Morphological Analysis in Creative Furniture Design
by
Suyin Li
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
Auburn University
in partial ful llment of the
requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
Auburn, Alabama
August 3, 2013
Keywords: Furniture design, morphological analysis, design methods
Copyright 2013 by Suyin Li
Approved by
Tin-Man Lau, Chair, Professor of Industrial Design
Bret Smith, Professor of Industrial Design
Shu-Wen Tzeng, Assistant Professor of Industrial Design
Abstract
Design can be de ned as a creative process that designers arrange one or more elements
and principles in organized for one purpose. The purpose of the thesis is to convey a strong
message to the reader so the reader can understand it correctly. As we start to create our
design, whether it is a bowl or a chair, we have de ned it as a purpose in both primary and
additional functions. A good product has to satisfy certain criteria, not only functionally, but
also psychologically and aesthetically. The aesthetic quality of a product and the fascination
it inspires is an integral part of its utility (Dieter Rams, ten principles for good design). One
must understand that nothing in the universe is random. Everything is deterministic and
has a reason behind its existence and usage. However, everything has multiple qualities and
di erent de nitions varied by viewers from di erent perspectives. The role of an artist or
designer is to be aware of the qualities of design elements, based on the functional purpose,
creating successful visual compositions, which conveys the emotions of the artist. Better still,
is understandable and acceptable. Di ering from other products, furniture has far broader
latitude in form creation. It is an overlapping part of architecture design, interior design,
and industrial design. As an Industrial Design thesis, this research was conducted to study
the morphological analysis thinking method applied in furniture design. The design focuses
on morphological analysis for form studying, based on broad inspirations drawn from natural
world, transferring, and applying them in the form of furniture product.
ii
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the advice, guidance and patience received from
her academic advisor, Professor Tin-Man Lau, Shu-Wen Tzeng, and Bret Smith for their
time and generosity with continuous academic instructions and intellectual guidance. The
author would also like to appreciate the help from the generous sta s in the shop. Without
their professional advices I cannot  nish the full size model. Sincere appreciations are also
sent to all faculties who gave the author knowledgeable lectures and valuable instructions
during her study at Auburn University. Finally, I am thankful to my parents and everyone
who gave me support and encouragement through the years.
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Table of Contents
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Need for study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Objectives of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 De nitions of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.1 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.2 Creative thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.3 Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.4 Relevance tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.5 Bionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.6 Lateral thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.7 Collaborative sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.8 Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.9 Cognitive Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 Scope and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Procedure and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS OF FURNITURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
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2.1 Seating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Single Seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 Multiple Seats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.1 Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.2 Desk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Sleeping or Lying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.1 Four-poster Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.1 Bookcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.2 Cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.3 Chest of Drawers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.4 Chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4.5 Wardrobe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 INSPIRATION SOURCES AND DESIGN ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Geometric Shapes (Solid  gure, plane  gure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 Shape and Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 Basic Elements of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.1 Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.2 Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.3 Plane and curved surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION IN FURNITURE DESIGN 59
4.1 Morphological Analysis in Design Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1.1 Observation from Inspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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4.1.2 Learn from Morphing Form through Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.3 Drawing Feature of Form Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Techniques of Transferring Sources to Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.1 Bionics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.2 Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2.3 Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.4 Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 APPLICATION RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.1 Speci cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.1 Caldera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.2 Greenfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.3 Zipper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.4 Union Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2 Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3 Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.3.1 Caldera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.3.2 Greenfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.3.3 Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3.4 Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4 Sketch Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4.1 Caldera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4.2 Greenfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.3 Zipper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.4 Union Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
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List of Figures
1.1 Three Components of Creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 C-Sketch Process (Shah, 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Analysis of Progressive Sketches (Shah, 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Side View (Transforming of Chair Backrest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Front View (Transforming of Chair Backrest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Side View (Transforming of Sitting Surface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Top View (Transforming of Sitting Surface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Chairs with Di erent Forms of Bottom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 Structure of a Typical Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1 Speed Chair by Luigi Colani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 \r.n.i." tables by Chul An Kwak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Rugby Chair by Luigi Colani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4 Bone Chair by Joris Laarman, 2006 and 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 Diamond Chair by Harry Bertoia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6 Sendai Minimalist and Trendy Bookshelves by Toyo Ito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
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3.7 Sendai Mediatheque, Sendai, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.8 Bridge Table by Joris Laarman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.9 Left: Tod?s Omotesando and Mikimoto Ginza 2 by Toyo Ito; Middle and Right:
O-14 Tower by Reiser + Umemoto?s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.10 Bato Idea Chair by Peter Donders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.11 Barin Sky Resort by RYRA Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.12 Hill House Chair by Charles R. Mackintosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.13 Cone Chair by Verner Panton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.14 Vertex Collection by Karim Rashid for Vondom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.15 Left: Red and Blue Chair by Gerrit Rietveld; Right: Composition with Red Blue
Yellow by Piet Mondrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.16 Classi cation of forms (Yu, 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.17 Classi cation of line (Yu, 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.18 The variation exercise of straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.19 The variation exercise of curve line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.20 Ming and Qing Dynasty style furniture, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.21 \Zig Zag" Chair by Gerrit T Rietveld, 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.22 Panton Chair, 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.23 Bocca Marilyn lip sofa by Studio 65, 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
viii
4.1 Morphological analysis of natural elements in furniture design . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2 Fechners Results (Golden Ration 5:8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Bionic design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 How it is pain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Form study of pain in a cuboid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.6 Flow chart of Metaphor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.7 Plastic Nature by Alexander Pelikan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.8 Stitching Concrete by Florian Schmid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.9 Aviator Chair by Restoration Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.10 Flow chart of Detailing design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.11 Visual Structures by Nendo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.12 Flow chart of Pattern design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Morphological analysis of  nal projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2 The Test of Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3 Caldera Table Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4 Greenfall Table Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5 Zipper Table Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.6 Union Jack Table Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
ix
5.7 Caldera Sketch Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.8 Greenfall Sketch Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.9 Zipper Sketch Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.10 Zipper Full Size Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.11 Zipper Full Size Model Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.12 Union Jack Sketch Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
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List of Tables
1.1 Furniture supply chain activities and their location in past, current, and future
business models (Phil Mitchell and Harry Watt, 2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Morphological box of a lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Morphological box of creating an artwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1 Natural elements box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement
Industrial design is the use of a combination of applied art and applied science to
improve the aesthetics, ergonomics, and usability of a product, but it may also be used to
improve the product?s marketability and production. The role of an industrial designer is
to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, usability, physical ergonomics,
marketing, brand development, and sales (de Noblet, 1993). The objective of industrial
design is composed of function, form, and the connection between product, the user and
the environment. However, the solutions for problems of form, color, and space relationship
are basic problems of a product design. From this point, morphology is the foundation of
modern art of shaping and modeling, and therefore plays a crucial role throughout the course
of creativity.
In product design area, the word morphology contains dual implications. One is shape,
which is the carrier of function. The other is expression, which conveys the feeling and
emotion given by the designer. With the aid of the outer form of a certain product, designers
can merge their unique emotions and philosophies to the tangible carrier. When choosing
the product, the customers also estimate and measure by looking at the appearance whether
the information delivered by the product correspond with their expectations, and make their
 nal purchasing decision. Therefore, designers should enhance their ability of expression and
creativity towards solid formation. Only when we master the morphology of the physical
world can we create more fresh and surprising forms purposefully.
1
1.2 Need for study
The product constitutes one of the classic four P?s (product, price, promotion, and place)
of the marketing mix, and the most fundamental characteristic of a product is its exterior
form or design (Block, 1995). Not since the 1930s has product design been more creatively
and strategically employed to gain advantage in the global marketplace (Berkowitz, 1987;
Nussbaum, 1988). In one survey of senior marketing managers, design was mentioned as the
most important determinant of new product performance by 60% of respondents; only 17%
considered price most important (Bruce and Whitehead, 1988). Similarly, an analysis of
the performance of 203 new products revealed that product design was the most important
determinant of sales success (Cooper and Kleinschmidt, 1987).
In the industrial design background, furniture always stands out separately from other
products. It is an overlapping part of architecture design, interior design, and industrial de-
sign. Actually, many architects and interior designers design furniture. Di ering from other
products such as electric appliances, kitchenware, medical, or other instruments, furniture
has far broader latitude in form creation. As used here, a product?s form represents a num-
ber of elements chosen and blended into a whole by the design team to achieve a particular
sensory e ect (Hollins and Pugh, 1990; Lewalski, 1988). Designers make choices regarding
characteristics, such as shape, scale, tempo, proportion, materials, color, re ectiveness, or-
namentation, and texture (Davis, 1987; Kellaris and Kent, 1993). Designers also decide how
to mix these elements and determine the level of congruity that should exist among them
(Bloch, 1995). When it comes to modern furniture design, designers from all over the world
are busy thinking outside of the box to turn the concept of furniture into unique pieces of
art. First, the environment for furniture design is broad. It can be in a living room, an o ce,
a plaza, or an airport lounge. Almost every scene where people exist might need furniture.
Second, the materials that can be used to build furniture are broad. Wood, metal, stone,
glass, rubber, leather, cloth, plastic, and much of synthetic materials can be used to make
di erent furniture for di erent uses. The functions of furniture can be summed up in few
2
types for use of storage, seating, surfaces, sleeping or lying, entertainment, and sometimes
these functions are interchangeable. Designers have more space to make use of various mate-
rials creating any forms to realize their purpose which, at the same time, has great aesthetics
for people to appreciate.
Throughout history and in every known culture, people have found pleasure and meaning
in the use of their eyes. They have consciously attempted to produce objects of beauty
and have delighted in them (Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson, 1990). A good design attracts
consumers to a product, communicates to it, and adds value to the product by increasing the
quality of the usage experiences associated with it. The physical form or design of a product
is an unquestioned determinant of its marketplace success (Bloch, 1995). Marketers charge
designers with the task of developing products that have appealing forms. In modern society,
aesthetic sensibilities are relevant to all products, regardless of their function (Holbrook,
1980; Holbrook and Anand, 1992; Holbrook and Zirlin, 1985). In cluttered markets, product
form is one way to gain consumer notice (Berkowitz, 1987; Dumaine, 1991; Jones, 1991).
With new product o erings, a distinctive design can render older competitors immediately
obsolete and make later competitors appear to be shallow copies (Midgley, 1977). The form
or exterior appearance of a product is important as a means of communicating information
to consumers (Nussbaum, 1993). Product form creates the initial impression and generates
inferences regarding other product attributes in the same manner as does price (Berkowitz,
1987). Besides, the perception and usage of beautifully designed products may provide
sensory pleasure and stimulation. Essentially an applied art product design has a greater
impact on our daily lives than do other art forms, because we see products every day (Lawson,
1983).
Morphology, in linguistics, is the identi cation, analysis and description, in a language,
of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units. While in biology, morphology is
a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and
their speci c structural features. About more details and de nitions of morphology, we will
3
talk about it in the following chapters. F. Zwicky, a professor at the California Institute
of Technology,  rst applied morphological analysis to the aerospace industry. It is actually
an idea generation method that can be applied in many  elds. From the books and articles
found, there was no in-depth research and discussion about morphological analysis method
applied in furniture design area. However, there were some that were related to product
development, but they merely discussed about practical methods that can be directly used
in furniture design. Therefore, a more in-depth research on creative thinking methods for
furniture design was needed.
Table 1.1: Furniture supply chain activities and their location in past, current, and future
business models (Phil Mitchell and Harry Watt, 2009)
Sixty years ago, when George Nelson wrote about \The Furniture Industry" in the
pages of Fortune Magazine, modern furniture of top design quality was di cult to  nd
in the United States. But this is no longer entirely the case, as today a segment of the
American furniture industry is focused on producing exceptionally designed contemporary
furniture manufactured with the latest technologies. And with 23,177 people visiting the
2006 International Contemporary Furniture Fair in New York City, where attendance has
more than doubled since 1996, there is obviously an increasing interest in design (Olivares,
2006).
