An Analysis of Career Thinking and Career Interests of Incarcerated Males by Nicholas C. Derzis, Jr. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Auburn, Alabama August 3, 2013 Keywords: career development, incarceration, re-entry, vocational counseling Copyright 2013 by Nicholas C. Derzis, Jr. Approved by Rebecca S. Curtis, Chair, Associate Professor of Special Education, Rehabilitation and Counseling E. Davis Martin, Jr., Wayne T. Smith Distinguished Professor of Special Education, Rehabilitation and Counseling Margaret E. Shippen, Associate Professor of Special Education, Rehabilitation and Counseling ii Abstract Individuals with barriers to employment such as people with disabilities or people who transition from prison to the community face different challenges in navigating the world of work. Participants in this study were incarcerated males who self reported disability status and other demographic information. This study examined the relationships among positive or negative career thoughts and career interests with the Career Thoughts Inventory and the Self-Directed Search. Results of this study provide a rich description of the sample and indicate statistically significant relationships among participant?s generational affiliation and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale Commitment Anxiety. Statistically significant relationships were also identified among participant?s race and the dominant career interest code as measured by the Self-Directed Search. iii Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the following people for their mentorship, endless support, and contributions to the completion of his graduate studies which has been an amazing life experience. Thank you to Dr. Becky Curtis, Chair, and Committee members, Dr. Peggy Shippen and Dr. Dave Martin. I offer a special thank you to Dr. Peggy Shippen for allowing me to explore research through our many trips to prison. You have always supported me and believed in me and for that I am grateful. Dr. Curtis, thank you for always believing that I could make it to the next step and for pushing me when I needed it the most. Dr. Martin, thank you for being the mentor you have been over the past six years; there are not words to express the appreciation of good leadership and mentorship. Dr. Witte, thank you for serving as the outside reader for the Graduate School for my dissertation. Altamese, thank you for assisting with the formatting of this dissertation. Thank you to the Alabama Department of Corrections, Warden Mason, Bullock Correctional Facility, Dr. Eddie Lancaster, Prison Psychologist, and all other professionals I have had the pleasure of working with throughout my time working in Alabama prisons. This work would not be possible without the patience and support from the inmates within the walls of prisons throughout the iv state of Alabama. Inmates have taught me more than I ever thought possible when I began this work. This journey would not have been possible to complete without Mom, Dad, Brandi, Lauren, John Michael, and Missy for their constant encouragement and support. Nic, you have been my biggest cheerleader throughout this doctoral experience. Be thankful you worked on the road most of the time. Finally, thank you to Ava Grace, Pike, Honey, Sumo, and Grayson, thank you for your unconditional love and for always being a great welcome wagon after a long day?s work. v Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... iii List of Tables ....................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ..................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1. Introduction ......................................................................................... 1 Introduction to the Topic ............................................................................ 1 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................... 2 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 3 Research Questions .................................................................................. 3 Definition of Terms ..................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2. Review of Literature ............................................................................ 8 Society and Culture ................................................................................... 8 World of Work .......................................................................................... 10 Career Counseling for Underserved Populations ..................................... 12 Legislation Impacting Career Development for People with Disabilities .. 16 Career Development ................................................................................ 22 Generational Information ......................................................................... 25 People with Disabilities ............................................................................ 26 Ex-offenders ............................................................................................ 31 vi Chapter 3. Methodology ..................................................................................... 34 Participants .............................................................................................. 35 Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 36 Procedures .............................................................................................. 41 Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 43 Chapter 4. Results .............................................................................................. 44 Demographic Data for the Population ...................................................... 44 Repeat Offender Status ................................................................ 44 Length of Incarceration ................................................................. 44 Generational Affiliation .................................................................. 45 Race .............................................................................................. 46 Disability Status ............................................................................. 