated transport? (p. 5). 
Everything man-made has a potential for embodied energy. This definition also includes re-
purposing of materials. Before the onsite construction of a building even begins, a large sum of 
energy has already been expended. Mumma (1995) writes, According to the Environmental 
Resource Guide, produced by the American Institute of Architects, more than 30% of the energy 
Figure 7: United States Fossil Fuel Consumption 
US Energy Information 
32 
 
consumed in the United States goes to making and maintaining buildings. Mumma (1995) goes 
on further to say: 
 Every building is a complex combination of many processed materials, each of 
which contributes to the building's total embodied energy. The energy required to 
extract and process the raw material for an individual component, as well the 
energy used to transport the finished product to the job site and install it, all 
become part of the embodied energy cost of the completed structure. Furthermore, 
energy involved in maintaining an individual building component, and finally 
removing it and recycling it or otherwise disposing of it at the end of its useful 
life, can all be part of the embodied energy equation for a particular building 
material, depending on how the embodied energy is quantified. (p.1) 
 Embodied energy occurs in two forms in buildings, initial embodied energy and recurring 
embodied energy, and they are defined as follows: 
The initial embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable energy consumed in the 
acquisition of raw materials, their processing, manufacturing, transportation to site, and 
construction. This initial embodied energy has two components: 
Direct Energy 
? Direct energy the energy used to transport building products to the site, and then to 
construct the building. 
Indirect energy 
? Indirect energy: the energy used to acquire, process, and manufacture the building 
materials, including any transportation related to these activities. 
33 
 
The recurring embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable energy 
consumed to maintain, repair, restore, refurbish or replace materials, components or systems 
during the life of the building. 
 There is significant variation in the amount of embodied energy in buildings. Initial 
embodied energy consumption depends on the 
materials used, the source of these materials, and 
how they are processed. The recurring embodied 
energy is related to the durability of the building 
materials, components and systems installed in the 
building, how well these are maintained, and the 
life of the building; the longer the building survives, the greater the expected recurring energy 
consumption. 
One goal of designers should be to 
design around methods and guidelines that 
reduce embodied energy. As buildings become 
more energy efficient and the amount of 
operating energy decreases, embodied energy 
is optimized. Conversely, energy-free 
structures can be built for the same price as a 
conventional home with some tradeoffs, such 
as a smaller building envelope. Alternative, natural building technologies are available and 
should be explored for incorporation into structures. 
  
Figure 8: United States Energy Consumption 
Graph: Architecture2030.org 
Figure 9: Typical Building Embodied Energy 
MIT OpenCourseWare 
34 
 
2.4. Global Warming 
 
 The earth is warming at an alarming rate; immense forces of nature have been unleashed 
through a series of ever-increasingly devastating natural disasters, and humans, even the most 
brilliant engineers, have repeatedly failed to tame these forces. In fact, as of 2013, Earth's carbon 
dioxide level has hit 400 parts per million, which is almost twice that of the 280 parts per million 
level before the Industrial Revolution. The negative effect of the carbon footprint of humans and 
buildings has often been discussed relative to global warming.  
Global warming is a growing 
concern; human life and the environment 
will reap the consequences of the perils 
of global warming, many in the form of 
natural disasters. Is there some validity to 
this argument that any of these events be 
pinpointed to the root of the cause of 
global warming? Seemingly, many things 
stem from the effects of global warming. 
The rise in the average temperature of 
Earth's atmosphere and oceans and its projected continuation has been a detriment on many 
crops and their preferred climate, disease has spread rampant because of transformation of 
ecosystems which has increased cohabitation with infectious organisms, the rise in sea level 
influences the severity of hurricanes and tornadoes. However, not all perceive the issue as due to 
manmade forces; ?the dispute lies in whether or not the warming we are now experiencing 
Figure 10 
Timothy Herzog, 2009 
35 
 
simply reflects a natural turnabout in the recent global temperature trend or results from the 
polluting impact of human activities since the industrial revolution really began? (McGuire, p. 
1). 
The building sector contributes up to 30% of global annual green house gas emissions 
and consumes up to 40% of all energy. Given the massive growth in new construction in 
economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is 
done, greenhouse gas emissions from buildings will more than double in the next 20 years? 
(Lemmet, p. 5). As a result, attention should be directed to modular, energy efficient homes as a 
way to reduce consumption and emissions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
36 
 
3.0 Natural Disasters 
3.1. Hurricanes 
 
Hurricanes can potentially be devastating natural disasters. Hurricanes are a product of 
weather conditions found in certain regions of the world, including the tropical regions of the 
North Atlantic Ocean. Hurricanes are initially classified as Tropical Storms. It isn?t until they 
reach over 48 miles per hour that they are classified as Hurricanes. Hurricanes can produce 
winds as high as 160 mph and even higher. Big or small, on average the Atlantic Ocean stirs up 
five to six hurricanes per year, dumping 2.4 trillion gallons of rain a day during their duration 
(Heinrich, p. 10). 
 Man has built structures five to ten feet up from the foundation, structures whose trusses 
are ?toenailed? into the top of its walls, and levees that have failed, yet these provisions still have 
not shown to resist every aspect of the most powerful of hurricanes.  
 
3.1.1. Hurricane Katrina 
16,000?The Katrina Evacuees of the Houston Astrodome?On September 4 th 2005, 
approximately 16,000 evacuees filled the floor of the Houston Astrodome?All seeking refuge 
from Hurricane Katrina?s devastation in New Orleans? Sam saved her gr andmother, who is 
unable to walk, on an air mattress from their flooded home in New Orleans?Sean Collins, and 
Ishmeal Fleming, both survivors of Hurricane Katrina, rest on cots in the Houston Astrodome on 
September 4th?The Art Room, set up by volunteers at  the Houston Astrodome, provides art 
37 
 
therapy to children affected by Hurricane Katrina and helps them to occupy the long hours spent 
inside the unfamiliar building?     -Sarah Regnier Video Account 
 
The costliest hurricane to hit landfall in the United State as of 2011, a Category 5 storm 
that slammed Louisiana in August of 2005, was known as Hurricane Katrina (Geology. n.d.). 
The above excerpt from Sarah Regnier describes the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Damages 
from Hurricane Katrina cost an estimated $91 billion. Moreover, the psychological and physical 
toll this hurricane brought with it remains with the country. Many people, animals, were left to 
fend for themselves after Hurricane Katrina. This meant that they were without food, water, 
Figure 11: Intensity Forecast Weather Graphic 
MIT OpenCourseWare 
38 
 
power, medical supplies, or police protection. Only weeks after Hurricane Katrina, evacuees had 
populated various states of the United States, both near and far; displacement after Hurricane 
Katrina was evident. 
 
     3.1.1a. Survival Account of Hurricane Katrina Victims 
 The devastation after a natural disaster can be grim, distraught, and burdensome. 
According to Matthew Tull, PhD., two researchers at the University of Mississippi Medical 
Center performed a study of the negative impact of Hurricane Katrina on people. Their research 
revealed that approximately 40% were without electricity for 6 days or more, over 40% had 
some kind of damage to their home, and approximately 10% were without water for 6 days or 
more. The following account, from the Associated Press, of life after Hurricane Katrina vividly 
paints the picture of how individuals lived. 
 Meet the Thomas family, comprised of six children and Thomas?s boyfriend whom 
arrived in Arizona a week after Hurricane Katrina struck. The Thomas family survived Hurricane 
Katrina by taking refuge in the attic of their four-bedroom brick house. After being rescued 
eleven hours later, the Thomas family pondered the questions of where would they live and 
work? When, if ever, would they go back home? What might they find when they did? Blank 
pages of a life story that suddenly had to be rewritten. After arriving in Arizona, their first 
accommodations were cots at Veterans Memorial Coliseum near downtown. The Thomas family 
eventually moved into a home that good patrons decided to offer to Hurricane Katrina evacuees, 
free of charge. In the same month of arriving in Arizona, Ms. Thomas went back to New Orleans 
to salvage whatever she could of her family?s belongings. Ms. Thomas was distasteful of the idea 
39 
 
of her family moving into a FEMA home thus, five years after first arriving in Arizona, Thomas 
and all six children live now in a mobile home in Buckeye.  
 
       3.1.1b. Characteristics of Disaster Recovery 
A brief synopsis of the Thomas family?s expedition after the occurrence of Hurricane 
Katrina can be generalized as: the natural disaster struck, the family had a latent, waiting 
period possibly with depleting sources of safe food and water, the Thomas family was 
rescued eleven hours later, after being rescued, the psychological aspect of the disaster became 
apparent, they were relocated, and then began to procure shelter, food, and water, the mother 
of the Thomas family returned to home to salvage belongings, rebuilding efforts start or 
relocation become permanent. The bold-faced type is the typical trajectory of a family after a 
natural disaster. Most disaster recovery efforts after a natural disaster are consistent with the 
outlined phases above. Government agencies and designers alike have sought resolutions that 
encapsulates all of these phases, with the FEMA trailer being one of the most common tenant of 
refuge.  
 