4
From Table 1.1 we can see that although the engineering and manufacturing locations
gradually move from domestic to o shore, the design and retailing remain in U.S., and in the
future business model, the independent furniture designer who creates innovative furniture
designs and sells these designs to others (Phil Mitchell and Harry Watt, 2009). There will
be more challenges and keen competitions among domestic furniture designers.
1.3 Literature review
It has been no more than thirty years since the  rst conference on design methods was
held in London in 1962 (Jones and Thornley, 1963). This conference is generally regarded as
the event, which marked the launch of the \design methods movement", which in turn led
to the emergence of design methodology as a subject or  eld of enquiry. Of course, the  eld
was based on some earlier work (the earliest reference in design methodology literature is
probably Zwicky?s work on morphological method published in 1948), but the 1962 conference
was the  rst time that \design methods" received substantial academic recognition (Cross,
1993). It was harsh thing for these two founding fathers to say about their o spring, and is
potentially devastating to those who were still nurturing the infant. To put the quotations
of Alexander and Jones into context, it may be necessary to recall the social-cultural climate
of the late 1960s and the campus revolutions, the new liberal humanism and rejection of
previous values. However, it had to be acknowledged, and it was, that there had been a lack
of success in application of scienti c methods to design (Cross, 1993). Rittel and Webber
raised the fundamental issues in 1973, who characterized design and planning problems as
\wicked" problems, fundamentally unnamable to the techniques of science and engineering,
which dealt with the \tame" problem.
The origins of new design methods in the 1960s lay further back in the application of
novel, scienti c methods to the novel and pressing problems of the Second World War from
which came operation research methods and management decision-making techniques and
in the development of creativity techniques in the 1950s. The 1960s also saw the beginnings
5
of computer programs for problem solving. The  rst design methods or methodology books
appeared Asimow (1962), Alexander (1964), Archer (1965), Jones (1970) and the  rst cre-
ativity books Gordon (1961), Osborn (1963) (Cross, 2006). There is a statement by Bruce
Archer (1964) that encapsulated what was going on: \The most fundamental challenge to
conventional ideas on design has been the growing advocacy of systematic methods of prob-
lem solving, borrowed from computer techniques and management theory, for the assessment
of design problems and the development of design solutions."
N. Cross concluded his progress in design methodology in  ve categories of work in his
Design Methodology Review (1993): \the development of design methods origination and
application of systematic methods; the management of design progress models and strategies
for executing design projects; the structure of design problems theoretical analysis of the
nature of design problems; the nature of design activity empirical observations of design
practice; and the philosophy of design method philosophical analysis and re ection on design
activity."
People began to make furniture as early as they learned to farm and lived in permanent
settlements (Lambert, 2012). The earliest evidence of furniture survives from Neolithic
Period. In ancient Greek, Roman, early North America, and Asian, furniture has quite
distinct histories with distinct styles. \The modernist movement, at the beginning of the
20th century, marked the  rst time that the term ?avant-garde?, with which the movement
was labeled until the word ?modernism? prevailed, was used for the arts (rather than in its
original military and political context)" (Orton and Pollock, 1996). Since modernism had
entered popular culture, furniture becomes the product of materials and techniques, as well
as a new, hurried, tense lifestyle. Their inspirations vary greatly, re ecting the fashions of
the twentieth century.
As Otto Wagner stated in an address to the Vienna Academy in 1895, that \All modern
forms must re ect the new materials and the new requirement of our time: If they are to
meet the needs of modern man, they must express our improved, democratic, clear-thinking
6
selves." Designers had to \civilize technology," in the words of the architect Marcel Breuer
(Florence de Dampierre, 2006). New materials and technologies provide more space for
creation, and help realizing our design from sketch to product with much easier solutions.
Architects, with their engineering background, were well placed to develop new chairs that
were both functional and handsome. Chair design particularly appealed to architects, as it
allowed them to express their design philosophies in three dimensions. As Peter Smithson
wrote, \when we design a chair, we make a society and a city in miniature." One can
see clearly the sort of society and city envisaged by, for example, the modernist architect
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. His chair designs project an orderly, antiseptic, and e cient
world (Florence de Dampierre, 2006). It seems that chair designs for architects, are more
like playing a little game. Compared to tables or cabinets, chairs have larger variability in
form, and need stronger structure for supporting. Architects can develop chairs that were
both functional and handsome; in other words, we can draw inspiration from architectures
created by them when designing a chair.
The phrase \form follows function" was  rst coined by Louis Sullivan, in 1896, in his
article \The Tall O ce Building Artistically Considered" (Sullivan, 1896). It is a principle
associated with modern architecture and industrial design in the 20th century. The principle
is that the shape of a building or object should be primarily based upon its intended function
or purpose. Furniture can be a form of decorative art, however, we could never discard its
functional role. Form should never overwhelm function. In Principles of Form and Design,
the author provides a solid foundation in design basics, with emphasis on  at, abstract forms,
and demonstrates the creation of forms, focusing on representational aspects that extend the
designer?s visual vocabulary. \The way form is created, constructed, or organized along with
other forms is often governed by a certain discipline which we call ?structure?. Structure
which involves the relational elements is also essential in our studies" (Wong, 1993). This
book has become classics in art and design education programs around the world. The
author starts from design elements, and then the form and structure created from these
7
elements and their variation. From two-dimensional to three-dimensional design, Wong?s
principles will meet the needs of all graphic artists and designers, as well as the equipment
and software that suit a designer?s requirements. However, none of these principles is directly
related to modern day furniture design. It is valuable to build a bridge between the principles
of creating forms and furniture design. Therefore, it is important to study and understand
the basic principles, and develop it to  t the needs of furniture designers.
In this age we live, creativity is seen as being increasingly important in a variety of
professions. Most people associate creativity with art and literature, however, among all
the  elds, architecture and industrial design are the most often associated with creativity,
and more generally the  elds of design and design research. Creativity is the ability to
 nd ideas that are both novel and useful (Stein and Heinze, 1960). A simple de nition is
that creativity is the ability to imagine or invent something new. It is not the ability to
create something that does not exist in the natural world, but a mental process involving
the discovery of new ideas, concepts, or new associations of the existing ideas or concepts
by combining, changing, or reapplying the existing ideas. Creativity often referred to as a
\divergent thinking process".
Much of the thinking done in formal education emphasizes the skills of analysis | teach-
ing students how to understand claims, following or creating a logical argument,  guring out
the answer, eliminating the incorrect paths and focusing on the correct one. However, there
is another kind of thinking, one that focuses on exploring ideas, generating possibilities,
looking for many right answers rather than just one (Harris, 1998). Not before the 1950s,
creativity was considered a dedicated  eld of research, separated from related topics like
intelligence research (Mayer, 1999). Looking back into the history, there are many theories
of creativity focused on a variety of aspects, and among which the most dominant are usu-
ally known as the four \Ps" of creativity research proposed by M. Rhodes in his book An
Analysis of Creativity, 1961. The creative person (who is creative?), the creative product
(what is creative?), the creative process (which activity leads to creative products and the
8
creative press or environment (where does creativity happen?) (Rhodes, 1961). There is one
interesting but important  nding on creativity research is that creativity and intelligence are
fundamentally two di erent things. \Creativity is often de ned as a parallel construction to
intelligence, but it di ers from intelligence in that it is not restricted to cognitive or intel-
lectual functioning or behavior. Instead, it is concerned with a complex mix of motivational
conditions, personality factors, environmental conditions, chance factors, and even products"
(Feldhusen and Goh, 1995). Even intelligence may be measured with a standardized IQ test,
which is considered quite reliable and valid; it is not the case for creativity. A person who
has a high IQ does not mean he is also creative. It should be a natural ability of human
beings and in terms of the factors it concerns, it is easily a ected by outer factors and there
is not a certain approach to measure one?s creativity. Therefore, it is very likely to enhance
our ability of creative thinking by proper means, and explore our potential creativity.
There are books about creative thinking techniques. \A lot of creativity techniques have
been proposed to foster creativity of individuals and groups" (VanGundy, 1988). Famous
examples are brainstorming and writing, mind mapping, and Morphological Analysis or
the Six-Thinking-Hats. These techniques de ne certain rules, activities or constraints for
the problem solving process, promising to be more e ective than less structured approaches
(Osborn, 1993). Most of the books and articles about creative thinking are expert on solving
problems. Although some of them relate to product development and group work, they
cannot be applied directly to an activity of artistic creation. Before talking about creative
methods and thinking techniques, the author likes to list some sources of creativity. Many
experts provide frame works and hypotheses on the sources of creativity. It appears that
the vast majority of their important contributions to the theory can be categorized as falling
within Teresa Amabile (PhD in Psychology and Head of the Entrepreneurial Management
Unit at the Harvard Business School)?s three circles in Figure 1.1.
There are some other factors, such as divine intervention, social environment, personality
traits, chance or serendipity, mental illness, etc., which are also considered as sources of
9
Figure 1.1: Three Components of Creativity
creativity. Several methods have been identi ed for producing creative solutions. Here are
the most classic  ve from Robert Harris?s Introduction to Creative Thinking (Harris, 1998):
evolution, synthesis, revolution, reapplication, changing direction.
 Evolution. This is the method of incremental improvement. New ideas stem from
other ideas, new solutions from previous ones, the new ones slightly improved over the
old ones.
 Synthesis. With this method, two or more existing ideas are combined into a third,
new idea.
 Revolution. Sometimes the best new idea is a completely di erent one, a marked
change from the previous ones.
 Reapplication. Look at something old in a new way.
 Changing Direction. Many creative breakthroughs occur when attention is shifted
from one angle of a problem to another. This is sometimes called creative insight
(Harris, 1998).
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There are many classic creative thinking techniques that make use of one or more of
these methods. Here are some widely used creative thinking techniques. Brainstorming is
a technique intended to generate a large number of ideas for the solution to a problem. It
can take place either individually or in a group of two to ten, with four to seven being ideal,
usually seen as the  rst step of a design. The method was  rst popularized in the late 1930s
by Alex Osborn in a book called Applied Imagination. Structure of a brainstorming session
can be concluded in these three phases:
 Phase I. Idea Purge
In this phase, the problem is stated clearly. Every group member (if in group work)
quickly writes his or her ideas on sheet of paper.
 Phase II. Idea Trigger
Leader calls each member for his ideas. Team members read their ideas. Leader writes
them down on a board. If some ideas trigger other ideas, members should write them
down. Repeat until no more new ideas are generated.
 Phase III. Idea Evaluation and Recommendation
In this  nal stage of a brainstorming session, the groups evaluate the ideas and select
one or a few as the best solutions to the problem proposed to the group.
The term \lateral thinking" was  rst coined by Edward de Bono in his book The Use of
Lateral Thinking, in 1967. It is an unorthodox approach to problem solving, often looking
at problem from other \sides" rather than head on. \Creativity should be produced on
demand. Formation of new ideas cannot merely be left to chance. When seeking new
ideas, it is important to disrupt the conventional thinking patterns (linear/vertical thinking)
adopted by the brain. Provocations designed to introduce random factors into thinking can
help break conventional thinking patterns." According to de Bono, brainstorming is an
unstructured way of supporting creativity. It merely reiterates the existing held perceptions
and ideas about a topic, while lateral thinking introduces new stimuli in an e ort to shift
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Figure 1.2: C-Sketch Process (Shah, 2001)
the thinking in new directions. This thinking technique is vital for the development of our
morphological analysis for furniture design methods system. The process of our new design
method system is fundamentally based on this thinking method.
Collaborative sketching was origin by Professor Jami J. Shah, Design Automation Lab at
Arizona State University. His article Collaborative Sketching (C-Sketch) An Idea Generation
Technique for Engineering Design was  rst published in The Journal of Creative Behavior in
September 2011 (Shah, 2011). It is a structured, proven approach for exploring and analyzing
design ideas with the key stakeholders of your project. C-sketch may be a useful strategy
because it promotes team collaboration, reduces time for verbal communication, accumulates
idea from multiple individuals. However, its potential problems are that it unfocused design
objectives, and might occur possible misunderstanding of sketches.