46 Educational Status ........................................................................ 47 Statistical Analysis ................................................................................... 47 Research Question 1 .................................................................... 48 Research Question 2 .................................................................... 48 Research Question 3 .................................................................... 48 Research Question 4 .................................................................... 48 One-Way ANOVA Results ............................................................ 49 Research Question 5 .................................................................... 49 Research Question 6 .................................................................... 49 Research Question 7 .................................................................... 50 Research Question 8 .................................................................... 50 vii Research Question 9 .................................................................... 51 Research Question 10 .................................................................. 51 Descriptive Data ...................................................................................... 51 Daydream Jobs ............................................................................. 51 First Letter of Holland Code .......................................................... 52 CTI Overall Standard Score, Subscale Standard Scores and Percentiles....................................................... 52 Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................ 53 Summary of the Purpose of the Study ..................................................... 53 Summary of the Research Procedure Methodology ................................ 53 Research Questions ...................................................................... 54 Discussion and Interpretation of Results.................................................. 57 Conclusions ............................................................................................. 68 Limitations ................................................................................................ 69 Implications and Recommendations ........................................................ 69 References ......................................................................................................... 71 Appendices ......................................................................................................... 77 viii List of Tables Table 1 Length of Incarceration in Years ............................................................ 45 Table 2 Generational Affiliation........................................................................... 45 Table 3 Disability Status Reported by Participants ............................................. 46 Table 4 Educational Status Attained by Participants .......................................... 47 ix List of Figures Figure 1. Holland Occupational Code Groups .................................................... 37 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Topic Employment is an important life function that enables people to sustain themselves in many ways. Work provides people with a reason to get up every day, social networks, ways to exercise passion, and financial sustainability. For diverse populations, the world of work can often be jaded by barriers to employment. Two groups that have historically experienced problems with gaining employment have been individuals with disabilities and individuals who have exited prison. By gaining a clearer picture of the way these individuals think about work and the kind of work they are interested in, practitioners and administrators that work with these populations can better provide services that can result in better employment outcomes. In the United States alone, there are estimated to be over 45 million individuals living with a disability (Smart, 2009). There are approximately 15.76 million people who reported a work-related limitation in the United States in 2011 (Disability Statistics, 2012). It is estimated that 33% of the prison population has a physical or mental disability (Maruschak & Beck, 2001). There are specific employment needs for individuals with disabilities (Martin, 2007). Disabilities are defined as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more 2 major life activities, having record of such impairment, or being regarded as having such impairment (Americans with Disabilities Act as Amended, 2008). In the United States at 2005 yearend, more than 7 million adults were in prison, in jail, on probation, or on parole (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2007). Over 1.4 million are incarcerated in state and federal prisons at any given time (Hrabowski & Robbi, 2002). The Educational Testing Service conducted a study and found that the crime rate has essentially remained flat over the last 20 years, yet the US prison population has tripled since 1980 (Hbrabowski & Robbi). In 2008, the United States had approximately 13 million ex-offenders of working age living in communities across the nation (Schmitt & Warner, 2010). Over 90% of ex-offenders are men, which impacts the employability rate of males nationwide. Statement of the Problem There are currently 1 in 100 people in prisons or jails in the United States, with the majority of these people exiting institutions and transitioning back to communities (Pew Report, 2008). Ex-offenders living in communities around the country are experiencing high levels of unemployment when compared to the general population. Employment rates are estimated to be approximately 15- 30% lower than the general population at any given time (Schmitt & Warner, 2010). In prisons, it was found that at least a third of state inmates have a mental or physical disability (Maruschak & Beck, 2001). Disability can oftentimes complicate the world of work due to specific needs per individual. Employment rates for individuals with disabilities are consistently lower than the general 3 population. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010) people with disabilities are employed at the rate of 18.6% whereas individuals without disabilities are employed at the rate of 63.5%. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between two important factors related to the career needs of incarcerated men as they exit prison and transition back into communities. This study examined the career thoughts participants have about the world of work and their reported career interests. Dysfunctional career thoughts are cognitions related to behaviors, beliefs, feelings, plans, and/or strategies that prevent effective career problem solving and decision making (Sampson, Peterson, Reardon, Lenz, & Saunders, 1996). Gaining an understanding of career interests and knowing which occupational fields match vocational interests assist in self-understanding and career exploration. By gaining a better understanding of the dysfunctional career thoughts and relationship among career interests, practitioners providing services to individuals transitioning out of prisons can have a better idea of what unique barriers to the world of work this population faces with career selection and career success. Research Questions For this study, the following research questions were developed: 1. Is there a relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory overall score? 4 H?1: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory overall score. 2. Is there a relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale decision making confusion? H?2: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale decision making confusion. 3. Is there a relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale commitment anxiety? H?3: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale commitment anxiety. 4. Is there a relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale external conflict? H?4: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the Self- Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory subscale external conflict. 5. Is there a significant difference between age/generational affiliation and the first letter code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory? 5 H?5: There is no significant difference between age/generational affiliation and the first letter code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory. 6. Is there a significant difference between race and the first letter code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory? H?6: There is no significant difference between race and the first letter code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory. 7. Is there a significant difference between disability and the first letter code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory? H?7: There is no significant difference between disability and the first letter code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory. 8. Is there a significant difference between repeat offender and the first code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory? H?8: There is no significant difference between repeat offender and the first code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory. 6 9. Is there a significant difference between education level and the first code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory? H?9: There is no significant difference between education level and the first code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory. 10. Is there a significant difference between length of incarceration and the first code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory? H?10: There is no significant difference between length of incarceration and first code yielded from the Self-Directed Search and the overall score and subscales of the Career Thoughts Inventory. Definition of Terms Career development: involves the implementation of a series of integrated career decisions over a person?s life span (Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz, 1996). Career interests: tasks in environments that complement the personality of a person (Holland, 1997). Career Thoughts Inventory and test subscales: The Career Thoughts Inventory was published in 1994 and updated in 1996 by James P. Sampson, Gary W. Peterson, Janet G. Lenz, Robert C. Reardon, and Denise E. Saunders. The assessment examines a person?s level of career thinking (positive) and career dysfunction (negative) providing an overall score and three test subscales. 7 The subscales measured are decision making confusion (dmc), commitment anxiety (ca), and external conflict (ec) (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). Disability: Defined by the Americans with Disabilities Act (2008) as amended, a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, having a record of such impairment, or being regarded as having such impairment (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2008). Holland Code: Three letter code yielded as results through the Self Directed Search (Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1997). Self-Directed Search: Vocational interest test published by John L. Holland originally in 1971 and updated numerous times since. The most recent version was published in 1994. This interest test is based on John Holland?s theory of career development. The results of this inventory are a test users Holland code (Holland, 1994). 