3.1.2. Hurricane Sandy 
On October 22nd, 2012, Hurricane Sandy hit the Mid-Atlantic and Northeast regions of 
the United States, lasting approximately nine days. Preliminary estimates of losses due to 
damage and business interruption are estimated at $65.6 billion, making it the second-costliest 
Atlantic hurricane, behind only Hurricane Katrina (Morgan, 2013). 
 
 
40 
 
   3.1.2a. Survival Account  
In Middletown, 
New Jersey, evacuees 
fled to nearby churches 
because flooding had 
prevented most of them 
from using their cars to 
flee elsewhere. A few 
people slept stretched 
across chairs in the sanctuary after the storm. The nearest FEMA assistance center is in Union 
Beach, about five miles away. FEMA alone is faced with the challenge of trying to reach every 
individual affected but realistically this is impossible. Serna writes, ?FEMA said 1,600 people 
are already using the agency?s help to live in motels or hotels. With 107,000 people qualified for 
similar accommodations, many places could soon be jam-packed if displaced Sandy victims 
don't stay with friends or family? (p.2). Norma McCarthy and her two sons stayed in their 
flooded, powerless home because their ideal evacuation site, a relative?s home, was also without 
power. McCarthy stated that she applied for FEMA assistance the day after Hurricane Sandy 
struck but was faced with weeks of waiting until her case came in contact with FEMA. 
 Irene Cramer and her husband Tommy had been displaced by Hurricane Irene in 2011 
and sequentially by Hurricane Sandy. When the couple's home was damaged in Hurricane Irene, 
they stayed for nine weeks with relatives down the street. Hurricane Sandy has presented them 
with the toil of finding another place to stay. The demand for shelter after Hurricane Sandy was 
overwhelming for FEMA and even real estate agents. Reported by the Associated Press: "The 
Figure 12: Hurricane Sandy Threat Image 
Liberal Lamp Post, October 2012 
41 
 
number of people who need homes now is much greater than what all of the companies have 
combined is available," said John Meechan, a broker with Diane Turton Realtors in Point 
Pleasant Beach, New Jersey? (p. 3). Turton Realtors has also had people so desperate for shelter 
that they have bought homes ranging in the 400,000 dollar range just to reside in temporarily. 
"We've had people that have said, 'for the price of renting, I'll buy it and sell it next year,'" said 
Perry Beneduce of Diane Turton Realtors. Through this situation, it is apparent that ample 
services from FEMA are inadequate over a vast region. As a result, other measures, other 
emergency relief apparatuses, should be present to ease the strain that is put on FEMA. 
In the world today, we see people fighting over food, a medical care system that some 
feel isn?t just and is filled with discrepancies, and a corrupt justice system that seems to pick and 
chose. These things exist now and as well as during the aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina and 
Sandy but were as transparent as glass when needed most. ?If you?re going to have a city below 
sea level in hurricane country, you?d better have some disaster plans. And plans they had, but 
apparently those plans didn?t include strengthening the levees or evacuating residents? (Dudley, 
p. 32). The Department of Homeland Security had planned ideas to prepare for emergency 
response scenarios such as Category 5 hurricanes. Yet, where were those plans after Hurricane 
Katrina? As a result, ?Katrina underscores the urgent need to build a robust national 
preparedness and response system that can bend and flex to the unique circumstances of natural 
or human-caused catastrophes? (Dudley, p. 12). 
 
 
 
 
42 
 
3.2. Tornados 
 
 The local news interrupts our favorite TV series, news flashes indicate the weather has 
taken a turn for the worst, red blotches on the newscaster?s Pulse-Doppler radar show inclement 
weather approaching, tornado sirens sound? We all are familiar with the destruction of a 
tornado. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but they are typically in the form of a visible 
condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of 
debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 
feet across, and travel a few miles before dissipating (Edwards, p1). 
 
3.2.1. Alabama Tornados of 2011 
 Tornadoes occur most frequently in the continent of North America, within the Tornado 
Alley between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains. On April 27, 2011, the 
state of Alabama was struck by an 
outbreak of sixty-two tornadoes that 
spanned more than 1,000 miles leaving 
destruction on most of their paths. The 
tornadoes from that day made lasting 
impressions on Alabama, in the county 
of Tuscaloosa, as well as the city of 
Birmingham. These tornadoes were so 
fierce that buildings built to withstand 
such a blow didn?t stand a chance. Analysis from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention 
Figure 13: Residents look through debris in Trussville, Alabama after the 
tornados of April 27, 2011  
Butch Dill, AP 
43 
 
found that unlike in other tornado outbreaks, the largest group of people who died were in single-
family houses ? not mobile homes (Stobbe, p. 1). As a result of these tornadoes, there were 
survivors who were faced with recovery after their homes' were destroyed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
44 
 
4.0  Necessities of Life 
 
 After a natural disaster, it is likely that drinking water and the air is tainted, food is 
scarce, and homes are destroyed. Each of these elements, water, air, food, and shelter, are 
necessities of life; all of which can affect the well-being of an individual if temporary sources of 
each of these necessities are not restored.  
Psychologically, as 
living organisms, our most 
basic needs vital to survival 
include the need for water, 
air, food, and sleep. 
Hierarchy wise, these can be 
deemed the most basic and 
instinctive needs because all 
needs become secondary 
until these physiological 
needs are met. Nancy L. 
Young-Houser of AKG 
Magazine writes, ?simply put, only when we are fed, warm and feel personally satisfied on a 
basic level will we then seek adequate shelter, i.e. if we are hungry and cold, those needs will 
always come first before we begin a search for adequate shelter, if not simultaneously? (p.1).  
With this in mind, the bare essentials to sustain life water, food, shelter, and health are examined 
for incorporation into emergency relief efforts.   
Figure 14: Dr. Martin Luther King Necessities of Life Quote  
Butch Dill, AP 
45 
 
4.1. Water 
 
 Two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom connected by covalent bonds, H2O, or water as 
we know it is imperative for human survival. A world without water would be impossible for all 
known life forms. Water is the pertinent part of the metabolic processes that are carried out 
within the body. Water is most commonly used by humans for agriculture and irrigation, 
ultimately the utilities needed to produce food. Consequently, water and food seemingly work 
hand-in-hand. The human uses of water seem endless. Humans use water as a scientific standard, 
for drinking, washing, transportation, chemical uses, heat exchange, fire extinction, recreation, 
and food processing. 
 
 
 It takes around 3,000 liters of water, converted from liquid to vapor, to produce enough 
food to satisfy one person's daily dietary need. This is a considerable amount, when compared to 
that required for drinking, which is between two and five liters. To produce food for the 6.5 
billion or so people who inhabit the planet today requires the water that would fill a canal ten 
meters deep, 100 meters wide and 7.1 million kilometers long ? that's enough to circle the globe 
180 times. According to the water encyclopedia, the minimum water requirement for 
Figure 15: Facts About Water 
Sourced By: SubhutiDharmananda, Ph.D., Director, Institute for Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon 
46 
 
replacement purposes, for an "average" person, has been estimated to be approximately 3 liters 
(3.2 quarts) per day, given average temperate climate conditions (Gleick, p.1). As a result of 
these facts, it is only necessary to provide measures for obtaining drinking water after a natural 
disaster. 
 
4.1.1. Purification 
 When a disaster strikes, water is the first necessity needed. Although survival is the first 
thing on the minds of disaster victims, one should make sure that the water that they are to obtain 
is safe to drink. The most readily effective and safe way to purify water is through boiling. In an 
effort to kill all pathogens, at sea level, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention 
recommends that you bring water to a rolling boil for 1 minute.    
 
4.2. Food 
 
 After the first necessity, a safe water source has been established, one can began to solve 
food crisis. While the quote that ?one will eat anything if hungry enough? suggests people will 
go to great lengths to obtain food, many do not result to this savage-like lifestyle. Many will go 
without food for extended periods and even starve before they eat something unfamiliar or 
unpleasing. In times of crisis, stress tends to alter thinking, triggering the above mentioned 
psyche to refuse peculiar foods. After a natural disaster, one can be left without power. Thus, 
alternative sources such as gas, solar power, and canned heat can be employed to prepare food. 
 
 
47 
 
4.2.1. Gas Utlilization 
 
4.2.1a. Propane and Camping Stoves 
Upon first response, gas is 
one of the most readily used and 
convenient power alternatives used 
for preparing food. Propane is a 
common, well-known power 
source, it is a short-term solution, 
but it cannot be safely used 
indoors. In addition to long-term 
cost implication and the potential 
for exposure to hazardous gases, propane wouldn?t be the most effective long-term solution. 
Camping stoves that use butane are another gas alternative to first response energy sources, but 
just as propane, they cannot be used indoors. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 16: Coleman PerfectFlow Propane Stove 
MSRP: $60 
48 
 
4.2.2. Solar Power 
All life benefits from the sun and 
along with water the sun is essential. The 
natural, almost always readily, available 
rays of the sun can provide a cooking source 
providing the weather is clear. Solar ovens 
convert the ultra-violet rays of sunlight into 
infrared rays. The trapped infrared heat in 
the oven cooks food. To make a solar oven 
one needs only a few things, a conductor such as aluminum foil, cardboard, making a solar oven 
simple to create without the fume dangers of gas ovens. Solar ovens become limited in use 
dependent upon the amount of sunlight available. All in all, solar ovens provide the safest, most 
long-term, indoor alternative to cooking without electricity. 
 