Morphological analysis is an ideation technique, an approach to discovery, invention,
research and construction, a technique for generating new products and service. Generally
speaking, the morphological analysis is actually a group of methods that share the same
structure. This method breaks down a system, product or process into its essential sub-
concepts, each concept representing a dimension in a multi-dimensional matrix. Thus, every
12
Figure 1.3: Analysis of Progressive Sketches (Shah, 2001)
product is considered as a bundle of attributes. New ideas are found by searching the
matrix for new combination of attributes that do not yet exist. It doesnt provide any
speci c guidelines for combining the parameters. It tends to provide a large number of ideas.
Morphological analysis was  rst applied to aerospace industry by F. Zwicky, a professor at
the California Institute of Technology, in his main work on the subject, Discovery, Invention,
Research through the Morphological Analysis in 1969. Zwicky summarized the procedure of
morphological analysis by  ve steps.
Step 1: List the attributes of the product, service or strategy you are examining: At-
tributes are parts, properties, qualities or design elements of the thing being looked at.
Example: attributes of a pencil would be shaft material, lead material, hardness of lead,
width of lead, quality, color, weight, price, etc.
Step 2: Draw up a table using these attributes as column headings.
Step 3: Write down as many variations of the attributes as possible within these columns.
A brainstorming would be helpful. The table shows all possible variations of each attribute.
13
Step 4: Select one entry from each column. Either do this randomly or select interesting
combinations. By mixing one item from each column, you will create a new mixture of
components. That is a new product, service or strategy.
Step 5: Evaluate and improve that mixture to see if you can imagine a pro table market
for it.
\The approach begins by identifying and de ning the parameters (or dimensions) of the
problem complex to be investigated, and assigning each parameter a range of relevant ?values?
or conditions. A morphological box also  ttingly known as a ?Zwicky box? is constructed
by setting the parameters against each other in an n-dimensional matrix. Each of the n-
dimensional boxes contains one particular ?value? or condition from each of the parameters,
and thus marks out a particular state or con guration of the problem complex." Here are
some morphological analysis examples to explain how to use morphological analysis.
Example 1
I De ne the problem:
A designer looks for new way to create a new lamp.
II Identify attributes and values
Attributes:
 Power supply
 Bulb supply
 Light intensity
 Light intensity
 Size
 Style
 Finish
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 Material
 Shade, etc.
Table 1.2: Morphological box of a lamp
III Combing items
 Solar powered/battery, medium intensity, daylight bulb possibly used in clothes
shops to allow customers to see the true color of clothes.
 A ceramic oil lamp in Roman style used in themed restaurants, resurrecting the
olive oil lamps of 2000 years ago.
 A normal table lamp designed to be painted, wallpapered or covered in fabric so
that it matches the style of a room perfectly.
Example 2
I De ne the problem:
An artist looks for new ways of creating artwork.
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II Identify attributes and values and combing results:
Attributes:
 Materials: ink, oil, dye, clay, leaves
 Canvas: paper, wall, window, wood
Table 1.3: Morphological box of creating an artwork
1.4 Objectives of Study
 To study the principles of form and design; identify all the design elements and element
groups and the interrelationships of forms.
 To study the creative thinking techniques and morphological analysis thinking method
that helps develop new principles.
 To study the types and functions of furniture.
 To summarize the inspiration sources.
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 Sketches that help catching and recording the inspiration drawn from everywhere.
 Develop the principles to transform the abstract 2D graphic to 3D form of products
with sketches.
1.5 De nitions of Terms
1.5.1 Morphology
The word \morphology" is from the Greek, morph = form and lgos = word, study,
research. In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form
and structure of organisms and their speci c structural features, including aspects of the
outward appearance (shape, structure, color, pattern) as well as the form and structure of
the internal parts like bones and organs.
1.5.2 Creative thinking
A way of looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective that suggests un-
orthodox solutions (which may look unsettling at  rst).
1.5.3 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which a group tries to  nd a solution
for a speci c problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.
1.5.4 Relevance tree
A relevance tree is an analytic technique that subdivides a broad topic into increasingly
smaller subtopic. It has a form of a hierarchical structure that begins with a high level of
abstraction and moves down with greater degree of detail in the following levels of the tree.
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1.5.5 Bionics
Bionics (also known as biomimicry, biomimetics, bio-inspiration, biognosis, and close to
bionical creativity engineering) is the application of biological methods and systems found
in nature to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology.
1.5.6 Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using
reasoning that is not immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable
by using only traditional step-by-step logic.
1.5.7 Collaborative sketching
Collaborative sketching is a participatory workshop activity where participants sketch
their thoughts about possible design solutions, discuss reasons for drawing a particular so-
lution, and then sketch revised versions.
1.5.8 Metaphor
A metaphor is a  gure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some
point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object. Metaphor is a type of
analogy and is closely related to other rhetorical  gures of speech that achieve their e ects
via association, comparison or resemblance including allegory, hyperbole, and simile.
1.5.9 Cognitive Metaphor
In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, refers to the under-
standing of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another, for example, understanding
quantity in terms of directionality (e.g. \prices are rising"). A conceptual domain can be any
coherent organization of human experience. The regularity with which di erent languages
employ the same metaphors, which often appear to be perceptually based, has led to the
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hypothesis that the mapping between conceptual domains corresponds to neural mappings
in the brain.
1.6 Assumptions
Assumptions are factors that this study uses to support the need for research and further
investigation. This study was conducted based on the following assumptions:
I American furniture industry is focused on producing exceptionally designed contempo-
rary furniture manufactured with the latest technologies, and the domestic customers
interest in furniture design keep a steady increasing in the future.
II Furniture design that processed with morphological analysis method is widely welcome
by the customers.
III Most of the current furniture designers did not use a logical thinking method when they
looking for inspiration of their designs.
IV Success of a piece of furniture has many phases. Innovation of form design creates more
value for the products only if the  nal outcomes can widely accepted by customers.
Additional assumptions that are not based on research include the potential to have
great e ect on the design and positive feedback from commercial markets.
1.7 Scope and Limits
The study was conducted based on the following scope:
I Nowadays, brands form U.S. and Europe carve up the world?s high-end furniture market.
Although the U.S. is the world?s largest importer and consumer of home furnishings, the
world?s two leading furniture fairs IMM Cologne and Salone Internationale del Mobile
di Milano annually are held in Milan, Italy and Cologne, Germany. The show showcases
the latest in furniture and design from countries around the world. It is considered a
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leading venue for the display of new products by furniture, lighting and other home-
furnishing designers all over the world. The study was conducted in U.S. but yet focused
on the over world trend of contemporary furniture design.
II The core of the approach is to logicalize the process of idea generation, which can be
applied to all types of furniture. The application was demonstrated through a series of
furniture design of various types.
Here are the limitations of the study:
I The is no in-depth and overall study on the six categories of Chinese characters, of
which two types of structure and form of Chinese characters are directly used in the
form design of furniture.
II There is not much discussion about materials and their characteristics in this study,
though it is important phase of a furniture design. All the mockups and prototypes
were made to demonstrate the methodology of form design with the limitation of time
and fund.
III Ergonomic study does not go with the design method research.
IV Due to the time limitation, not each of the design technique comes out with a full
functional prototype.
1.8 Procedure and Methodology
This research was to develop an idea generation method for furniture design with the
following steps and methodology:
Step 1. Preparation for the research
 Collect information from books, magazines, Internet sites, and all other sources. Re-
viewing all articles available about creative thinking techniques applied to design and
20
relevant areas, evaluate and determine the content that makes a signi cant contribution
to the topic.
 Identify some proper existing products as example to study. Analyze the design ele-
ments and organize the thoughts of design.
Step 2. Exploration and development
 Summarize the inspiration by category.
 Develop a checklist of creative thinking techniques for furniture designers to design
creative and innovative products.
Step 3. Experiments and prototypes
 Sketches in this phase, the goal is to get our ideas into shape. The sketches do not
have to be  ne and careful with product details, it just helps write down and visualize
our inspiration rapidly. Actually the more abstract we sketch our mind, the more
variability it occurs.
 Mockups scale models are made to help render our ideas in a more directly perceptual
way. Shapes can be modi ed and re ned in this stage, until it comes out perfect in
form and proportion.
 Prototype to create experimental variability in the product prototype so as to formally
test the underlying theory at hand and in a real-world context.
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Chapter 2
MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS OF FURNITURE
People?s desires and needs that they require for their home environment are always
changing and being in uenced. For example as population increases there has been a general
shift towards smaller dwellings. On the other hand, with the human society moving forward
and the developments of technology, people?s lifestyle trends are shifts in the way they go
through their day-to-day lives or routines. Ways of business, educating, transportation, and
social activities, have been changing with each passing day. All this in turn e ects how
people use the space provided in all circumstances and therefore revolutionizes the furniture
industry.
From ancient society to the modern world, there are lots of di erentials in type, form,
and description of furniture. For example, not until the 15th century did British Royal
Navy establish the modern world trading system, people lived a simpler life. Over the next
few hundred years, as the social division and economy develop, there are more and more
commercial activities which is critical part of the structure supporting the modern society,
and therefore specialized public space of a wide variety emerged in need. Furniture placed in
such public places comes out to be quite di erent with what we have at home. It is expected
to accommodate more people or people of di erent age and gender; it may need to be made
with more durable material for being exposed to a relatively unprotected environment and
a higher rate of use. Sometimes such furniture are designed and built-in under conditions
of interior or landscape design for being better integrated and permanent stay, for example
stadium seating, street furniture, built-in cabinet in showrooms, etc. However, no matter in
what age and what condition, furniture as functional product is designed to make it suitable
or comfortable for living or working in which is closely geared to people?s day-to-day lives.
22
In this research, the study is about method of designing creative form and appearance
which is expected to be applied to di erent types of furniture and the author chose free-
standing models as the carrier, apart from those kept in special spaces such as aircraft,
stadium, theater, etc. Besides, form follows function. From the standpoint of functionality,
the creative furniture design should be novel but never useless design. As a starter of cre-
ative design furniture, here is a classi cation of furniture types with basic structure analysis
organized by functional requirements.
2.1 Seating
A seat is place to sit, often referring to the area one sits upon as opposed to other
elements like armrests. According to the number of person it accommodates, seat is divided
into two groups: single seat and multiple seats.
2.1.1 Single Seat
There are a lot of types of single seats. Here is a list of some major types we can see
and use a lot today.
Chair
A chair is a seat with raised surface people used to sit on, commonly referred to those
use by only one person. Chairs are most often supported by four legs with a back on one side
(however, this is not necessary condition, it can have three legs or a di erent shape as long
as people can sit on and supported steadily). Chair has a long history of evolution which
can be traced at least the Early Dynasty Period, so we can see a bunch of chair types with
di erent shapes and di erent con gurations such as rocking chair, recliner, Windsor chair,
wingback chair, watchman?s chair, etc.
Generally speaking, in most cases there are four basic factors in a chair: sitting surface,
backrest, armrest, and base. In other words, these are four elements we can play with to
23
design a chair. For the backrest, we can transform it into di erent shape, height, slanting
forward or backward, adjustable or non-adjustable. It is almost the same thing for the arm-
rest. For the sitting surface, we can make changes in shape, curved shape of the surface, size
and height. As for the bottom, we can make it three legs, four legs, rocker legs (connecting
legs on each side to each other with two curved bands attached to the bottom), X-legs, bent
one piece, or just a solid bottom. Here is a chart that shows the transformation of the three
factors in a chair.