8 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Literature reviewed in Chapter Two began the process of exploring ways to further understand the career related needs for incarcerated individuals and individuals with disabilities. This chapter will review areas relevant to the research study being conducted. Society and Culture Individual life experiences, culture, personality, interests, and abilities contribute to an individual?s career development. People want to do what they enjoy, and when they get paid to do what they enjoy, the average person is going to experience congruence among their work environment, interests, and personality (Bissonnette, 1994). Career selection is more than a mere decision, it?s a complex process. Moreover, work is central to an individual?s life as it provides economic self-sufficiency, provides one with a worker identity, and affects and is affected by individual, economic, social, and cultural factors (Blustein, 2008; Szymanski & Parker 2010). According to Blustein (2008) employment impacts psychological health and well-being. The author also notes that from an individual perspective, loss of work or lack of work has been often linked to challenges in relationships, increased substance abuse, and serious mental health concerns. From a community perspective, loss of work has been linked to a decline in the quality of 9 neighborhoods and an increase in crime (Blustein). With recent unemployment numbers rising there are obvious problems with our economy and the skill set and education of workers available for the jobs available. Given that employment is an important life function, investigating career development especially for underserved groups is critical. For example, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010) people with disabilities are employed at the rate of 18.6% whereas individuals without disabilities are employed at the rate of 63.5%. In 2011 the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported the following employment rates by race: 59.9% for Asian Americans, 59.4% for Whites, 59% for Hispanics, 52.3% for Blacks. Finally, employment rates for ex- offenders are estimated to be at 15-30% lower than the general population (Schmitt & Warner, 2010). In order to effectively address the underemployment and unemployment of diverse populations, service providers, researchers, and policy makers may be required to provide and develop multidimensional evidence based strategies in career development (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). The following sections of this qualifying paper will discuss (a) historical and legal perspectives of career development and counseling for underserved populations, (b) theories and factors that influence the career development and counseling of underserved populations, (c) approaches to career development and career exploration, and (d) practical implications related to career development and counseling for underserved populations and suggestions for future research. From here 10 forward this paper will be focused on only two underserved populations, individuals with disabilities and ex-offenders re-entering the workforce. World of Work Society is structured around work. Currently, the world of work is quickly changing to meet the demands and needs of companies and organizations worldwide. Technology is more prevalent in worker functions than ever before (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2012; Maskivker, 2010). Throughout history there are periods of industrial change and downsizing which is prominent in industry worldwide. Layoffs periodically affect our economy and affect the employment rate. For example the first edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles contains job descriptions for approximately 17,500 jobs. However, the revised 1991 edition provides descriptions for approximately 12,000 jobs. Recently, the economic instability in the United States and World has caused a shift in the past low unemployment rates to much higher rates of unemployment (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). This has caused the employment for people with disabilities and ex-offenders a challenging task for job seekers and related service providers. Historically, the field of career counseling has been one that works with all kinds of people in society (Abiola, 2009; Bissonnette, 1994). Career Counseling (often used interchangeably with terms such as vocational counseling, occupational counseling, career development counseling, etc.) is a process that helps a person to explore work and understand one?s self and role in the world of work (Bissonnette; Crites, 1981; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2009). The goal of career development is to inform, educate and enlighten individuals 11 with information regarding occupations as they exist in the world of work. Consumers of these services are typically those facing one or multiple barriers to employment. Barriers can include disabilities and the functional limitations associated with the individual, a lack of training or work experience, lack of education, a felony or other crime, and other cultural and societal barriers (Bissonnette). Today, the traditional psychological contract that a new employee would enter the workplace, work hard, perform well, display loyalty and commitment, and thus would experience job security has been replaced by a new contract based on continuous learning and identity change (Russell, 2005). This makes the job for career related counselors and practitioners more difficult in that the old way a job developer worked with consumers in career counseling is no longer the thriving method of career development. Career counselors must be aware of the great demands employees must be able to meet in future jobs and careers. Job seekers must understand they may have to take courses to upgrade their education or skill level or switch occupational fields entirely in order to meet the needs of the labor market. There is limited data available regarding the number of career changes a person typically experiences over a lifetime. The Bureau of Labor Statistics conducted a longitudinal study on baby boomers. According to the study?s results, baby boomers averaged eleven jobs between the ages of 18- 44. Competition among the job searching population is fierce with unemployment numbers hovering steadily at 9% whereas the unemployment rate in 2007 was below 5% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). 12 Currently, the United States is transitioning high school students to college at a higher rate than ever before. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 70% of high school students transition to college the fall semester after high school graduation. Of the transitioning college students, 11% of these students are students with a disability. The National Center for Education Statistics also reports that 57% of first time college students beginning college in fall semester 2002 completed their Bachelor?s degree within six years. With a greater number of college students completing their degree and the unemployment rate high, there is greater competition among those searching for jobs. With 11% of the college freshmen class being an individual with a disability we must better identify ways to transition students with the knowledge they need to be successful in the post-secondary environment. The world of work is ever changing and the need to prepare workers for specific industries is great. Occupational choice is a process of the selection of a specific job while career development is a life-long process (Szymanski & Hershenson, 1998). Career Counseling for Underserved Populations Career counseling for underserved populations can be provided in numerous venues by different service providers. Traditionally, career development and career counseling services are provided to people with disabilities through state- and federally-funded Vocational Rehabilitation Services agencies and programs. To become a recipient of these services, an individual must be found eligible by a rehabilitation counselor. The eligibility criteria to 13 receive rehabilitation services is that the potential consumer must (a) have a mental or physical impairment that results in a substantial impediment to employment; (b) the individual can benefit in terms of an employment outcome from vocational rehabilitation services; and (c) the individual requires vocational rehabilitation services in order to prepare for, enter, engage in, or retain employment (Martin, 2007). Rehabilitation services that can be provided to individuals who are found eligible for services can range from counseling, employability skills, job retention skills, assistive technology evaluation and identification, job coaching, job development, supported employment, reasonable accommodation for employment, reasonable accommodation for higher education, independent living services, and other work and training related needs. The rehabilitation process typically consists of a four phase sequence. The process begins with evaluation and continues into planning, treatment (services), placement and follow along (Rubin & Roessler, 2008). The field of Vocational Rehabilitation Counseling historically examined a counselor?s effectiveness based on the number of job placements typically known as case closures. The old paradigm of rehabilitation counseling saw the most successful counselors as those with the most placements and closures. Most recently, in Alabama, this has changed in recent years and the overall effectiveness of a counselor is based on the quality of the consumer?s integration into the working world and consumer satisfaction. The quality of this integration should be based on assisting individuals in career and vocational guidance rather than a one-time 14 job placement. Vocational rehabilitation should be career focused rather than occupation focused. Concurring with these recommendations were many others who stressed career development versus job placement and case closure. The twenty-first century has seen a shift in emphasis on job placement towards the development of independence and self-sufficiency. According to Rubin and Roessler (2008), career development needs to include: (a) a plan that considers a job and its fit into a career plan; (b) a personal plan that is individualized and formulated thorough principals of autonomy and is directed toward an individual?s vision of the future; (c) consideration of previous work experiences; (d) personal decision-making experiences of the individual; (e) an individual?s ability to accept change, flexibility, success, and failure that occurs on the job; (f) the utilization of quality technology to improve learning, performance, communication, independence, and interdependence in the workplace. By providing sound services and addressing the employment issues from a career development stand point, consumers are better prepared for job changes in the future and would rely more on job placement from professionals rather than training or other pertinent areas of rehabilitation services if services were in fact needed in the future. In some states, such as Alabama, the state vocational rehabilitation agency has a transition initiative to provide rehabilitation services to individuals 15 who are exiting prison and returning to their community. Ex-offenders re-entering society with a disability have significant impediments to employment and transition programs can assist with the career development needs of these individuals. Other venues that provide services related to career development and career counseling are non-profit agencies, state/federally funded career centers, and private for profit career counselors. The Veterans Administration (VA) is responsible for coordinating services for veterans who are in need of vocational rehabilitation (United States Department of Veterans Affairs, 2012). Youth with disabilities often receive informal career counseling through assessments and community based work experiences that occur during the latter part of high school helping to prepare these individuals for the transition from school to work, school to post-secondary training/education, or school to community transition (Test, Aspel & Everson, 2006). Another source for career related services is through state and federally funded career centers. These centers were the result of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 with an attempt to collapse the nations job training system and programs into a more streamlined process. The idea behind the career center one stop?s is to centralize job related services and providers into one building. Additional barriers to accessing these services such as transportation and location of individual service providers are alleviated with the implementation of these career centers (Targett, Young, Revell, Williams, & Wehman, 2007). The area of career development and career counseling in the realm of non-profit companies and agencies is large. There are nationally known agencies such as Goodwill Industries and Easter Seals while 16 there are numerous local companies that provide vocational services. Some career counseling programs that are coordinated out of not-for-profit agencies