4.2.3. Canned Heat 
 Many times, at picnics and 
receptions, canned heat is used to keep 
food items warmed until they are ready 
for use. This technology is reusable 
heating which is another immediate 
cooking source that can be employed after 
a natural disaster. These canisters use an alcohol-based, gel-like fuel that will not spill. A seven-
ounce can burn for up to two hours. 
Figure 17: Global Sun Oven by Solar Town 
MSRP: $245.00  
Butch Dill, AP 
Figure 18: Reusable Heating Kit by Brennan?s Catering   
MSRP: $13 
49 
 
4.3. Public Health 
 
4.3.1. Waste and Sanitation 
 Health is a priority. Natural disasters present various health implications after their 
demise. Carcasses, debris, and pathogens are present. An important concern is the question of 
how to eliminate waste. It is ideal at this point to seek an efficient alternative to current methods. 
Several non-conventional toilet options are available for waste elimination, including 
composting and chemical toilets. 
 
   4.3.1a. Composting 
 After a natural disaster, water may be scarce. Thus, 
it isn?t ideal to use it for waste removal. When resources 
are limited, composting toilets serve as great tools for 
removing fecal matter when water is not present or does 
not lend itself to waste removal. A composting toilet is a 
dry toilet that uses a predominantly aerobic processing 
system that treats excreta, typically with no water or small 
volumes of flush water, via composting or managed 
aerobic decomposition. According to Envirolet, manufacturers of composting toilets, ?A 
significant savings in water storage will result if the household is not on networked water supply. 
Combine this with wastewater re-utilization in irrigation and other household water reduction 
techniques and water storage costs can be cut by up to 60%? (n.d., p.1). Composting toilets can 
be designed with a suction fan which extracts odors. Composting toilets are stand-alone units and 
Figure 19: Sun-Mar Excel Ne Non-Electrical 
Composting Toilet 
MSRP: Approx. $1400 
50 
 
offer great recycling opportunities. Most food scraps and paper can be composted, things we 
would not dare to put into our conventional toilets. A couple setbacks of composting toilets are 
that they require upkeep by their owner and they must be installed correctly or they can cause a 
messy removal. In addition, composting toilets can become costly. Nevertheless, the recycling 
and environmental benefits of composting are the biggest setbacks of chemical toilets. Besides, 
composting human waste and burying it around tree roots, not edible plants, keep organic wastes 
productively cycling in the environment. 
 
      4.3.1b. Chemical Toilet 
 The ?Porta-potty? is one type chemical toilet 
that most have seen or utilized before. The blue water 
at the bottom of the hole in a ?Porta-potty? is an 
immediate signifier of chemical toilets. Common at 
large public events and on large charter buses, 
chemical toilets are another waste treatment option. 
They can be less expensive than composting toilets. As 
the name entails, chemical toilets use chemicals to 
deodorize the waste instead of simply storing it in a 
hole, or piping it away to a sewage treatment plant. 
One drawback of chemical toilets is the chemicals used 
to combat wastes. Some chemical toilets use formaldehyde which can be very irritating to the 
eyes, ears, skin, nose, and throat. To make chemical toilets easier on the body, formaldehyde is 
being replaced by other proprietary blends such as glutaraldehyde and quaternary ammonium 
Figure 20: Chemical Toilet 
PortaPotti 
51 
 
compounds, with non-staining dyes and nature-identical perfume oils. Additionally, enzyme 
hybrids are sometimes used. 
 
4.4. Shelter 
 
 The challenge of addressing the need for shelter after a natural disaster is being taken on 
by many designers. As this review suggests, when rebuilding after a disaster, there are a number 
of options for doing so more effectively than with current practices. Sustainable approaches to 
rebuilding or adapting to existing structures invite emphasis upon modular construction and 
adaptive reuse. In addition, shelter can come in the form of communal dwellings as well as 
individual ones. 
Shelter is a barrier of protection from the environment. Termites live in mounds, squirrels 
in dreys, hares in forms, eagles in eyries, bees live in hives, bats live in caves, and bears live in 
lairs. Homes or shelters can stimulate a sense of well-being, belonging, and comfort. When 
exposed to extreme conditions, the body is thrown out of sequence. If too cold, blood flow can 
be drastically reduced, blood vessels dilate instead of constrict, and eventually, a thirty-five 
degree Celsius body temperature hypothermia sets in; one can only put on some many articles of 
clothing to combat cold temperatures. Excessive sweating, dizziness, heat cramps, when too hot, 
a body temperature that exceeds thirty-five degrees Celsius can cause the body can slip into 
hyperthermia (McGraw, 1998). As a result, organisms tend to feel better psychologically when 
they have shelter. According to Nancy L. Young-Houser of AKG Magazine, ?safety needs do 
not control our thoughts and behavior as do the basic physiological needs, but when the basic 
needs are satisfied, the second level of needing housing and shelter will automatically kick-in, 
52 
 
becoming very active in our thoughts and desires? (p. 1). When nature?s rhythmic cycle is 
disrupted natural disasters occur and cause families to be disrupted from their customary 
dwelling. As a result, an efficient means for housing displaced individuals must be sought. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
53 
 
5.0 Government Assistant Programs & Responses 
 
 Hurricanes and other disasters have been historically menacing in the United States. 
Dating back to the 1960?s, many notable hurricanes have taken their toll. Hurricane Donna killed 
more than 360 people in 1960. In 1961, Hurricane Carla killed 46. In 1965, Hurricane Betsy 
killed 76 people. In 1969, Hurricane Camille killed over 250. In 1964, an earthquake measuring 
9.2 on the Richter scale struck in Alaska killing one hundred thirty-one people and caused 
tsunamis to occur. As you can see, North America is no stranger to natural disasters, yet an 
effective relief plan still does not exist. Over time, the government has become better advocates 
for the safety and welfare of individuals after natural disasters, but disaster relief plans can be 
much improved to avert continued loss of life such as that which occurred after Hurricane 
Katrina in 2005. 
 
5.1. Federal Emergency Management Agency 
 
 The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 
established in the 1970?s by Jimmy Carter, was a step taken by the 
government to combat natural disaster relief unpreparedness. As 
defined by FEMA, a disaster is as a non-routine event that exceeds 
the capacity of the affected area to respond to it in such a way as to 
save lives; to preserve property; and to maintain social, ecological, 
economic, and political stability of the affected region. Figure 21: FEMA Emblem 
54 
 
The primary purpose of FEMA is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the 
United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities. An improvement 
over previous agencies and plans, FEMA was still unable to effectively address all natural 
disaster relief needs. After the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, FEMA soon became 
nestled under the Department of Homeland Security, as a result, making it even more ineffective 
as a unit (Bumgarner, p 9). The unpreparedness of FEMA soon became evident approximately 
four years later when Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf coast region of the country.  
 Bumgarner writes,  
 ?FEMA?s performance during and after Hurricane Katrina, which  struck New Orleans, 
 Louisiana; Biloxi, Mississippi; and everywhere in between in late  August 2005, has 
 been held up as an instant classic example of FEMA losing sight of its mission. Many 
 have criticized FEMA for departing from its disaster preparedness roots for the allure 
 of antiterrorism planning and preparation. FEMA?s actions during the Hurricane  Katrina 
 crisis have been characterized as evidence of this misplacement of  purpose? (pp. 9,10).  
This ineffective response underscores why FEMA still fails to be the solution to those affected 
by natural disasters. FEMA has not effectively addressed emergency management, failing to 
adequately mitigate, prepare, respond, and recover. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
55 
 
5.1.1. FEMA Trailers & Earthquake shacks (cottages) 
The FEMA trailer is the United State 
Government?s immediate form of 
manufactured, temporary housing for displaced 
individuals after a natural disaster. In 
comparison to tents, the FEMA trailer provides 
a longer term housing alternative. History 
demonstrates the use and need of such homes. 
In 1906, the San Francisco Earthquake 
prompted the use of earthquake shacks. The earthquake shacks were small cottages built to house 
over 16,000 residents of San Francisco. Characteristics of earthquake shacks included cedar-
shingle roofs, fir floors and redwood walls. In addition, these cottages all were painted green to 
better blend into the parks and public squares in which they were erected. In 1907, these cottages 
began to become extinct to resurface, for preservation purposes, decades later in the 1980?s. 
Subsequentially, in 1992, FEMA trailers emerged after South Florida?s Hurricane Andrew. 
Individuals affected by Hurricane Andrew resided in these trailers for as long as two years.  
 