Figure 2.1: Side View (Transforming of Chair Backrest)
Figure 2.2: Front View (Transforming of Chair Backrest)
24
Figure 2.3: Side View (Transforming of Sitting Surface)
Figure 2.4: Top View (Transforming of Sitting Surface)
Figure 2.5: Chairs with Di erent Forms of Bottom
stool
A stool is also one of the earliest forms of seat furniture. In common sense, it is a
\backless chair" that consists of a single seat on a base of three or four legs, distinguished
from chairs by lack of arms and a back. The ways of transformation in sitting surface and
legs for chairs are also applicable for stools due to the similarities. Nowadays, the image of
\backless chair" becomes vague. A single seat with tall leg/legs and a small seat surface,
25
whether has a back or not, is usually considered as a stool. Those stools are usually used
at counters, such as kitchen counter, bar counter, shop counter, or a bank counter, for
temporary sitting. They in common have an adjustable seat height for better reaching the
countertop, and usually can swivel for communication convenience. People sitting on these
stools will not last long, and their feet hopefully leave the  oor when sitting. So there is
usually a place on stool leg/legs for footrest. There are also short stools nowadays. However,
the short stools should not have a backrest feature; otherwise they?ll be considered as chairs.
There are a lot of short stools used for outdoor activities such as camping stools. Those stools
are usually short and have a light weight for easy carry and store, and hopefully foldable.
Chaise Longue
Chaise longue, or lounge chair, is an upholstered sofa in the shape of a chair that is long
enough for people reclining and lounging, which is thought the blend of a chair and daybed.
It is thought the earliest known chaise longue models originated in Egypt, which were made
from palm sticks lashed together with pieces of cord or rawhide. In the old time, the chaise
longue was a symbol of social status and was often made of expensive fabrics, rare wood,
decorated with gems and beautifully carved feet and arm rests, and it was usually associated
with women, when they did not go out for work and rest during the day time without having
to go to their bedrooms. Some French chaise longue appeared in the 16th century with a
design that featured four legs and two raised ends, but nothing on the long sides, which is
called Rcamier. Duchesse brise refers to a chaise longue which is divided in two parts: the
chair and a long footstool, or two chairs with a stool in between them. Mridienne is a chaise
longue which has a high headrest and a lower foot-rest, joined by a sloping piece, whether
or not they have anything at foot end. In conclusion, a chaise longue is basically consisted
of an upholstered long chair, which is long enough to support legs but not enough for fully
lying down, a soft headrest on one end, feet. Armrest for one side or both sides, raised foot
end, and divided footstool are optional.
26
Recliner
A recliner is an armchair or sofa that reclines when the occupant lowers the chair?s back
and raises its front. It has a backrest that can be tilted back, and often a footrest that may
be extended by means of lever on the side of the chair, or may extend automatically when
back is reclined. In general, a recliner chair is a very comfortable version or an armchair
which featured in tiltability and comfort. Being intended to provide a completely cozy rest
place, a recliner is usually immovable with a proper  exibility and softness.
Ottoman
Ottoman is a piece of furniture consisting of a padded, upholstered seat or bench, usually
having neither back nor arms, often used as a stool or footstool. Some ottomans are hollow
which can be used for storage. Two main features of ottoman are upholstered seat surface,
and block-like shape that no legs are visible. Wooden feet may be added to the base to give
it stability. They mostly appear in relax indoor environment such as bedroom, living room,
sometimes in a co ee store, coordinating with armchairs, and in some cases are used as a
co ee table.
Bean Bag
A bean bag (or bean bag chair) is a sealed bag containing dried beans, PVC pellets,
expanded polystyrene, or expanded polypropylene with various applications. The  rst bean
bag chair was designed by Italian company Zanotta in 1969, which was made with pear-
shaped leather bag  lled with Styrofoam beans. Piero Gatti, Cesare Paolini and Franco
Teodoro are credited for the original design at the company. It is said they found that sta 
would like to sit on bags  lled with Styrofoam chips during their co ee or cigarette breaks
and then got the idea of bean bag. There is no more component other than a  exible ball
in a bean bag. Bean bags as piece of furniture are now globally recognized and especially
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popular in young people. Its birth broke through the rules of traditional chair design, but
succeeded in making use of new materials and accommodating to the new lifestyle.
2.1.2 Multiple Seats
Multiple seats refer to the furniture that several people can sit on at the same time.
Bench
Benches are multiple seats which are typically made of wood, but may also be made of
metal, stone, or synthetic materials. Most benches are used in public areas, both outdoors
and indoors. Many benches have arm and back rests; some have no back rest and can be
sat on from either side. In summary, benches share most ways of transforming in chairs due
to similar structures. However, they have more variety of form and shape since they are
more often used in public space. Some benches are designed and set in parks like a piece of
sculpture which are both functional and art.
Couch
A couch or sofa is a piece of furniture for seating two or more persons in the form of a
bench, with or without armrests, that is partly or wholly upholstered, and often  tted with
springs and tailored cushions. Couches are normally used in living room, bedroom or the
lounge, and also found in hotels, lobbies, stores, or waiting rooms of commercial places. A
couch consists of frame as supporting structure and the soft covering. The frame can be
made of wood, steel, or anything that has high strength for supporting. The coverings must
be made out of soft material, usually seen as leather or cloth. Modern couch usually comes
in set, one main sofa and one two or more single or double side sofa, and they usually have
a lower seat height compared with most chairs.
In summary, seat design should  rst meet the functional requirements with its speci c
role. A good design should has structural stability, and be comfortable. There are a few
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factors that a ect the seat comfort, seat height, seat depth, seat width, seat pan angle, and
material. Seat comfort should be considered with its usage and using environment. A lower
seat provides a sense of safe, cozy, stable, and close, while a higher seat provides better
visual  eld and convenience of communication, and makes people more focused and cheerful.
Deeper seat and a backward seat pan make people relax, but this is not suitable for people
who need to focus on what they are doing, and might result in a lower e ciency of message
receive. Besides, soft materials are related to warmth, relax, intimate, and keeping people
stay long; while hard material and gloss  nish related to sober, clean, and durable. Furniture
designers should  rst understand what kind of role the furniture is supposed to be as well
as their basic structure, and then choose correct design language for speci c situation.
2.2 Surface
Surface here refers to all kinds of free standing table or desk; in which  at surface is the
functional component used to support objects, show, temporary storage or manipulation.
2.2.1 Table
A table is a form of furniture with a  at and satisfactory horizontal upper surface used to
support objects of interest, for storage, show, and/or manipulation. The surface is supported
from below by columns, a base, or at least three columnar stands, and must be stable. So
the  rst design element of a table is the horizontal surface top (with a certain distance from
the  oor). The surface top can be rectangular, oval, rounded, semi-circular, or in virtually
any irregular shape. However, for the sake of safety, there should not be a sharp angle in the
table top. Also, there is a range of the heights which often re ecting the height of chairs or
stools used as seating for people making use of a table, as for eating or performing various
manipulations of objects resting on a table. Legs as the supporting structure are arranged
in two or more similar pairs. Long tables often have extra legs for better support. The
table with a single, central foot is called a pedestal table. Many tables have the feature of
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Figure 2.6: Structure of a Typical Table
adjustability. Table tops can be adjusted to change their shape or size, either with foldable
extensions or sliding parts that can alter the shape of the surface top. Some with the legs
that is able to collapse for easy transportation or storage when not in use.
Because table is the furniture that stands aside assisting with people?s gesture, its size,
height, and shape has a rule that changed with functions.
Co ee Table
Co ee tables are usually found in the living room or sitting room. It is a piece of
furniture designed to be placed in front of sofas, to support beverages, magazines, books,
and other small items to be used while people sitting on sofas. Therefore it is frequently a
style of long, low table that  t the seat height of sofa.
Dining Table
A dining table is a table designed to be used for formal dining. Historically, in di erent
countries with di erent culture, the way people seat and have food varies. Today, in terms
of the scale of living area, di erent sizes of dining table are optional. However there is one
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feature in common, the table top should be in symmetric shape for easier set in a dining
room, also being able to accommodate more than two people with conversation in the meal.
Nightstand
A nightstand, alternatively night table or bedside table, is a small table or cabinet
designed to stand beside a bed or elsewhere in a bedroom. It serves the role of a co ee table
during nighttime hours, at a person?s bedside.
Before indoor  ushing toilets became commonplace, the main function of a nightstand
was to contain a chamber pot. As a result, early nightstands were often small cabinets,
sometimes  tted with a drawer, and usually containing an enclosed storage space below
covered by one or more doors. Another term sometimes given to such cabinets was commode.
French, Italian and Spanish antique nightstands usually have one drawer and an enclosed
storage space with one door. They can be embellished with gold leaf  nish, bronze or
parquetry inlaid. Modern nightstands are usually small bedside tables, often with a drawer.
They are often used to support items that might be useful during the night, such as a lamp,
alarm clock, mobile phone, desktop intercom, reading matter, a glass of water, medication,
etc.
2.2.2 Desk
The word desk comes from the Latin word \desca", which means a table to write on, from
the mid 14th century. A desk is a generally wooded piece of furniture and a type of useful
table often used in a school or o ce setting for various academic activities such as reading
or writing on or using a computer. Desks often have one or more drawers, compartments,
or pigeon holes to store o ce supplies and papers. Unlike a regular table, usually only one
side of a desk is suitable to sit on (though there are some exceptions, such as a partner?s
desk). Not all desks have the form of a table. For instance, an armoire desk is a desk built
within a large wardrobe-like cabinet, and a portable desk is light enough to be placed on a
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person?s lap. Since many people lean on a desk while using it, a desk must be sturdy. Desks
were  rst made from wood, but are slowly being converted into harder materials that last
longer. A desk is also known as a bureau, counter, davenport, escritoire, lectern, reading
stand, rolltop desk, school desk, workspace or writing desk.
Davenport Desk
A Davenport desk is a small desk with an inclined lifting desktop attached with hinges
to the back of the body, lifting the desktop accesses a large compartment with storage space
for paper and other writing implements, and smaller spaces in the forms of small drawers and
pigeonholes. The Davenport has drawers on one of its sides, which are sometimes concealed
by a panel. This stack of side drawers holds up the back of the desk and most of its weight.
The front of the desk stands on thick legs or pillars which are often highly carved, somewhat
exaggerated, thick cabriole legs, but these are not essential. This desk owes its name to a
Captain Davenport who was the  rst to commission the design, from Gillow?s of Lancaster,
near the end of the 18th century. In a sense then it could also be considered a Campaign
desk though there are no records indicating if Captain Davenport was in the British Army
or the Royal Navy. The desk shape is distinctive; its top part resembles an antique school
desk while the bottom is like one half of the supports of a pedestal desk turned sideways.
The addition of the two legs in front completes the odd e ect.
Computer Desk
The most common form of the computer desk is a variant of the ergonomic desk, which
has an adjustable keyboard tray and su cient desktop space for handwriting. Provisions for
a monitor shelf and holes for routing cables are integrated in the design, making it easier
to connect the computer components together. The typical armoire desk provides space for
a keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer and speakers. Cubicle desk designs for business and
government workplaces include a range of shelves, trays and cable-routing holes for computer
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systems. In some computer desks, the cabling is a xed to the modesty panel at the back of
the desk, to create a neater appearance.
There are a great variety of computer desk shapes and forms. Large multi-student
computer desks con gured in rows are designed to house dozens of computer systems while
facilitating wiring, general maintenance, theft prevention and vandalism reduction. Small
rolling lectern desks or computer carts with tiny desktops provide just enough room for a
laptop computer and a mouse pad. Computer desks are typically mass-produced and require
some self-assembly. The computer itself is normally separate from the desk, which is designed
to hold a typically sized computer, monitor and accessories. Cabling must be routed through
the channels and access openings by the user or installer. Various proposals for the "O ce of
the future" suggested other integrated designs, but these have not been taken up. A rolling
chair table con guration o ers mobility and improved access in situations where a desk is
not convenient. Gyratory computer tables can be used over a bed. Modular computer tables
separate user interface elements from the computing and network connection, allowing more
placement  exibility. The modules are connected via wireless technology.
Ergonomic Desk
The ergonomic desk is a modern desk form which, like the adjustable drawing table
or drafting table, o ers mechanical adjustments for the placement of its elements in order
to maximize user comfort and e ciency. The ergonomic desk is usually a \stand-alone"
piece of furniture allowing access to the adjustment mechanisms. Some ergonomic desks
have a su ciently large desktop height adjustment to create either a common \sit-down"
desk or a less common standing desk, which allows the user to work while standing. The
ergonomic desk is usually a close companion to the ergonomic chair. The ergonomic desk
originated with the beginning of the  eld of human factors or ergonomics after World War
II. Legislation stating minimal requirements for furniture used by o ce workers referred to
ergonomic desk standards. The computer desk and related ergonomic desk are furniture
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pieces designed to comfortably and aesthetically provide a working surface and house or
conceal o ce equipment including computers, peripherals and cabling for o ce and home-
o ce users.
2.3 Sleeping or Lying
A bed is a piece of furniture used as a place to sleep or relax. Most of modern bed
consists of a mattress on a bed frame, with the mattress resting either on a solid base, often
wooden slats, or a sprung base. In North America many beds include a box spring inner-
sprung base, a large mattress-sized box containing wood and springs that provide additional
support and suspension for the mattress.
2.3.1 Four-poster Bed
A four-poster bed is a bed with four vertical columns, one in each corner, that support
a tester, or upper (usually rectangular) panel. There are a number of antique four-poster
beds extant dating back to the 16th century and earlier; many of these early beds are highly
ornate and are made from oak.
2.4 Storage
2.4.1 Bookcase
A bookcase, or bookshelf, is a piece of furniture, almost always with horizontal shelves,
used to store books. It may be  tted with glass doors. A bookcase consists of a unit
including two or more shelves which may not all be used to contain books or other printed
materials. Shelves may be  xed or adjustable to di erent positions in the case. In rooms
entirely devoted to the storage of books they may be permanently  xed to the walls and/or
 oor. Bookcases frequently have doors that should be closed to protect the books from air
pollution, and bookshelves are open-fronted. These doors are almost always glazed, so as to
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allow the spines of the books to be read. Especially valuable books may be kept in locked
cases with wooden or glazed doors. A bookshelf normally stands on some other piece of
furniture such as a desk or chest. Larger books are more likely to be kept in horizontal
piles and very large books  at on wide shelves. There are three common ways of arranging
stationary bookcases:  at against the wall; in stacks or ranges parallel to each other with
merely enough space between to allow of the passage of a librarian; or in bays or alcoves,
where cases jut out into the room at right angles to the wall-cases. The stack system is
suitable only for public libraries where economy of space is essential; the bay system is not
only handsome but utilizes the space to great advantage.
2.4.2 Cabinet
A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscel-
laneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached
to it like a medicine cabinet. Cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly,
of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which di er in the materials used, are
called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted
with door hardware, and occasionally a lock. Short cabinets often have a  nished surface
on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface such as the countertops found
in kitchens. Cabinet making is the practice of using various woodworking skills to create
cabinets, shelving and furniture. The fundamental focus of the cabinet maker is the pro-
duction of cabinetry. Although the cabinet maker may also be required to produce items
that would not be recognized as cabinets, the same skills and techniques apply. A cabinet
may be built-in or free-standing. A built-in cabinet is usually custom made for a particular
situation and it is  xed into position, on a  oor, against a wall, or framed in an opening.
For example modern kitchens are examples of built-in cabinetry. Free-standing cabinets are
more commonly available as o -the-shelf items and can be moved from place to place if
required. They may also be wall hung or suspended from the ceiling. Cabinets may have
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a face frame or may be of frameless construction (also known as European or euro-style).
Face frame cabinets have a supporting frame attached to the front of the cabinet box. This
face frame is usually 11=2 inches in width. Mounted on the cabinet frame is the cabinet
door. In contrast, frameless cabinet have no such supporting front face frame, the cabinet
doors attach directly to the sides of the cabinet box. The box?s side, bottom and top panels
are usually 5=8 to 3=4 inches thick, with the door overlaying all but 1=16 inch of the box
edge. Modern cabinetry is often frameless and is typically constructed from man-made sheet
materials, such as plywood, chipboard. The visible surfaces of these materials are usually
clad in a timber veneer, plastic laminate, or other material.
2.4.3 Chest of Drawers
A chest of drawers, also called a dresser, is a piece of furniture that has multiple parallel,
horizontal drawers stacked one above another. Chests of drawers have traditionally been
made and used for storing clothing, especially underwear, socks, and other items not normally
hung in or otherwise stored in a closet. They are usually placed in a bedroom for this purpose,
but can actually be used to store anything that will  t inside and can be placed anywhere
in a house or another place. Various personal sundry items are also often stored in a chest
of drawers. Although they can be plain in appearance, chests of drawers can also be made
with a fancy or ornamental appearance, including  nishes and various external color tones.
Traditionally, drawers would slide out on smooth wood rails. Most modern cabinets use
roll-out shelf sliders, made of metal, with rollers. Most chests of drawers fall into one of
two types: those which are about waist-high or bench-high and those (usually with more
drawers) which are about shoulder-high. Both types typically have a  at surface on top.
Waist-high chests often have a mirror placed vertically on top, which is often bought with
the piece. While a user is getting dressed or otherwise preparing their grooming, he or she
can look at themselves in the mirror to check their appearance. Some users may keep lamps
36
for lighting on top of either kind of dresser, and decorative items or photos are sometimes
added for appearance.
2.4.4 Chest
A chest (also called co er or kist) is one of the oldest forms of furniture. It is typically
a rectangular structure with four walls and a liftable lid, for storage. The interior space may
be subdivided. The early uses of an antique chest or co er included storage of  ne cloth,
weapons, foods and valuable items. A cassone is a kind of carved or painted chest associated
with late Medieval and Renaissance Italy. Cassones, also called marriage chests, were often
used to carry the dowry goods in a marriage ceremony. In Medieval and early Renaissance
times in Europe low chests were often used as benches while taller chests were used as side
tables. By placing a chest on the side on any kind of rough table, the inner surface of its lid
could be used as a proper writing surface while the interior could house writing implements
and related materials, as was the case with the Bargueno desk of Spain. Many early Portable
desks were stacked chests, with the top one having its lid on the side, to serve as a writing
surface when opened.
2.4.5 Wardrobe
Wardrobe, also known as an armoire from the French, is a standing closet used for storing
clothes. The earliest wardrobe was a chest, and it was not until some degree of luxury was
attained in regal palaces and the castles of powerful nobles that separate accommodation
was provided for the apparel of the great. The name of wardrobe was then given to a
room in which the wall-space was  lled with cupboards and lockers, the drawer being a
comparatively modern invention. From these cupboards and lockers the modern wardrobe,
with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers, evolved slowly. The modern wardrobe
di ers in one respect from the historical one for its triple partitioning: there are two linear
compartments on either side with shelves as well as a middle space made up of hanging pegs
37
and drawers, the latter being a latter-day addition, besides a clothes? press in the higher
central space on level with a person?s chest.
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Chapter 3
INSPIRATION SOURCES AND DESIGN ELEMENTS
As is mentioned before, the objective of studying the system of form and design is to
help the designers organize the inspiration logically, and then use the morphological analysis
method to develop our furniture form design. In this section, the author explored a broad
range of inspiration sources and summarized them in four major categories through a series
of case study on many successful furniture designs. Also, a study of design elements from
Wucius Wongs theory is introduced, as well as the classic examples of these design elements
in furniture design.
3.1 Nature
Liugi Colani said \The earth is round, all the heavenly bodies are round; they all
move on round or elliptical orbits. This same image of circular globe-shaped mini worlds
orbiting around each other follows us right down to the microcosms." Colani is a Swiss-
German industrial designer who received numerous awards for his designs based on rounded
organic forms, for which he claimed nature is the best soil to conventional designs. Nature
is the biggest sourcebook of behavior, function, color and shape, which can inspire peoples
creative invention and all kinds of design. Moreover, designing with nature not only helps
to  nd functional solutions, but alters perceptions of beauty and meaning. In cognitive
psychology, inference is drawn from visual representation to abstract knowledge (Tversky,
1999). Morphing form derived from nature always touches people?s soul and emotions.
Taking nature as a role model for our designed environment is a tendency among designers,
which creates a feeling of unity between man, and it is origin. Throughout the history, nature
has provided a rich source of inspiration for designers. Going back to the origin of art, the
39
earliest art activities of human being almost rooted in the imitation or extraction of natural
shapes. Everything in the natural world, animals, plants, or rocks, has its beauty in perfect
harmony. \Going back so that you can go forward. We need a real sudden shift. Mankind
simply must go back to its origins and get back to nature. We have to be part of nature
itself, not just consume it: biodesign shows us how to live harmoniously and peacefully with
nature. We can learn to protect what we know and love." Luigi Colani, thinks radically
towards the future. His fusion of science, art and nature identi ed him as an early pioneer
of biodesign, generating morphing forms to interpret nature?s shapes.
Figure 3.1: Speed Chair by Luigi Colani
Figure 3.2: \r.n.i." tables by Chul An Kwak
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Tables shown in Figure 3.2 is amazing creative furniture. With serpentine legs that
resemble nothing so much as octopus tentacles, the \r.n.i." series of tables by Chul An
Kwak is actually inspired by images of running horses. Sculpted from wood, these designs
o er the same sort of  at surface you would see in a conventional table but with legs that
seem kinetic and alive.
From Kwak?s \r.n.i." series of tables we can conclude that the designer did not generate
the morphing form of the whole table interpreting the shape of a horse or an octopus, he
just extracted the legs, or the \image" of animal legs, and transferred it to table legs, but
kept the table surface  at to execute its functionality. This is an instance of partial form
imitation from the natural shape shown in some of functional structures, such as chair or
table legs, chair backrest, table top, etc.
Therefore, there is the other way to integrate the organic natural form to a whole piece of
furniture. Due to the requirement of functionality, natural shapes are usually transformed or
processed into abstraction before transferring to design. The abstraction aims to expressing
emotional characteristics of original shapes, which leaves people more space for understanding
and imagination. The Rugby Chair by Luigi Colani shown in Figure 3.3 is an instance of
this application.
Figure 3.3: Rugby Chair by Luigi Colani
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Figure 3.4: Bone Chair by Joris Laarman, 2006 and 2008
Joris Laarman?s revolutionized the design process by using an algorithm to translate
the complexity, proportion and functionality of human bone and tree growth into a chair
form. In his own words, he sculpted \using mother nature?s underlying codes."
First designed in 1953, this ingeniously shaped Diamond Chair is the most iconic design
of Italian sculptor Harry Bertoia. Fabricated from high grade, cut and welded steel wire,
the metal is formed into a distinctive diamond shape as the name suggests. The end result
is not only a comfortable, supportive chair but also a visual study of form and space.
Figure 3.5: Diamond Chair by Harry Bertoia
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Table 3.1 is a natural elements box listed by the author:
Table 3.1: Natural elements box
3.2 Architecture
A good furniture design must be harmonious with the environment it lives in. Therefore,
furniture design can never separate from landscape or architecture. On the other side,
furniture design is usually seen as miniature architectures. Architects with their strong
engineering background and comprehensive skills and talent on structure and texture design,
may approach furniture design quite di erently. The interesting thing is that in many ways
there is certain freedom in furniture design, which appeals to architects in general. There is
a furniture company that was founded to take advantage of this design energy. They aim to
push the boundaries of design and promote undiscovered talent by inviting architects from
around the world to create a piece of furniture.
Actually, many architects designed furniture for their architecture works. This is a Min-
imalist and Trendy Bookshelves (Figure 3.6) designed by Toyo Ito, for the Italian Furniture
Company HORM.
We can soon discover that the Sendai Minimalist and Trendy bookshelf is inspired
by the outstanding Sendai Mediatheque building (Figure 3.7) also designed by Toyo Ito
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Figure 3.6: Sendai Minimalist and Trendy Bookshelves by Toyo Ito
Figure 3.7: Sendai Mediatheque, Sendai, Japan
in 2001. The bookshelves consist of 6 shelves in pressed, sanded, varnished safety glass.