   5.1.1a. FEMA Trailers Usage 
Since Hurricane Katrina plagued the 
city, the use of FEMA trailers in New 
Orleans, Louisiana has become prevalent. 
The cultural landscape of New Orleans has 
been changed by the influx of these trailers 
Figure 22: Earthquake Shack after Earthquake of 1906 in San 
Francisco, California 
Photo by: San Francisco History Center, SF Public Library  
Figure 23: FEMA Trailer 
 
56 
 
with some becoming permanent homes seven years later. Areas affected by extreme flooding, as 
well as those that weren?t, showcase FEMA trailers that house families. One of the first 
challenges of FEMA trailers is that they are still property of the United States Government. 
Thus, they are to be returned after use. However, some individuals opted to purchase their 
trailers from the government for $1,100, turning the temporary shelters into permanent homes. 
FEMA trailers may be cost friendly, but their building components, health implications and 
challenges offset this cost. 
After Hurricane Katrina, flooded homes became environments for mold to thrive. To 
combat this fungal problem, the process of mold remediation has to be implemented before 
rendering homes safe to inhabit again, leading to a lack of habitable homes. In addition, homes 
abandoned or empty become dilapidated. These have also caused an inflation of leasing rates for 
apartments; thus, most working class storm victims cannot afford them. Without FEMA trailers, 
some people who do not own or rent homes would be unable to find any form of housing within 
the disaster area. 
 
      5.1.1b. FEMA Trailer Characteristics 
 FEMA trailers can be installed next to homes on lawns and driveways, as well as in 
FEMA home trailer parks. FEMA trailers are mass-produced and have a single bedroom, 
typically designed to accommodate two adults and two children. The typical FEMA trailer is 
14?x22? in area, consists of a master bedroom with a standard size bed, a living area with kitchen 
and stove, bunk beds, and a bathroom with shower. Each trailer is equipped with electricity, air 
conditioning, indoor heating, running cold and hot water, a propane-operated stove and oven, a 
small microwave oven, a large refrigerator, and a few pieces of furniture attached to the floor; 
57 
 
usually a sofabed, a small table, and two chairs. Each trailer is elevated about two feet (0.6 m) 
above the ground, on concrete supports. There is only one door on the side of each trailer, which 
is accessible through a wooden or aluminum stairwell. There are also long ramps for wheelchair-
using occupants.  
Services for FEMA trailers are at times determined by locality.  Electrical service to the 
FEMA trailers is installed by the local power company. The typical FEMA trailer has two 
propane tanks on the front of the trailer behind the master bedroom, which provide the hot water, 
indoor heating, and gas for the stove and oven. Running water for the trailer is usually provided 
by some sort of water source on the property, usually through a garden hose. Sewage is piped 
directly to an underground sewage main on the property. Most trailers have several windows 
which can be opened, as well as small light fixtures in each room. 
 
5.1.1c. FEMA Trailer Formaldehyde Exposure 
 The FEMA trailer has become highly controversial. Accusations have flown about the 
exposure to formaldehyde when dwelling in these trailers. Formaldehyde gas -- the airborne form 
of a chemical used in a wide variety of products, including composite wood and plywood panels 
in the travel trailers that FEMA purchased to house hurricane victims -- is considered a human 
carcinogen, or cancer-causing substance, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer 
and a probable human carcinogen by the EPA. Since FEMA trailers are mass-produced and 
usually in high demand after a natural disaster, this means that they are produced and dispatched 
before many of the materials used in its assembly have cured and off-gassed. In addition, the 
high heat and humidity of Louisiana exacerbated this issue. Mary DeVany, an industrial 
hygienist from Vancouver, Washington states, ?Typically with these plywood and particleboard 
58 
 
materials ? before assembly they?re put in ovens that heat them to 130 degrees,? she said. ?This 
sets and bakes off the formaldehyde in the glues and resins. ... I?m not sure that happened in this 
case because the trailers were made so fast? (Brunker, p. 1).  Health issues have resulted from 
extended exposure to FEMA trailers. Residents have reported breathing difficulties, persistent 
flu-like symptoms, eye irritation, and nosebleeds because of the formaldehyde levels present. 
According to tests performed by the Sierra Club, several FEMA trailers revealed some 83% had 
levels of formaldehyde in the indoor air at levels above the EPA recommended limit. NBC News 
supports this claim by reporting formaldehyde concentrations as high as 0.34 parts per million ? 
a level nearly equal to what a professional embalmer would be exposed to on the job. 
Government tests revealed that the formaldehyde levels of FEMA trailers were about five times 
of the exposure levels of traditional homes. Anthony Dixon, a New Orleans resident says he 
developed asthma while living in a FEMA trailer for two years, and many others have reported 
similar health problems. The government has since stated that the formaldehyde present in past 
FEMA trailers was a result of poor construction and fabrication and building materials. It is 
apparent that in situations, when mass quantities of emergency relief shelter is necessary, 
FEMA's existing source is inadequate to the actual short-term needs of residents and victims. 
 
   5.1.1d. FEMA Trailer Storage 
 Another big concern inhibiting the effectiveness of FEMA trailers is their inability to be 
appropriately stored. Since FEMA trailers come in standard 14? x 22? sizes, their bulky footprints 
do not lend themselves to be efficiently stored, or disassembled for storage. As a result, many 
FEMA trailers are stored in reserved lots throughout states. Cases in Mississippi revealed the 
storage problem and lack of use of FEMA trailers. In Purvis, Mississippi, FEMA has 3 storage 
59 
 
yards, one in Purvis with over 18,000 trailers, one in Hope Arkansas with 10,500+ trailers and a 
third yard in Mississippi with around 3,500 trailers. Many of these trailers were returned after 
short-term emergency use. Because of the difficulty in storage and the short-term nature of the 
trailers, they become obsolete after being returned to FEMA. 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
60 
 
5.2. American Red Cross 
 Founded by Clara Barton on May 
21, 1881, the American Red Cross is a 
private, non-profit organization that 
provides relief to victims of disaster and 
helps people prevent, prepare for, and 
respond to emergencies. The differences 
between and essential roles of both FEMA and the American Red Cross are as follows: The Red 
Cross is a nonprofit voluntary organization that responds to disasters regardless of their size and 
scope; FEMA is a federal government agency that helps in those disasters that have been 
declared disasters by president. Some of the FEMA's work involves community recovery, such 
as rebuilding bridges, roads, and public buildings. The Red Cross provides assistance to meet 
individual humanitarian needs. Also, under the federal response plan, the Red Cross and FEMA 
have separate responsibilities. The Red Cross is responsible for "mass care"- providing food, 
shelter, bulk distribution of disaster relief supplies, first aid, and disaster welfare information. 
FEMA is directly responsible for "information and planning" and "urban search and rescue," and 
the overall coordination of any activities conducted under the federal response plan. 
 
5.3. Common Challenges after a Natural Disaster 
 Many of the challenges faced by individuals after a natural disaster are consistent, most 
of which are derivatives of the previously mentioned necessities of life. One should have an 
emergency preparedness plan that includes food, water and fuel for at least two weeks. 
According to the government, every family should have emergency food on hand. From the 
Figure 24: American Red Cross 
61 
 
onset of the disaster, most residents are without power. According to CNN, residents affected by 
Hurricane Sandy were without power for eleven plus days. Starting August 31, 2005, Hurricane 
Katrina caused widespread power outages throughout Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, 
Kentucky and Tennessee. As a result of power outages after a natural disaster, power generators 
become a scarce, in-demand commodity. It is ideal to procure a good generator early and to have 
at least a week?s worth of fuel on hand. 
 Next, another big challenge faced after a 
natural disaster is food acquisition. Consequently, 
an emergency food supply is essential. For an 
immediate response for food after a natural 
disaster, a popular choice for survival food is the 
military style Meals Ready to Eat (MRE's). 
Eventually, canned and dehydrated foods can 
become available. In addition, canned and 
dehydrated foods are ideal to have stocked because they keep best and are easy to fix with no 
cooking. Because grocery stores may be inaccessible or emptied already of food, it is ideal to 
have two weeks of food stored up for every person in the family. 
 After power and food have been reestablished, water is needed and should be sought out 
simultaneously with the food search efforts. After a natural disaster, one can almost expect local 
water treatment facilities to lose power thus losing the ability to provide fresh water. With this in 
mind, water should be stored especially if a natural disaster seems to be approaching. Water can 
be stored in bathtubs and can also be purchased in bulk, five gallon reservoirs at local stores. On 
average, a gallon per day should be allotted per each member of the household.  
Figure 25: Meals Ready to Eat 
By Ameriqaul 
62 
 
 Lastly, fuel, batteries, and charcoal are ideal to have available after a natural disaster. 
Fuel is important to have because it can power generators and of course, vehicles. Gas stations 
will rapidly run out of gas and can lose power as well, thus making it ideal to have gas reserves 
stored.  Whether alkaline, solar powered, or rechargeable, batteries are ideal to have on hand 
because they can power generators, cooking devices, flashlights, lamps, emergency radios and 
other powered sources. Charcoal is ideal to have because it can be used to grill foods until power 
is available.  
 Government programs such as FEMA are designed to respond after a natural disaster but 
they cannot reach everyone immediately after to provide emergency resources. Natural disasters 
can spur a survival instinct, thus psychologically provoking one to do things he or she is not 
accustomed to doing. As a result, it is a fact that looting and fighting become prevalent. Death 
can become rampant as well because of acts of violence and carelessness.  
 No one knows when a natural disaster will strike and how it will affect them. Thus, it is 
ideal to be prepared for the worst. The Federal Emergency Management Agency and American 
Red Cross work simultaneously to meet the needs of the affected after a natural disaster. 
Congressional investigations have revealed that the two ?did not have a logistics capacity 
sophisticated enough to fully support the massive number of Gulf coast victims." One can only 
speculate whether or not meticulous preparation would have still sufficed in the event of 
Hurricane Katrina. Natural disasters occur frequently and often times unexpectedly, therefore, it 
can be impossible to gauge what is needed per every given scenario. According to Kates and 
Pijawka, ?the reconstruction period of time, which can run from months to years, is concerned 
with the rebuilding or replacement of destroyed structures and other capital possessions? (cited 
in Bumgarner, p. 31). Nevertheless, having emergency relief measures in place that assists and a 
63 
 
structure that is readily available for housing, still remains a work in progress for FEMA and the 
United States Government.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
64 
 
6.0 Housing Analysis and Alternatives 
 
 After suffering the loss of everything during a natural disaster, most families are thankful 
to have almost any form of shelter. However, natural disaster recuperation shouldn?t be the cause 
that spurs one to begin to live smaller. In support, statistics of the housing market will be 
presented to demonstrate the modesty of alternative, smaller lifestyles. Natural disasters are the 
most common cause for an emergency relief shelter, yet such shelters can also be adapted to 
become more permanent settlements.  
 