Solid oil-varnished, turned black walnut and alder wood structures, with 60 turns, each at a
di erent angle and a di erent diameter. By observing the outside and inside of the Sendai
Mediatheque we can see the bookshelves has the similar structure as the architecture. It is
just appropriate to use the unique structure of the building in a bookshelves design.
From this instance, we can get ideas about the relationship between furniture and ar-
chitecture design. The furniture structure can borrow the supporting structure from ar-
chitecture, since which is the essence of an architecture design. See the Bridge Table by
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Joris Laarman in Figure 3.8. The table uses the classic arch bridge structure as foundation,
transferring the deck to table surface, logical and stable.
Figure 3.8: Bridge Table by Joris Laarman
Besides, the texture of architecture elevation are usually inspiring elements in furniture
design. In a modern architecture, the texture of architecture elevation is an important part of
the design. Mostly found are some interesting and beautifully designed hollowed-out pattern
surface.
Japanese architects Toyo Ito is notable in designing a special \skin" that wraps the
buildings he designs, making them stand out in their surroundings. The photos below are
Toyo Ito?s Tod?s Omotesando Building (2004) and Mikimoto Ginza2 (2005) in Tokyo, and
Reiser + Umemotos? O 14 Tower (2007) in Dubai. These buildings feature lacy or mesh-like
concrete cages with relatively small openings.
Bato Idea Chair by Peter Donders is an example of this application. The chair as well
as the foot stand appears in a one-piece sheet of coated metal hollowed out with irregular
circles, which not only makes it much lighter in weight but also creates an extraordinary
e ect of light and shadow in speci c lighting environment.
Inspiration from the snow-covered landscape of the surroundings and the  uid lines of
the mountains, the room adopts whole pure white walls and all custom furniture merging in
a contemporary interior design. Introduce the outdoor landscape into indoor gives design a
fresh way to go.
45
Figure 3.9: Left: Tod?s Omotesando and Mikimoto Ginza 2 by Toyo Ito; Middle and Right:
O-14 Tower by Reiser + Umemoto?s
3.3 Geometric Shapes (Solid  gure, plane  gure)
Geometric elements used in design and the forming of geometric designed furniture style
marks the change from convention to modern design. Geometric elements witness the course
of modern design development. Charles R. Mackintosh (1868-1928) was the representative
of earliest geometrical form design. He used geometrical form as his main design language,
merged straight lines and simple geometric shapes into furniture design, indicated a new
step into modern design in Europe.
Here are mainly two kinds of applications of geometrical form design: independent
geometrical forms and compound geometrical forms:
 Independent geometrical form: use one single three dimension geometric  gure
(sphere, cylinder, cone, cube, etc.) as body, with simple modify and attain a graceful
shape. This type of geometrical form furniture appears to be extremely neat and simple
and usually comes with mono-color. Discard the emotional cognition and complex
visual information, it enhance the beauty of pure reason, but still with much of visual
impact and fun. Figure 3.13 is the famous Cone Chair design by Denmark furniture
designer Verner Panton, which is a typical independent geometrical form design.
46
Figure 3.10: Bato Idea Chair by Peter Donders
Figure 3.11: Barin Sky Resort by RYRA Studio
 Compound geometrical form: use more than one three dimension geometric  gures
to form, or set a simple geometric shape as unit form and repeat.
Wucius Wong introduced eight types of repetition of unit forms in his book Principles of
Form and Design (Wong, 1993).
(a) Repetition of shape: Repetitive shapes can have di erent sizes, colors, etc.
(b) Repetition of size
47
Figure 3.12: Hill House Chair by Charles R. Mackintosh
(c) Repetition of color: All the forms are of the same color but their shapes and sizes may
vary.
(d) Repetition of texture: All forms can be of the same texture but they may be of di erent
shapes, sizes, or colors.
(e) Repetition of direction: This is possible only when the forms show a de nite sense of
direction without slightest ambiguity.
(f) Repetition of position: This has to do with how forms are arranged in connection with
the structure.
(g) Repetition of space: All forms can occupy space in the same manner.
(h) Repetition of gravity: Gravity is too abstract an element to be used repetitively. It
is di cult to say that forms are of equal heaviness or lightness, stability or instability,
unless all other elements are in strict repetition.
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Figure 3.13: Cone Chair by Verner Panton
Figure 3.14: Vertex Collection by Karim Rashid for Vondom
Wong?s theory of form and design is based on 2-D graphic design background. However,
these types of repetition are logical and universal which can be extended to a three dimensions
system. Faceted surface is a kind of repetition of 2-D geographic applied to 3-D, which can
be found in many products as a stylish texture.
The design of Vertex Collection is ultra contemporary and visually striking. It involves
the connection of a series of triangular planes so that surfaces and shapes evolve to accom-
modate seating and gathering, with architectural  air.
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3.4 Others
In addition to the three commonly used inspirations above, there are also many other
directions for designers to draw inspiration from, such as painting, still life, character, signal,
etc. The most famous representative is the Red and Blue Chair by Dutch architect Gerrit
Rietveld designed in 1918 and the painting Composition with Red Blue Yellow by Piet
Mondrian in 1930. Although it is not a chair inspired by the painting but an inverse, the
composition and deconstruction shift between 2-D and 3-D totally explain the method and
possibility of drawing design elements for 3-D product from 2-D painting.
Figure 3.15: Left: Red and Blue Chair by Gerrit Rietveld; Right: Composition with Red
Blue Yellow by Piet Mondrian
3.5 Shape and Form
The words \shape" and \form" is actually two di erent things. From Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, the noun \shape" means the visible makeup characteristic of a particular item
or kind of item. And the noun \form" refers to the shape and structure of something as
distinguished from its material, while it has another meaning that the essential nature of
a thing as distinguished from its matter, as the component of a thing that determines its
kind. As for furniture, \shape" refers to the physical  gure, the external appearance of the
50
product. The \form" represents the mental outlook, the spirit of the product. Form can be
seen as the expression element of the furniture. Further, it re ects the style of furniture.
Not everything in the world has a shape, but from the philosophic point of view, ev-
erything has its form. Mountain, ocean, animal, plant, are all concrete form. They are
objective, touchable, and transferable by human. That is the reason that morphology exists.
Architect, furniture, appliance, etc., are also concrete form. They are products of human?s
activity. We may call it arti cial form. However, there are also forms that can only be
cognized through words, or exists under certain concept (de ned by words, formula, etc.),
which we call abstract form, or concept form. For example, air is concept form. It cannot
be touch or transferred under a natural circumstance, but people can know it is a mixture
of gas. We can describe it as  uid, transparent, invisible, etc., and now we can feel it. Then
all these words above can be considered \image" of air.
Figure 3.16 is a chart that shows the classi cation of forms.
Figure 3.16: Classi cation of forms (Yu, 2009)
To some extent, concrete form and concept form are interconvertible, and therefore
leaves designers more space for imagination and creation. There is not much signi cant of
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the classi cation itself, however, as a designer, it can help us organize inspirations logically in
the process of creativity. Furniture, as an objective substance with concrete form, leaves us
much space and chance to grant it emotion and spirit. That is the signi cance for designers to
study the forms of furniture. There are two objectives for studying form design of furniture:
 Generalize a conclusion what are the forms that people most accept and love. Why do
they prefer it?
 Study some speci c furniture forms and the background they born, so as to  gure out
how people created these proper forms for furniture, which can be the guidance for our
design methods development.
3.6 Basic Elements of Design
Visible points, lines, or planes are forms in the true sense, although forms as points or
lines are still simply called points or lines in common practice (Wong, 1993).
3.6.1 Point
It is the most basic form unit. In the book Principles of Form and Design, Wong
describes point like this. \Smallness, of course, is relative. A form may appear fairly large
when it is con ned in a tiny frame of reference, but the same form may appear rather small
when it is put inside a much greater frame of reference." The most common shape of a point
is that of a circle which is simple, compact, non-angular, and non-directional. However, a
point may be square, triangular, oval, or even of a somewhat irregular shape. Thus the main
characteristics of a point are:
(a) its size should be comparatively small, and
(b) its shape should be rather simple.
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3.6.2 Line
In geometric, a line is the path of moving points. Line is the dominating element and
spirit in art and design. The movement and form of line sketch the outline of furniture, and
express its emotion, strength, characteristic, and style. There are straight line and curve two
systems of line.
Figure 3.17: Classi cation of line (Yu, 2009)
A line conveys various feelings depending on its length, thickness, form, and position,
which we call the expression of line.
(a) Straight line strict, simple, logical, powerful
(b) Vertical line upright, rise, serious, supporting
(c) Horizontal line extending, broad, calm and quiet, stable
(d) Oblique line radiate, active, break, unstable, variation
(e) Geometric curve reasonable, lively
(f) Arc plump, full
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(g) Parabola speed,  owing
(h) Hyperbola symmetrical, balance
(i) Spiral line elastic, vivid, rhythm
(j) Free curve freedom, vigorous, unrestrained
Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.19 are the exercise examples of the variation of straight lines
and curve lines. Through the exercise designers can gain more techniques in making use of
the design elements and transfering them to good design.
Figure 3.18: The variation exercise of straight line
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Figure 3.19: The variation exercise of curve line
In furniture design, composition of lines decides the expression of product. Furniture
designed with all straight lines looks strict, simple, and austere.
Ming and Qing style furniture reaches a fairly high level of Chinese furniture design.
Its characteristics can be summarized as simple and clean in form, strict structure, and
moderate in decoration, elegant texture.
In Figure 3.21, this highly sculptural chair was  rst designed in 1934 as a response to
Theo Van Doesburg?s call back in 1924 for introduction of \oblique" lines in furniture design.
Architect Rietveld?s response was to create a simple cantilevered chair constructed at 45
degree angles, thus resolving the tensions between the vertical and horizontal elements. All
he used was just straight lines to design this amazingly simple work. The  nal result is a chair
that is not only beautiful but also extremely strong and highly functional. Furniture designed
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Figure 3.20: Ming and Qing Dynasty style furniture, China
with all curves looks graceful, smooth,  owing, and romantic. The most representative work
of this type should be Panton chair. This chair was the  rst in the world to create a form-
molded chair in plastic without any joints. It is one-piece cantilevered design with its sinuous
shape, which made it synonymous with 1960?s pop culture, and without doubt one of the
most signi cant chair designs of the 20th century.
Furniture designs integrate straight lines with curves can be seen everywhere. It is
accepted by most designers and users, because the combination of the two types of line make
the design neither too plain nor too novel.
3.6.3 Plane and curved surface
On a two-dimensional surface, all  at forms that are not commonly recognized as points
or lines are forms as plane. A planar form is bound by conceptual lines, which constitute the
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Figure 3.21: \Zig Zag" Chair by Gerrit T Rietveld, 1934
Figure 3.22: Panton Chair, 1967
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Figure 3.23: Bocca Marilyn lip sofa by Studio 65, 1972
edges of the form. The characteristics of these conceptual lines and their interrelationships
determine the shape of the planar form (Wong, 1993). There is also a three-dimensional
surface that is not mentioned in Wongs book called curved surface. A curved surface may be
a result of curves moving in a path that is not on the same plane as the curve is. Plane and
curved surface give people distinguished emotions. In the planar form, there are a variety
of shapes. Square, rectangle, or triangle gives us an expression of brief, neat and pleasing
simplicity. Circle feels much friendly and cute. On the other hand, curved surface has an
emotional characteristic of tender, soft, and lively. Due to the more freedom in variation,
curved surface designed furniture always looks surprisingly and shows much personality of
its designer.
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Chapter 4
MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION IN FURNITURE DESIGN
4.1 Morphological Analysis in Design Work
In 1984 Nigel Cross published \Developments in Design Methodology", collecting in-
 uential articles about design methods and procedures. Its approach was de ned as \...the
study of how designers work and think; the establishment of appropriate structures for design
process; the development and application of new design methods, techniques and procedures;
and re ection on the nature and extent of design knowledge and its application to design
problems" (Wiley, 1984). First generation researchers such as Archer and Jones proposed
that the design process is based on logical analysis and creative thinking (Archer, 1963).
Any exploration of a furniture design should be on the premise of consumers? demand,
and improving the quality of peoples? lives. Usefulness and functionality should be the  rst
consideration, which re ects on the demand of ergonomics it meets, strength and stability
of structure, nonhazardous and safe. But there is more we should take into consideration.
In the early 1980s Memphis design period, the Italian shouted the slogan that \human
development, if only in order to meet their most basic physical needs, then mankind is too
low level. Design of new era should be: function is not important, important is that I like."
Today in the business world, the design philosophy that form follows function is no longer
that su cient, and the aesthetic aspect of a product has become a more and more important
element for success. It is important for the designers to understand how invention works,
where and how it breaks down in design. Designers should have more in-depth discussion
about consumers? preferences and satisfaction, as well as the changing trend.
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Archer identi ed that drawing is a basic technique of modeling and modeling is the
language of design (Archer, 1965; Cross, 1984). The term graphicacy appears in many pub-
lications of the time to emphasis that drawing is a valid mode of modeling and presentation
(Brazil, 1975; Boardman, 1982). A sketch is a visual representation for modeling or thinking
about something else such as attributes which demand a greater cognitive contribution from
the viewer than other types of representation (Purcell, 1998). Observation is an activity
related to visual perception, and it is also the  rst step of sketch and design. Morpho-
logical analysis in furniture design will focus on observation from inspiration sources, and
transferring the 2D sketch to design, which is conducted in the following procedures.
4.1.1 Observation from Inspiration
The world we live in is an information sourcebook of behavior, function, sound, color,
and shape, which can stimulate us in various sensory ways, in uence on our moods, and
inspire design and invention. The inspiration can be triggered by direct observation and
captured then visualized in 2D or 3D. As input, design requires a designer?s observations.
Observation in the early phase of design process is the starter and also the answer of \how to
make things?" and \what to design?" The importance of sketches from inspiration objects
has been addressed from many aspects such as visual thinking. It goes without saying that
visual perception is the prime channel for contact with external world.
In terms of cognitive psychology, the mental operations of receiving, storing and pro-
cessing of information require sensory perception, memory, thinking and learning (Amheim,
1969). Surrounded by design, sketches have been used as a research media for visual percep-
tion (Cross, Dorst, Roozenburg, 1992; Kramer, 1994; Landay, Myers, 1995). Although these
studies belong to di erent domains, they focus on conceptual development. In conceptual
design the designer observes the natural world and employs sketches to elaborate the concept
(Schn and Wiggins, 1992; Goldschmidt, 1994; Kavakli, Suwa, Gero and Tversky, 1999).
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4.1.2 Learn from Morphing Form through Sketch
The designer?s sketches and ideas are instantiations of ideas and inspiration for design.
In the conceptual development stage of design, di erent tools and media have been used:
paper and pen, computer graphics, RE equipment and scale models (Archer, 1997). 2D
sketching is a continuous and developing process made up of visual elements such as points,
lines and planes (Wallschlaeger and Busic-Snyder, 1992; Linda, 1996). Meanwhile, they learn
how to construct a reasonable form, which lays the foundation for manipulation of 3D form
in product design (Jenkins and Martin, 1993). In this phase, sketching is a tool for mind
recording, and also the media to associate the morphing form to product prototype. This
section discusses some sketching methods and their suitability for conceptual development.
In the analysis step, the natural object is examined in order to  nd relations between form,
structure, and the geometry within as well as the functional principles (Stokholm, 2006).
With analyzing the object and recording its characteristics by sketching or photography some
information such as morphological structure, connection mechanisms, functional principle
and environment in uences is gained (Colombo, 2007).
In terms of Zwicky?s procedure of morphological analysis, the  rst step is to list the
attributes of the product. Attributes are parts, properties, qualities or design elements of
the thing being looked at. Here, the product is furniture, and a breakdown of furniture
parts is  lled on the side, because sometimes the product is partial transformed instead of
the whole body. If the object is  xed, list the parts of the object only. Next step, draw
up a table using these attributes as column headings. Then we can choose a topic from
the inspiration sources mentioned in chapter 2 for this morphological box. The table is
going to be  lled in with sketches which may take up some space, so draw the table on a
larger board, and remember to stay one topic one box to keep your thinking organized and
focusing. If you want to try something else, just draw another one. Write down as many
inspiring elements as possible that interest you. In this phase, thumbnail sketches instead of
writing for both furniture structure and inspiring elements are recommended, which will help
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visualize your thinking process and discover the insights and relations easier. Now select one
entry from each column and  ll in your  ndings or all seemingly possible features you can
think about. Either do this randomly or select interesting combinations. By mixing one part
and one element from each column, you will create a new mixture of components. That is a
conceptual form of your design. Generally speaking, the morphological analysis here is not
only a creative thinking method, but also a progress of form study for both design element
forms and furniture forms. Here is an example of morphological analysis in furniture design
from natural elements.
Figure 4.1: Morphological analysis of natural elements in furniture design
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4.1.3 Drawing Feature of Form Aesthetics
In this phase designers should re ne the morphing form and make it beautiful. The
beauty of shapes is \the place of geometry in a sculptor?s thinking" (Plato, Philebus). Be-
sides functional characteristics, designers observe many form elements of a natural object
as form aesthetics which will improve the marketability of manufactured products. Aes-
thetics consists of several elements which interact with each other in di erent ways. Design
aesthetics is interested in the appearance of products; the explanation and meaning of this
appearance is studied mainly in terms of social and cultural factors. This aesthetics section
focuses on form aesthetics. Even though aesthetics includes several elements such as tactil-
ity, color and texture, the study is limited to product design. Additionally, artistic form is
the ensemble of choices intended to realize the point or purpose of a work (Carroll, 2004).
Artists, designers and architects have been concerned with the proportions of the parts of
their works. Particular length ratios are preferred, also sometimes entire systems of propor-
tion. Some systems are based on the form of natural objects where elements are derived
from the evaluation of a perceiver of a perceived object or product. The evaluation of the
dimensions includes (but is not limited to) the proportionality, sense of balance, rhythmic
impression and sense of unity (Wen, 2008). Ulrich and Eppinger pointed out that identity
focuses on a single dimensions of aesthetic needs leading to products with stable markets
and technology, which are highly dependent upon identity to create aesthetic appeal and,
hence, di erentiation (Ulrich and Eppinger, 1995). According to Huntley, Fechner?s experi-
ments were repeated by Witman, by Lalo, each a leading psychologist of his time, and each
obtained similar results. Huntley?s listing of Fechner?s data is presented in the Figure below.
They used one of the oldest concepts in aesthetics in which people prefer a certain
proportion known as the Golden Ratio, which pervades mathematics and aesthetic visual
design, architecture, etc., to provide an aesthetic form. Fechner found that shapes with a
ratio of 1:1.618 are more pleasing to the eye than shapes with other proportions. There
seems to be a small set of real numbers which human observers prefer (Fechner, 1997).
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Figure 4.2: Fechners Results (Golden Ration 5:8)
4.2 Techniques of Transferring Sources to Design
Since the morphing form is drawn from the sources, how to integrate it into a physical
product? This session will introduce four methods of applying the elements to furniture
products.
4.2.1 Bionics
Bionics is an interdisciplinary  eld which looks for inspiration in nature to provide so-
lutions for design problems in di erent  elds and various brances of industry such as design,
tissue engineering, bioengineering, aeronautics, space science and biomaterials (Colombo,
2008). Its applications range from emotional translation of form to utilization of functional
principles (Kepler and Stokholm, 2004). It is widely considered as a useful tool for gen-
erating concepts and developing products, which is visually pleasing and environmentally
sustainable. De nition given by Neuman implies that Bionics has to do with interactions
between bio systems and their environment, and Nachtigall, one of the German pioneers
in Bionics, acknowledges the importance of learning and inspiring from nature, instead of
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directly copying its principals into technical solution (Neurohr and Dragomirescu, 2007).
Many examples from aviation technology demonstrate this approach in borrowing inspira-
tion from nature, as well as other  elds of Bionics application such as well-known example of
lotus-e ect which was applied in dirt-repelling and self-cleansing surfaces (Colombo, 2007).
To conduct a design project with a Bionic design approach, the requirements of the arti -
cial system must be de ned initially, and then a natural system which performs a similar
function is investigated (Vakili and Shu, 2001). In the analysis step, the natural object is
examined in order to  nd relations between form, structure, and the geometry within as
well as the functional principles (Stokholm, 2006). With analyzing the object and recording
its characteristics by sketching and photography some information such as morphological
structure, connection mechanisms, functional principle and environment in uences is gained
(Colombo, 2007). In bionic furniture design projects, the analysis mainly concerns on the
forms related to functions.
In transforming the inspiring sources to a furniture form, a deeper understanding of the
form-structure relations and functional principles is gained and these principles are trans-
formed to a geometrical and mechanical model, which can be done with sketches and 3D
modeling in addition to physical models or prototype. The core of the morphological analysis
and transforming to technical solution is an abstraction and simpli cation phase (Colombo,
2007). Furthermore, it is necessary to incorporate all e ective aspects in an industrial de-
sign concept, to have a rational and producible conceptual development, which follows the
product development steps as \industrial design process". See Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Bionic design process
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4.2.2 Metaphor
A conceptual domain can be any coherent organization of human experience. The
regularity with which di erent languages employ the same metaphors, which often appear
to be perceptually based, has led to the hypothesis that the mapping between conceptual
domains corresponds to neural mappings in the brain (Feldman and Narayanan, 2004). This
idea, and a detailed examination of the underlying processes, was  rst extensively explored
by George Lako and Mark Johnson in their work Metaphors We Live By. Other cognitive
scientists study subjects similar to conceptual metaphor under the labels \analogy" and
\conceptual blending". Conceptual metaphors typically employ a more abstract concept as
target and a more concrete or physical concept as their source. In Lako ?s theory, metaphors
are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. They are pervasive
not just in language, but also in thought and action.
In Mark Blechner?s book The Dream Frontier, the author describes musical metaphors,
in which a piece of music can \map" to the personality and emotional life of a person
(Blenchner, 2001). There can also be a metaphoric mapping between other art forms and
human experience. The art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting,
we \feel ourselves into it" by imagining our body in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate
object in the painting (Blenchner, 1998).
Abstraction was the key aesthetic device employed by the majority of designers. Es-
sentially, abstract art was understood to be that which eliminated  gurative or symbolic
elements in favor of the manipulation of \pure" form. The search for purity was closely
related to the idea of truth: \Although one has always to operate more or less speculatively
in the domain of abstraction, there is good reason to accept this latter manner of visionary
thinking about plastic art as true" (Greenhalgh, 1990). Obviously abstraction implied an
outright rejection of  gurative elements in design and, consequently, a severe reduction in
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the potential of the object as a conveyor of narrative or symbol (Greenhalgh, 1990). There-
fore, unlike the ornament, the abstract form of an object was normally developed within the
parameters of the structure, rather than as an addition to it.
Designing furniture form in a metaphor way considers these aspects: underlying meaning
of the inspiring elements, common perception of human, correct design language. Here is a
discussion about association and the metaphor of some objects. When people say \something
like something", both nouns can either refer to a physical object or an abstract concept. For
example, the cloud is like a marshmallow. Both cloud and marshmallow are physical object
and visible. However this is not a good metaphor because it just associates the two objects
that is visually close in the appearance, but failed to discover any underlying insight in neither
of them. When people say time is money, money is a more concrete concept which can be
presented in the form of currency and exchanged to other things at equal values, while time is
perceptible, but untouchable. When people associate these two things together, it needs some
description or understanding in certain environment or social background. Sometimes people
talk something with metaphor or something presents itself with a metaphor way, leaving the
space for imagination, is more interesting and touching to the information receiver.