6.1. Predicted Housing Market 
 
During the economic crisis of 2008 and 2009, it was not uncommon to peruse the 
newspaper and see a local ad for an appraised house advertised at a much lesser value. A 
nationwide depression was evident, houses were advertised below their relative value, yet no one 
was buying. ?For young families buying their first home or mature adults wanting to downscale, 
smaller houses make sense. Single adults or couples without children are also prime candidates 
for small homes? (Tremblay, p. 1). 
When thinking about the future of building, one should have the outlook of ?building 
what we need and will use?. Often times, with more space, we are inclined to bring in more 
furniture, d?cor, or unneeded items. When in a smaller envelope, we can still decorate and live 
with needed objects but without excess. ?Extra space will cost you in several ways: money and 
time to decorate, clean, and maintain; energy to heat and cool all that space? (Tremblay, p. 2). 
65 
 
6.1.1. Single Women, Recent Graduates 
 The future of housing anticipates an increased need for housing, smaller housing, that 
accommodates single-families, recent graduates, and the elderly. According to the United States 
Census and the America's Families and Living Arrangements: ?2010, the average household size 
declined to 2.59 in 2010, from 2.62 people in 2000. This is partly because of the increase in one-
person households, which rose from 25 percent in 2000 to 27 percent in 2010, more than double 
the percentage in 1960 (13 percent)?. There has been an increase in the number of young adults 
who have turned to moving back in with their parents. In addition, more families are more 
inclined to either rent or live with friends or relatives. It is evident, low-priced, smaller housing 
solutions can start to reach many.   
 
6.2. Relocation Prevalence  
 
The prevalence of relocating is striking. 
Whether a job promotion, tired of living in the 
same place, statistics show that people move 
frequently and do not stay at one particular 
residence long. One City Data blogger wrote, 
?For the past 10 years, I haven't stayed in one 
spot for longer than 11 months. I used to move 
every 4 or 5 months. Nowadays, I've slowed 
down, and only move maybe once every 10 
months or so on average. I figure someday I'll buy a house and that'll be the end of all these rapid 
Figure 26: Relocating Plans by Age Group and Year 
By Bob Adams in Slider, Statistics 
66 
 
moves. Until then, I'm enjoying my mobility. I never complain about where I live because if I 
don't like it, I just up and move? (p.1). There are several indicators of the prospective outlook for 
homes evident from this blog alone. The blogger has not resided in a single home more than 11 
months. According to other statistics this is true of many others when we note that nearly one out 
of every five Americans move in an average year (Jasper, 2000). This is the lifestyle of some; 
thus one of the questions that should be addressed is how to accommodate frequent movers with 
a home that moves with them. ?Affordable to build or buy, inexpensive to maintain, energy 
efficient and environmentally conscious, small homes are the housing of the future? ?Smaller 
living units may be detached, site-built, single-family homes; manufactured homes? (Tremblay, 
p. 1). 
 
6.3. Small Homes 
 
 What one calls a home varies in size around the world. From structures without complete 
enclosure to the environment, to one room huts, to some families that live in homes that have 
less frequently occupied guest rooms, 
overall, we have seen homes grow with 
wealth, especially in Western countries. 
Dating back to 1970, the average size of 
the American home has grown by fifty 
percent. A bigger home has been the trend 
over the past forty years, yet, as of 
recently, this trend has been slowly 
Figure 27: Tiny Surf Shack Home 
By Molecule Homes, an architecture duo of Santa Cruz, California 
67 
 
counteracted by the trend to go smaller. Tremblay writes, ?Many individuals and families have 
discovered that small houses best meet their needs and lifestyles... A general misconception 
exists concerning small spaces and quality. To some people, small connotes cheap or less 
desirable. Small spaces in fact can be jewel-like, ideal places for living? (p. 1). Other factors than 
a growing trend in the population of recent graduates and single families are indicative of the 
surge to look into a smaller home and include benefits such as trading quantity for quality 
especially relative to materials, opting in for a smaller and sometimes no mortgage, having a 
smaller living environment that costs less to maintain and air condition, and alleviation of the 
depreciation factor commonly associated with a bigger, less energy efficient home. 
Others that live in a smaller home have gone on further to expound on their experiences 
most of which have increased psychological morale and family bonds: smaller homes increase 
the likelihood of families partaking in more family time, a smaller home inspires one to get to 
know neighbors in a more intimate fashion, smaller homes increase home security and a feeling 
of safety, a smaller home increases options for residency immediate to infrastructure, a smaller 
home increases parental awareness because of the immediate proximity of rooms, and smaller 
homes increase health because it does not have as many unoccupied areas within it that could 
harbor dust. The benefits of smaller homes are effective solutions for housing individuals 
affected by natural disasters. One major hindrance of conceiving a smaller home alternative over 
a bigger home is that most building codes require a minimal square footage. Building codes 
change every year, thus presumably a factor that will be dealt with as more and more people seek 
smaller homes. Nevertheless, smaller homes should make living easier, more economical and 
more efficient. 
 
68 
 
6.4. Housing Alternatives: Modular Construction 
 
 Many of the concepts of holism, minimalism, and embodied energy can all be tackled by 
modularity. Modular construction is prefabricated, mass assembled components unified to make 
a whole. More emphasis has been placed on modular construction as builders, developers, 
architects, engineers and public works agencies are looking for innovative construction 
techniques and project cost savings. The modular house of the future will encompass all of this 
and more. Modular constructed buildings can lend themselves to short-term, immediate response 
structures associated with emergency relief or military housing, and for long-term, permanent 
structures such as health care and industrial facilities, and fast food restaurants. Principles for 
modularity, design specifications and rubrics can all be specific to a particular modularly 
constructed building type. 
 Modular construction typically has the following advantages (Wise geek.Reffit, 2007):  
? Faster completion because the building frame and site are typically completed 
simultaneously. 
? Indoor construction which isn?t halted by weathering and rain days, and which also 
promotes a healthier environmental impact; any chemicals used to produce products of 
the modular construction are kept within the confines of the factory where it is being 
fabricated. 
? Modular construction promotes flexibility in relocating, adding rooms, and cost 
ramifications. 
? Materials are wasted less in modular construction. Mass production typically means the 
same parts are constantly built. As a result, the manufacturer has records of exactly what 
69 
 
quantities of materials are needed for a given job. In contrast, waste from a site-built 
dwelling may typically fill several large dumpsters. 
 Salomon writes, ?It doesn?t take a PhD in physics to see the energy cost is a direct 
correlation of cubic feet; It is easier to reduce the embodied energy of a house by making the 
house smaller than by searching for low-embodied energy materials? (Salomon, p. xii). The 
bigger picture of the modular movement should be counteracting the long-term effects that 
bigger structures have on the environment with rewards of cost and energy reduction, presented 
holistically through modularity. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
70 
 
7.0 Design Principles for Small Dwellings 
 
 As defined by James Gauer, author of the New American Dream: Living Well in Small 
Homes, this section outlines the characteristics that good dwellings should have: 
 
7.1. Proportion 
 
Proportion is sensorially depicted by humans. Thus, it is important that it is effectively 
implemented in a structure. The human eye is keen to orthogonal shapes such as rectangles and 
squares. In a well proportioned space the dimensions all relate. Proportion is intuitively sensed 
and good proportions can make a smaller space seem bigger than it actually is. According to 
James Gauer, ?proportion establishes a coherent system of visual relationships in building and 
spaces of any size. It bestows aesthetic consistency on disparate functional and technical 
components? (p. 28).  Proportion can be derived from interlocking spaces and strict hierarchy. 
 
7.2. Modularity 
 
 Previously discussed, modularity is the modern method of achieving proportion and 
economy simultaneously. Humans can identify and relate to modularity because it is derivative 
of the proportions of the human body. Modularity is usually compromised of prefabricated 
components which regulate the proportions of systems as a whole. 
 