Figure 4.4: How it is pain?
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Here is an example of applying the design in metaphor method. The  rst step is to
 nd an abstract concept, for example: pain. Then, try to visualize this word in mind and
give it an expression or an action. For example: twist (see 4.4). Find something from the
inspiration sources book as a carrier of form which is adaptable to this topic. Doing form
study with what you found in sketches. To simplify the sketching, the author just uses a
cuboid as the carrier.
Figure 4.5: Form study of pain in a cuboid
Figure 4.6: Flow chart of Metaphor design
4.2.3 Detailing
\Small is the new big." As a creative director at IDEO, Paul Bennett reminds us that
design needs not invoke grand gestures or sweeping statements to be successful, but instead
can focus on the little things in life, the obvious, the overlooked, and his design approach
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re ects this philosophy. For often, it?s not the biggest ideas that have the most impact, but
the small, the personal, and the intimate. Design is in the details. \The goal of embracing
details is to get you to think critically and present the best possible design you can." (Hamid,
2008) The start of a great furniture design begins as a sketch but what it really comes down
to is the details. It is a functional yet decorative product people use with a very close
aesthetic appreciation in their daily life. In this section, the author will introduce how to
apply designs to furniture detailing through case study.
Overt Joinery
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of wood, to
produce more complex items. It is the most important detailing of a piece of furniture.
Strength,  exibility, toughness, appearance, etc., are a few characteristics of wooden joints,
which derive from the properties of the joining materials and from how they are used in
the joints. \Because of the actual physical existence of Egyptian examples, we know that
furniture from the  rst several dynasties show the use of complex joints, like the Dovetail,
were used over  ve thousand years ago. This tradition continued to other later Western
styles. While Western techniques focused on concealment of joinery, the Eastern societies,
though later, did not attempt to ?hide? their joints. The Japanese and Chinese traditions in
particular required the use of hundreds of types of joints due to the lack of suitably strong
glue or the development of nails." Overt joinery as decorative detailing can be seen in many
cases of contemporary furniture design. In the world of machine manufacturing, the overt
joinery shows a hint of vintage and aesthetic of craftsmanship.
The Plastic Nature (Figure 4.7) is a series of furniture designed by Alexander Pelikan,
which exemplify the connection of the plastic material and the world of wooden furniture
with beautifully designed joinery. The designer juxtaposes natural wooden texture and
shiny plastic surface. The combination of rustic and modern sparks at the point of joinery
detailing.
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Figure 4.7: Plastic Nature by Alexander Pelikan
A generation disconnected from time-honored skills, technique and know-how seeks
experiences marked by quality, craftsmanship and evidenced humanity. Furniture rooted in
nature is always valued and enhanced by those factors throughout the history.
Fake Joint
There is a wide variety of materials can be used for making furniture, wood, metal,
leather, cloth, plastic, glass, etc. Each material is related to one or more speci c crafts to
join pieces/parts together. For example, sewing is the craft to join or attach cloths, leather,
or other fabric material using stitches. For another example, riveting is widely used to join
sheet-metal where welding is not preferably as deformation and modi cation of material
properties can occur. Both of the two methods mentioned above are seemingly impossible
to be applied to furniture joint. However, they can still appear in a furniture design since
both stitches and rivets are decorative elements on surface.
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Figure 4.8: Stitching Concrete by Florian Schmid
Stitching Concrete (Figure 4.8) is a stool developed by German designer Florian Schmid
using concrete cloth, which is a  exible cement impregnated fabric that hardens on hydration
to form a thin, durable water proof and  re proof concrete layer. The rope stitches assist to
fasten and form the structure during the watering and drying process, and in the  nished
product it is the highlight and decorative part of the stool.
Aviator Chair (Figure 4.9) manufactured by Restoration Hardware is an aerodynamic-
curve chair hugged in aluminum accented with exposed rivets. The combination of leather
and riveted metal reinterprets the look and feel of an old  ghter plane from the golden age
of  ight. It is worthwhile to note that the recurring rivets change the accent and texture of
the surface, and create an interesting visual impact.
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Figure 4.9: Aviator Chair by Restoration Hardware
Figure 4.10: Flow chart of Detailing design
4.2.4 Pattern
As is implied by the name, it is to transfer any inspiration to 2D graphical element
and simply apply them to furniture by painting, dyeing, etching, attaching, CNC or laser
cutting, etc. Visible Structures (Figure 4.11) by Nendo is a series of furniture made from
foam core and reinforced with industrial strength carbon tape. Strips of black tape on white
foam core operate as graphical element on each piece of furniture but create a magical visual
e ect when put together.
In the Visual Structures by Nendo, the designer created an interesting 3D visual e ect
with very simple graphical elements. Inspired by his design, we can make use of the light
and a surface hollowed out with patterns to cast magical shadow on the  oor. Pattern
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Figure 4.11: Visual Structures by Nendo
design does not mean the design stays on decorative art or graphic design level. Never forget
when presenting the patterns, we still have the design tools of color, material, lighting, etc.
Through making di erent combinations of various tools, delightful surprises may take place
unexpectedly.
Figure 4.12: Flow chart of Pattern design
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Chapter 5
APPLICATION RESULTS
In this chapter, the design method developed in previous chapters will be applied to
four furniture designs that one-to-one corresponds to the four techniques in chapter Four.
Generally, the design starts from a morphological box as in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Morphological analysis of  nal projects
Chosen elements are listed in the column heading of Figure 5.1. Some of the elements
are natural sources, while the others are abstract concepts. And the furniture as well as
a breakdown of parts is  lled in the row heading of Figure 5.1. Actually each of the ideas
can go by all of the 4 techniques for application. However, we choose the  ag to go with
pattern, the zipper to go with detailing, the volcano to go with bionic, and the tree to go
with metaphor.
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5.1 Speci cation
5.1.1 Caldera
Caldera is a side table inspired by the natural landscape. There are two versions of the
design: one is positive that looks like sand dune in desert; the other one is negative that looks
like a caldera. The designer develops a deeper understanding of the form-structure relation
of the inspiring sources (dune and caldera) and functional principles of a side table, and
then transforms it to a geometrical and mechanical model. Here the \Bionic" technique is
applied. The contour curves of the great landscape and the rhythm of its changing is drawn,
abstracted, and simpli ed through morphological analysis with sketches and 3D modeling in
addition to prototypes.
5.1.2 Greenfall
Greenfall is a wood table inspired by a lea ess tree in late fall. In which the \Metaphor"
technique is applied. The table is shown in raw and rustic wood material, which remind us
the perfect gift from the nature tree. The designer draws a silhouette of a tree on a rectangle,
splitting the trunk and the leaves part. By developing the shape of a tree and the functional
parts of a table, the design is re ned by the process of morphological analysis. The trunk
part works as supporting structure of the table, and the leaves parts as table surface fall onto
di erent heights. Now the word \fall" is a pun, which has the  rst layer of meaning implied
in the table that it is the season that leaves depart from the trunk revealing the shape of a
trunk. The second layer of meaning shown in the table is the green parts of a tree falling
onto lower levels.
5.1.3 Zipper
Inspired by the great invention of zipper, this co ee table is integrated zipper detailing
to the table surface. Zipper was invented by an athlete who was too lazy to tight his shoes,
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but wanted to fasten his shoes faster. It was originally used to join two pieces of cloths or
leather. While in the table, both zipper and the table are made with wood. It is not designed
to zip the split tabletop, but works as decoration. The small opening on the tabletop does not
a ect the table?s functionality, but breaks through the faceless rectangular co ee tabletops.
5.1.4 Union Jack
In this project, the graphic of the British  ag is painted on the wood co ee tabletop.
There are a lot of  ag lovers all over the world, and there is a royal trend of using the Union
Jack motif in home decor has been around for decades and it is still going strong. Smoked
glass, oxidized woods, nuanced black and gunmetal color, a revolt against the slick, white,
modernist aesthetic, the smoky remnants stand as iconic and enigmatic symbols of survival
and endurance.
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5.2 Performance Criteria
Figure 5.2: The Test of Performance Criteria
The four furniture designs one-to-one correspond to the four design techniques developed
in this research. A test can be carried out to test if the methodology and principles are
understandable to other designers. The left column is  lled with the pictures of the four
furniture mock-ups; the names of the four designs are in the middle; what on the right
are the four techniques for design. All the names and pictures are listed by random. The
participants are designers (or people from related  elds) who had read the design process of
morphological analysis and the descriptions of the four techniques, but not informed of any
information about the four designs. They are required to draw lines to match the designs
and the techniques. The accuracy rate of the results from the participants speaks for the
performance of the design methods.
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5.3 Sketches
5.3.1 Caldera
Figure 5.3: Caldera Table Sketch
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5.3.2 Greenfall
Figure 5.4: Greenfall Table Sketch
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5.3.3 Detailing
Figure 5.5: Zipper Table Sketch
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5.3.4 Pattern
Figure 5.6: Union Jack Table Sketch
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5.4 Sketch Models
5.4.1 Caldera
Figure 5.7: Caldera Sketch Models
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5.4.2 Greenfall
Figure 5.8: Greenfall Sketch Model
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5.4.3 Zipper
Figure 5.9: Zipper Sketch Model
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Figure 5.10: Zipper Full Size Model
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Figure 5.11: Zipper Full Size Model Details
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5.4.4 Union Jack
Figure 5.12: Union Jack Sketch Models
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Chapter 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The objective of this study is to develop a method using morphological analysis to
design creative furniture. The results of the literature review and studies of existing design
methodologies show that there was no direct approaches to use morphological analysis in
furniture design. The traditional morphological analysis was invented and applied most in
industrial engineering area, which mainly focused on looking for solutions for engineering
problem or in the process of product development. In this research, morphological analysis
is introduced into furniture design area, and the key to design creative furniture is to borrow
inspirations from a broader range of sources and apply them to the product successfully.
Study of major classi cations of furniture as well as its structure is carried out in
Chapter Two, because designers need to know what can be changed or redesigned and
what cannot. The basic principles of functional furniture design should be followed since
the creative furniture cannot be just sculptural but lose its functionality. Chapter Three
develops a map of usable inspiration sources from the planet and basic design elements
are introduced to transfer the inspirations into visible graphical elements. Chapter Four
introduces the existing morphological analysis method and develops it for design work by
cooperated with observation and sketching. Morphological analysis is not just about creative
thinking method to create the maximum solutions, but also about form study and the
possibility and diversity of transformation. In furniture design, designers should mostly use
sketching as visual thinking tools  lling the morphological box, instead of writing. After the
process of morphological analysis, four techniques representing four directions for transferring
sources to physical design. They may not be the only techniques for furniture design, but
sorted and summarized from all case studies in the research.
88
To evaluate the four techniques are understandable and convincing, an uno cial test
was carried out by the author for curiosity sake. Participants are ten industrial designers or
designers from related  elds who have understanding of art and design to a certain degree.
The author interpreted the four techniques after a brief introduction of this study, and let
the participants play a simple matching game. Here is the result of the test. Nine of the ten
participants can make four correct matches. There is one participant of the ten confused
the Bionics with the Metaphor. So the total accuracy rate is 90%. Accuracy rate of Bionics
and Metaphor is 90%, and the Detailing and Pattern is 100%. Due to the area and time
limitation, the sample size of the test is small and not selected randomly. The result is not
that reliable. However, such a test may be an indication that the approach developed in this
research works. Another test among a bigger sample can be carried out, or more designs
developed from these approaches can be included into the test in the future.
Based on this study, designers can gain a clearer route to do creative furniture design
starting from broadening their design inspirations. However, in terms of di erent cultures
and proposals, designers should limit their design to follow certain rules and customs. Also,
trends of home decor and aesthetics change all the time. Designers should always be aware
of what is going on and what should be abandoned to survive in the commercial market.
89
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