71 
 
7.3. Scale 
 
 ?If a small house is to look like something more than a human-sized wren coop an 
architect with a keen eye for scale must study the size and placement of ceiling, doors, windows, 
stairs, trim, and all the other elements that add up to an architectural whole? (Gauer, p. 81). The 
scale of FEMA trailers are not conventional; thus they do lend themselves to modular 
manipulation. 
 
7.4. Transparency and Spatial Layering 
 
 Changes in ceiling heights, flooring, and materials can suggest layering. The human 
perception is heavily driven by what the eye senses. The sense of a bigger space can be achieved 
without increasing square footage by increasing interlocking spaces that open to each other and 
to nature. Optimal transparency in a structure allows sight from the front, back, and side; 
panorama views should be achieved through layering. The open plan creates spatial layering that 
eliminates fully enclosed rooms. In an open plan, smaller spaces can defined by cabinetry and 
floating wall planes; Architect, Mies van der Rohe was a mastermind at creating this illusion. 
Transparency can be heavily influenced by the incorporation of glass. Careful consideration of 
transparency and spatial layering can transform interior spaces and promote a consistent 
relationship between interior and exterior spaces. 
 
 
 
72 
 
7.5. Hierarchy and Procession 
 
 Usually in smaller structures, only one space can be large and all other spaces must be 
deferentially smaller. Excess space is to be avoided in this hierarchy. According to Gauer, ?the 
differences between spaces, whether functional or symbolic, indicate their relative importance in 
a dwelling?s composition and therefore in its hierarchy? (p. 108). The living or multipurpose 
room usually is the largest room in a layout because it lends itself to the most traffic and activity. 
Space can be defined both two dimensionally and three dimensionally. Thus, volume comes into 
play. Entering directly into a space prevents procession. Thus decreasing the sensory illusion of a 
bigger space. 
 
7.6. Light 
 
 Light is important in good design. Taking advantage of natural light makes design 
perceptible. The natural cycle of the sun can produce advantageous results with cross ventilation, 
passive heating technologies, illuminated voids, and shade and shadow. The orientation of 
openings in a structure helps manipulate light. The primary space of a dwelling should have the 
best orientation to daylight. 
 
 
 
 
73 
 
7.7. Multifunctionalism 
 
 A program of spaces of a structure designates certain square footages distinctive to each 
space?s role. Until the Renaissance, families resided in homes that had one room that was 
designated for eating, sleeping, cooking, bathing, and socializing. Partitions and screens were 
used whenever privacy was needed. Open plans increase function in a smaller square footage, 
prompting users to do more with less. 
 
7.8. Simplicity 
 
Simplicity is essential in a small structure. Overdecoration can make the space feel 
crowded instead of conveying the perception of depth. Variation in door and window sizes is an 
example of designing against simplicity. ?A small house or apartment is no place to be fussy? 
A clear, straightforward plan with a single strong architectural idea will make the most of limited 
space? (Gauer, p. 177).  
 
7.9. Economy 
 
?If three rooms meet the requirement of your family, or if they are all you can afford, 
why build more?? (Gauer, 2004, p. 191).  
Implementation of these philosophies of design are essential in effectively designing 
more permanent structures for emergency relief.  
74 
 
8.0 Design 
 
8.1. Stages and Characteristics of Disaster Recovery 
 
 Most Americans cannot even imagine the thought of a natural disaster taking everything 
from them at an abrupt instance, so people usually are not prepared for these unexpected 
occurrences. The main goal of this study is to implement measures and infrastructure for those 
affected by natural disasters that aid in immediate, first prong response of recovery. As defined 
by Bumgarner, referencing writers Kate and Pijawka, there are four stages or prongs of disaster 
recovery which include:  
? 1st Prong: Emergency Period, spans from a couple of days to a few weeks. This is the 
period immediately following the response phase of emergency management and 
constitutes the portion of recovery that is guided by the EOP, Emergency Operations 
Plan, which had been activated due to the emergency. 
? 2nd Prong: Restoration Period, repairs to utility services made, debris is removed, 
evacuees are returned to the community and to their homes, and the various damaged 
homes and buildings are repaired. This period of recovery can take from weeks to 
months, depending upon the reparative resources available. 
? 3rd Prong: Reconstruction-replace Period, concerned with the rebuilding or replacement 
of destroyed structures and other capital possessions. This period can take months to 
years.  
75 
 
? 4th Prong: Development Period, long after the disaster when the community sees fit to 
place the calamity in its proper historical perspective. Community seeks to improve itself 
and recovery is complete. 
Of these four prongs, the essence of this design is foremost concerned with the first prong, 
Reconstruction-replace and Development. Natural disaster occurrences can often be anticipated 
by weather forecast, yet the severity, destruction and aftermath of these disasters seem to always 
take nations by surprise. To name a few, time, nature, and weather patterns have revealed the 
dynamics and prevalence of natural disasters. Spanning from 2001-2012, fifteen severely 
catastrophic natural disasters have occurred in the United States. Yet, some still are caught off 
guard by their occurrences. At other times, natural disasters are unavoidable thus emergency 
management preparation is imperative.  
 As discussed earlier, government agencies are tasked with both preliminary and post 
matters referencing natural disasters, but natural disaster after disaster has proven that the 
government cannot do it all by themselves. Stages of natural disaster recovery often spur 
rebuilding or involves temporarily, and sometimes, permanently re-housing families. With this in 
mind, bringing aid to affected individuals after and during each of the aforementioned prongs 
helps reignites the psychological sense of belonging that likely has been stripped from these 
individuals. After adversity, many people seek help.  
 Those affected by natural disasters should not be burdened with finding shelter. A 
predisposed plan can effectively combat challenges that may arise when trying to help the 
affected through this transition. In the instance of Hurricane Katrina, most of the help, which 
came in the form food and housing, did not reach affected individuals because infrastructure was 
destroyed or blocked. Although Hurricane Katrina presented far more extreme circumstances 
76 
 
than any of the other natural disasters that occurred in the United States between 2001 and 2012, 
analyzing the flaws and preparing for the worst, as such, can effectively aid in emergency 
management. 
 It is important that a housing solution for displaced victims addresses the psychological 
and well-being concerns of families. Often times after a natural disaster, families are separated 
and dispersed to various emergency relief shelters. It can be generalized that this happens to 
swiftly aid victims and to promote safety. An all-terrain deployable, prefabricated modular, 
emergency shelter could alleviate this psychological strain, allowing families to focus more on 
the Reconstruction-replace Prong.  
 Furthermore, preparation can include a longer term plan that brings communities together 
after a natural disaster. Individual homes will have been destroyed. Thus, the subconscious 
notion of solitary and confined dwellings can be revisited. Introduction of communal 
arrangements can drive the latter of the Reconstruction-replace Period, spilling over into the core 
of the Development Period. A more harmonious relationship is essentially established amongst 
nature and community in a minimalistic manner, thus encouraging a cultural way of life that 
once existed yet has been largely abandoned in the modern society. 
 This study proposes information to supplement the design of an emergency relief shelter 
that uses minimalistic practices and design features to addresses the concerns of a first response 
housing solution for displaced individuals after natural disasters. A longer term, broad scope of 
this design could be that it promotes an alternative for a downsized, permanent dwelling that is 
advantageous relative to the environment and potentially spurs community development. 
 
 
77 
 
8.2. Cost Analysis 
 
 The overall cost of mass-producing the envelope of the unit is approximately $909 per 
displaced home and is based on the following figures of displacement after a natural disaster and 
FEMA's current allotment for natural disaster relief: 
 
Cost Analysis 
? FEMA currently allots $100,000,000 per year for Emergency Food/Shelter (Department, 
p. 154) 
? An analysis of Major Disasters over an 11 year span, 2001-2012, was made.  
? This gave us an idea of the total budget FEMA allotted over 11 years: 
 1000,000,000 x 11 = $1,100,000,000 over 11 yrs 
? Over this 11 year span, there were approximately 1,210,058 Damaged/destroyed homes. 
? When dividing this total displaced, 1,210,058, into the total budge over 11 years, 
$1,100,000,000 / 1,210,058 = that gives us approximately $909 per displacement/home. 
 
? Each system will be for 1-4 persons or an average of 2 people. 2 x $909 = $1818. If 
reused 4 times, the total figure from this cost analysis delivers an estimate of $7272.00. 
 
Uncontrollable Variables 
 
? The FEMA budget changes on a yearly basis. 
 
? Storms are unpredictable. 
 
The $909 mass production figure is a ballpark estimate. 
78 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
Figure 28: Natural Disasters List, 
Yahoo Voices and Wikipedia 
79 
 
8.3. Design Methodology 
 
8.3.1. Design Criteria 
 
 A list of criteria was established for development of the emergency relief structure. Focus 
on this criteria throughout the design process promoted consistency, increased thoroughness, and 
ensured that the design was optimized for its intended, immediate purpose.    
 
? The system should be prefabricated and modular. 
? This system should incorporate sustainable building materials that are native to Alabama. 
? The system should be low cost and modular. 
? The system should optimize packaging. 
? The system should optimize shipping. 
? The system should be easy assembled and disassembled.  
? The system should be passively ventilated. 
? The system needs a temporary source of water. 
? The system should provide a way for occupants to clean themselves and pass waste. 
? The system should be adaptable. 
 
 
 
 
80 
 
8.3.2. Modularity and Tongue & Groove Connections 
 
 The design of the system is 
derivative of a modular 4' x 8' grid. 
The 4' x 8' grid is common in 
building construction because 
building materials, especially 
sheathing, come standard in this size. 
For example, the standard size of 
plywood sheets and gypsum board is 
4' x 8'.  In addition to material usage, the 4' x 8' grid is used because its dimension lends itself to 
transportation on a long bed pick-up truck. This would be very convenient for reaching areas that 
typical 45 foot trucks cannot maneuver in because of partial road blockage. 
 The floor plan of the emergency relief system is approximately 152ft.2 and 
accommodates 1-4 persons. According to the United States Census and the America's Families 
and Living Arrangements, in 2010, the average household size was 2.6 persons. Furthermore, the 
system accommodates 1-4 persons because its minimal square footage will only lend itself to 
providing distinct sleeping arrangements, and also provide hygiene amenities, without 
jeopardizing the comfort of its inhabitants. In the event of a family that exceeds four persons, an 
additional system could be deployed. The envelope of the system is derivative of 12, 4' x 8' wall 
panels. The layout of the plan is: a double bed which could be ideal for a couple, a bunkbed 
which could provide sleeping quarters for two children, a paneled dresser with four 
compartments, and a clothes hanging rack, a shower and a toilet; these items are shipped with the 
Figure 29: Long bed pickup truck transporting plywood 
81 
 
immediate response system. The floor plan was designed to allow its inhabitants to feel at home 
even after the devastation of a natural disaster. The plan maximizes function in the most minimal 
square footage all while leaving enough room for comfort. 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 30: Floor Plan 
82 
 
 One will find variance in the wall, floor, and roof panels when analyzing their sizes. 
Floor panels must carry more weight than roof panels, thus the only difference in the floor and 
roof panels is thickness. The wall panels are 2" thick, the floor and frame is 4" thick and the roof 
panels are 2" thick. The wall panels are structural and along with their tongue and groove 
connections, eliminate the need for intermediate columns. 
 The emergency relief system is designed to have friction fit tongue and groove 
connections. Tongue and groove connections are ideal because they are inherently strong 
connections and they allow assembly without tools. The tongue and groove allows for fewer 
detail connections and members, because panels and members snap into place; this makes every 
aspect of the emergency relief system intuitively easy to assemble. The roof system is 2 /12 
sloping to a height of ten feet, thus the only equipment needed would be a ladder. The small 
footprint of this system and its volume makes it ideal for efficiency and increases its 
comparability to other emergency relief system currently being conceptualized and/or marketed.  
 
 Figure 31: Tongue and Groove Connection at Door 
83 
 
8.4. Composition and Materials 
 
 The panels of the emergency relief system 
are all of the same composite. The panels of the 
emergency relief system are an extruded Structural 
Insulated Panel (SIP) exterior with a strong bio-
fiber, structural core. The Structural Insulted Panels 
are made of a fiber-reinforced polymer or plastic 
(FRP) and CeraMixTM hard shell coating. 
 SIP is extremely durable, strong and energy-efficient, thus why it is often used in 
building construction (Toothman, p. 4). SIP is an energy-efficient and offer a cost-effective 
alternative to traditional construction that  reduces amounts of waste and labor, produces less 
expensive heating and cooling equipments inside the structure, produces flatter surfaces to work 
with, and can be manufactured using green friendly techniques with no CFC's or HCFC's 
(Toothman, p. 2).  
 Fiber-reinforced plastic is a composite material made of 
a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers. The fiber-reinforced 
plastic and CeraMixTM composite is an environmentally friendly, 
non-hazardous material that has significant strength and 
structural reinforcement characteristics, it is 100% water proof, 
chemical resistant, does not rot or decay, and is thermally stable. 
Figure 32: Structural Insulated Panel 
Figure 33:  CeraMix 
84 
 
(Convertible. n.d. p.1). In addition, FRP and CeraMixTM coatings provide impact resistance, 
reflects 98% of radiant energy, is fire retardant, does not fade or crack, and reduces 
manufacturing costs (Convertible. n.d. p.1). 
 Bamboo is a natural, non-food organic fiber, resource, which has strong tensile strength 
equal to mild steel (Convertible. n.d. p.1). The bamboo makes up the bio-fiber structural and 
insulating core of the panels of the emergency relief structure. The bamboo bio-fiber core allows 
for the use of fewer strengthening agents because of the natural inert strength of bamboo. This 
insulated core helps control the temperature within the structure. According to the Convertible 
Structure Solutions, Inc., the bamboo bio-fiber is 90% green.   
 Almost every aspect of the 
emergency relief system is made 
from the SIP and bamboo bio-
fiber composition, excluding the 
extruded aluminum, structural 
columns that are located at the 
corners of the system, and the roof 
closure inserts. The adjustable 
footing foundations, per Ablenook 
Specifications, are also metal 
components because they come in 
direct contact with soil and 
erosion. Adjustable footings allow the height of the system to adapt to uneven terrain.  
Figure 34: View of Adjustable Footings and  Clerestory for Passive Lighting  
85 
 
 The emergency relief system also includes other miscellaneous components. The glazing 
for the front door is frosted High Density Polyethylene plastic. The glazed inserts in the panels 
are plastic and come premanufactured in their respective panels. The front accent panel is the 
typical wall panel with a plastic wood laminate finish. Windows are premanufactured and are 
glass. Sustainability is optimized by taking advantage of opportunities for openings. The window 
systems act as clerestories and are implemented to take advantage of passive lighting and passive 
heating and cooling. Inhabitants can rely on natural sunlight during the sunlit hours of the day. 
The system has two, two feet, overhang attachments that direct water from the structure. The 
curved overhang is malleable plastic that can be rolled up and unrolled for packaging.   
 
 
 Figure 35: Passive Heating, Cross Ventilation Diagram 
86 
 
8.5. Packing, Shipping, & Distribution 
 
 One of the main benefits of modular construction should be that it can lend itself to more 
efficient packing, shipping, and distribution. This emergency relief structure optimizes the 
benefits of the flat pack and is ready-to-assemble upon delivery. The members of the emergency 
relief system are all within confines of eight feet. Thus, the parts can all fit in 4'W x 8'L x 6'H 
biodegradable boxes. Flat packing makes the system easy to package and ship because of the 
reduction of bulk. The systems easily lend themselves to being mass-shipped to their site of 
deployment. Flat packing increases the number of units that can be shipped per truck, allowing 
more systems to reach more people in disaster struck areas. An entire unit fits within two 4'W x 
8'L x 6'H boxes. The standard 45 foot bed of a semi-truck trailer truck is approximately 8.5'W x 
45'L x 9'H (Guide to. n.d.). Each system is design to fit within two flat packed boxes. As a result, 
the standard 45 foot truck can transport approximately five systems.  
 
  
Figure 36: 45' truck transporting systems. Box A shows panels and framing. 
87 
 
Flat packing allows for easy distribution of the systems to site because those responsible 
for assembly will know that one system per site should have a box "A" and a box "B". Box "A" 
will be comprised of the wall paneling, floor paneling, and framing members. Box "B" consists 
of framing members, the water catchment reservoir, the paneled shower and the interior furniture 
systems. 
 
 
 
Figure 37: Packaging Content Exploded View 
View 
88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 38: Site Distribution View 
89 
 
8.6. Assembly & Disassembly 
  
 Since the components are interlocking and require no tools to assemble, the emergency 
relief system can be assembled by unskilled labors in a short period of time. The system requires 
man-power of at least two persons to assemble. Each emergency relief system is packaged with 
an exploded view and instructions illustrating where each panel interlocks to the next.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
Figure 39: Exploded assembly view 
90 
 
 Volunteers would be put in place to aid in assembly of the system. Step 1 of assembly: 
one would first start with assembly of the footings, lower frame and one front roof and Floor 
Framing assembly and Step 2 includes installation of the floor panels and remaining floor closure 
beam.  
 
Figure 42: Floor and Roof Framing Detail 
Figure 41: Wall Panel Interlocking Connection Detail 
Figure 40: Extruded Aluminum Column Plan Detail 
91 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 43: Assembly Step 1 
Figure 44: Assembly Step 2 
92 
 
 After installation of the floor system, installation of wall panels can began. Step 3: 
installation of back wall panels and side panels of only one side of the system. Also, the 
respective wall framing and closures are installed per the given starting side of installation. 
 
 
 Step 4 includes the assembly and installation of the water catchment system and 
furniture. Please note that the roof structure supports the water catchment system. Thus, it is not 
secured into place until after installation of the roof beam in Step 5. 
 Step 5 includes, the installation of the opposing side panels, the perpendicular spanning 
roof beam, the back, 4' long roof panels and closure beam, the porch, the front panels, all 
windows, and then the front 8' long roof panels and closure beam, respectively. Thereafter, the 
fourth roof insert closure is secured into place. All windows and panels have been installed in 
Step 5. Lastly, the canopies and overhangs are installed. 
Figure 45: Assembly Step 3 
93 
 
 
 
 
Figure 46: Assembly Step 4 
Figure 46: Assembly Step 5 Figure 47: Assembly Step 5 
94 
 
 The system has an overhang and a canopy attachment on the north and south 
respectively. These were implemented to help direct water from the top of the building. The 
canopy attachment is malleable thus it can roll and unroll flat for flat packaging.  
 
 
 In addition to the overhangs, the system also has an option porch that can be added on in 
the future. This porch is 4 feet wide and gives residents a small gathering space outside of their 
living component. 
 
 
 
 
Figure 48: Canopy and Overhang 
Figure 49: Porch addition 
Canopy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Overhang 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Porch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
95 
 
 
Figure 51: Clerestory & Miscellaneous Panel Assembly 
Figure 50: Panel Assembly 
96 
 
 
Figure 52: Wall Section Typical 
97 
 
8.7. Use 
 The system is used as a first response structure for emergency relief. The system serves 
as a first response to keeping its inhabitants sheltered and provides sleeping, shower, waste 
removal arrangements. The system also allows displaced individuals to dwell within it until they 
are ready to move on. The system lends itself to durability and some permanence providing 
power, a water line, and plumbing systems are established to serve the system. In the event that 
the displaced family or individual does not want to return their system, it also lends itself to 
being transported.  
 
8.7.1. Water Supply and Waste Management 
 
 Water is supplied to the emergency relief system by taking advantage of water catchment 
technologies. The 2/12 slope of the paneled roof directs water to a water catchment reservoir that 
collects rainwater for plumbing usage. This passive technology is ideal after a natural disaster 
especially if water connections have been destroyed. The typical, tall water heater holds about 40 
gallons of water, is 18 inches in diameter, 
and 46 to 60 inches in height (How much. 
2012). The included water catchment 
reservoir is approximately 5' x 3' x 1?, 
approximately 15' in volume; which 
makes it comparable to standard water 
heaters. 1" perforated inserts allow 
Figure 53: Section View 
 
98 
 
rainwater to collect into the catchment system. To prevent roof leaks, the roof is sealed by a 
rubber gasket. Incorporation of this catchment system allows occupants to shower and clean. The 
collected rainwater is not treated, thus is not potable water. Potable water would be procured by 
boiling or after the immediate response when plumbing has been reestablished. 
 
 Figure 54: Wall Section view through shower and catchment system  
99 
 
 The emergency relief system conceptually handles waste through a chemical toilet. The 
system would work by removing waste by means of an exterior waste collection reservoir which 
would then be serviced periodically by waste management trucks. Incorporation of this feature is 
in the emergency relief structure gives 
inhabitants the ability to use the 
restroom within their living quarters 
instead of resorting to an off-site 
facility. Further development of this 
concept would be expounded upon 
relative to a communal aspect.   
          
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 56: Enlarged Section view through chemical toilet 
Figure 37: Section View 
 
Figure 55: Section View through chemical toilet 
 
100 
 
 Privacy for the toilet is a door panel and a curtain for the shower. Also, hand sanitizer is 
dispensed and located above the toilet. 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 57: Section View looking at shower curtain and toilet door 
 
Shower curtain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Toilet Door 
 
 
101 
 
8.7.2. Security, Food, and Temporary Power 
 
` The door plate showcases the unit number and 
works in conjunction with the door hardware to provide 
security for the unit. Due to the first response, temporary, 
and immediate nature of the system, food will be 
administered by emergency relief representatives in the 
form of Meals Ready to Eat (MRE) and mass-produced cuisines. Camping stoves do not come 
standard with the unit and are optional as well. The panels come with a battery powered light 
fixtures which are the temporary source of light for the emergency relief system.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 58: Door plate and hardware 
Light Fixtures 
 
 
 
 
 
Hand sanitizer 
dispenser 
 
 
Shower 
 
 
 
Toilet 
 
Figure 59: Section View looking at light fixtures 
102 
 
8.8. Storage and Portability 
 The system comes shipped, in Box B, with a dresser and clothes rack furniture system. 
This is ideal for the occupants to share, because each of them will have their own separate 
drawer. Clothes one doesn't want folded could be stored on the clothes rack. 
              
  
  
 Flat packing makes the system easy to store and increases portability. Contrary to the 
FEMA trailer, this system can be disassembled and stored in 4'W x 8'L x 6'H boxes until its next 
use. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 62: Portable 
Figure 60: View of dresser and clothing rod hanger Figure 61: Enlarged view of dresser and clothes hanger 
103 
 
8.9. Sketches & Final Design Imagery 
 
 
Figure 63: Sketches 
Figure 63: Sketches 
104 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 65: Plumbing Wireframe View Figure 66: Furniture Wireframe View 
Figure 64: Wireframe View 
105 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 67: Packaged View of Assembly Instructions 
106 
 
Figure 68: Building Section View 
107 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 69: Enlarged Section through Shower 
7'-0" 
108 
 
Figure 70: Site Plan 
109 
 
 
 
Figure 71: Front Elevation 
110 
 
 
Figure 72: Right Side Elevation 
111 
 
Figure 73: Rear Elevation 
112 
 
Figure 74: Left Side Elevation 
113 
 
Figure 75: Interior View at Dresser and Beds 
114 
 
 
 
 
Figure 76: Interior View from Entry 
115 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 77: Perspective View 
116 
 
9.0  Application & Further Development  
 
9.1. Design Criteria Applied 
? The system should be prefabricated and modular. 
  The system is design based on a 4' x 8' grid.  
? This system should incorporate sustainable building materials that are native to Alabama. 
 The system uses a structural insulated panel bamboo bio-fiber composite. 
According to the Convertible Structure Solutions, Inc., bamboo is a natural resource that 
is abundant in Tuskegee, Alabama and southern climates make it ideal for the growth and 
harvesting. Hence why the Convertible Structures Solutions, Inc. is using bamboo in their 
bio-fibers. In fact, the Convertible Structure Solutions, Inc. is in the process of opening a 
facility in Tuskegee, Alabama for the development of modular homes that uses this 
bamboo bio-fiber. 
? The system should be low cost and modular. 
The system was designed as efficiently as possible, addressing natural disasters 
with a minimalistic approach and the necessities of life. The incorporation of passive 
heating and cooling, and water catchment technologies offsets the total cost of one unit. 
? The system should optimize packaging. 
 The system is packaged in a biodegradable, flat packed, 4'W x 8'L x 6'H box.  
? The system should optimize shipping.  
  The components of the system fit within a 4'W x 8'L x 6'H box which allows ease  
  of shipping. 
117 
 
? The system should be easy assembled and disassembled.  
The system is intuitively easy to assemble and disassemble in a short period of 
time. Prior knowledge of construction techniques is not require, thus the system can be 
assembled by unskilled labors. An exploded view of assembly instructions is packaged 
with the unit. 
? The system should be passively ventilated. 
 Awning fenestrations on the front and back facades will allow air flow throughout 
the space. The fenestrations on the back facade are lower than those of the front, 
clerestory. This is a design feature that allows air to flow from the lower elevation to the 
higher, optimizing cross ventilation. 
? The system needs a temporary source of water. 
 A water catchment system is packaged in box B. This system is a passive 
technology which collects and stores rainwater for use by occupants. 
? The system should provide a way for occupants to clean themselves and pass waste. 
 A chemical toilet and a shower system is packaged in Box B. The chemical toilet 
has to be serviced periodically and the shower works with the water catchment system. 
? The system should be adaptable. 
 The system includes furniture that can be rearranged to accommodate the size of a 
1-4 person family. The system has adjustable footings which allow assembly on even 
terrain. Also, the system lends itself to modular adaptation. In the event of growth or a 
family that exceeds 4 persons, another system can be assembled adjacent to the first. 
 
 
118 
 
9.2. Minimalism Applied 
 Research led to a direct focus on providing a solution that addresses the immediate (1-14 
days) and intermediate response (14-30 days) of housing displaced individuals after a natural 
disaster. Future development of this research would focus on making the emergency relief 
structure ideal for permanency. The development of the subsystems, HVAC, plumbing, 
mechanical, and electrical, and application of minimalistic approaches to this emergency relief 
system could make it more socially accepted for permanence in communities. When several units 
are assembled adjacent, this begins to define the community block.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 78: Units Adjacency Expansion View 
119 
 
 This approach first addressed the need for a plan to house individuals after being 
displaced due to natural disasters. Minimalism is directly evident in the system with the exposure 
of the structure and is exhibited by the use of renewable, non-conventional materials such as 
bamboo. The use of materials such as bamboo and passive technologies for water catchment 
draws a connection between the need for the United States to become more cognizant of the built 
environment and the manner in which we consume natural resources. Next, once manufactured, 
the systems can be used disaster after disaster, thus optimizing embodied energy. Lastly, this 
approach introduced solutions for addressing a longer term, smaller community development 
which will utilize and potentially transform emergency relief structures into permanent 
dwellings. All in all, research revealed that a new approach to emergency relief structures and 
addressing the future of housing will be promising. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
120 
 
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