often have a target population in which they aim to provide services while others provide these services to anyone in need of them. Legislation Impacting Career Development for People with Disabilities Vocational rehabilitation programs have been in existence since the inception of these kinds of programs with the passage of the 1917 Smith-Hughes Act. This piece of legislation made federal money available to states for vocational programs with a matching provision for states (Lassiter, Lassiter & Gandy, 1987). These programs have been modified and changed since inception, but are available nationwide through state and federal programs, non- profit agencies, and through private vocational rehabilitation service providers. Since the passage of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act, there has been greater emphasis on providing services to individuals having a significant disability (Mackelprang & Salsgiver; Martin, 2007). Vocational rehabilitation services are services that are coordinated to assist a person with a disability in achieving a vocational outcome outlined in an individualized plan for employment (Martin, 2007). Landmark legislation was passed in 1973 with the passage of P.L. 93-112, the Rehabilitation Act. This legislation was passed with the congressional intent to develop and implement through research, training, and services, a comprehensive and coordinated vocational rehabilitation program and programs of independent living (Martin, 2007; Szymanski & Parker 2010). The 17 Rehabilitation Services Administration was established as a result of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2009; Smart, 2009). Section 501 of the Rehabilitation Act requires affirmative action and nondiscrimination in hiring practices by federal agencies of the executive branch. Section 502 is an effort to remove barriers related to architectural and transportation issues associated with accessibility. Section 503 requires affirmative action and prohibits employment discrimination by federal government contractors and subcontractors with contracts of $10,000 or more. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is significant because this single piece of legislation was the first civil rights legislation to protect individuals with disabilities from the discrimination they had historically been susceptible to without protection and safeguards in place. This was the federal government?s attempt to help provide equal opportunities for individuals with disabilities. Section 504 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in any programs private or public that receives federal financial assistance under any executive agency (Szymanski & Parker 2010; Yell, 2006). Section 504 is also significant legislation covering students with disabilities in schools in ways not seen before. Section 504 requires schools and professionals working in the schools to provide an education to students with disabilities and to afford these students educational opportunities equal to their peers without disabilities (Yell). Section 508 requires federal electronic and information technology to be accessible for people with disabilities (Szymanski & Parker). The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 provides widespread civil rights for people with disabilities in employment and educational 18 pursuits and public access. This legislation has laid the groundwork for other laws pertaining to the wellbeing of people with disabilities. In 1975 P.L. 94-142 (the Education for all Handicapped Children Act) was passed and renamed in 1990 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2009; Yell, 2006). This was the largest piece of legislation affecting the education system and students with disabilities in America. This legislation states that students with disabilities are entitled to a free and appropriate education, and that instruction will occur in the least restrictive environment. This legislation mandates that each student will have an individualized education program (IEP). By the passage of IDEA, students with disabilities are provided a more integrated education than in the past, with focus on the individual student. Often time students that are at the transition age will be served under a modified IEP that addresses the area of transition and related services. This is significant with regard to career development for people with disabilities. By bringing stakeholders to the table during the transition for a student from high school to community, work, or higher education, the student will be better prepared for the world they will embark on after finishing school. This is critical to the career development of these individuals as it is addressing a critical part of a person?s livelihood (Test, Aspel & Everson, 2006). The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed by President George Bush on July 26, 1990. This is one of the most significant laws pertaining to the rights for individuals with disabilities in America. Congress estimates that 43 million Americans with disabilities were discriminated against 19 before the passage of the ADA (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2009). The ADA is alike when compared to Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as it is too a civil rights act for people with disabilities (Smart, 2009). There are also major differences in the two pieces of legislation. The ADA is thought to be one of the most comprehensive pieces of civil rights legislation in the world (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2009; Szymanski & Parker, 2010). Title I of the ADA is on employment and extends discrimination in hiring practices for people with disabilities on the basis of race, sex, religion, and national origin. No employer with 15 or more employees can discriminate against an individual with a disability that can perform the essential functions of the job. Employers must also provide reasonable accommodation to individuals with disabilities (Smart, 2009). The ADA defines disability as (1) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities of such individual; (2) a record of such an impairment; and (3) being regarded as having such an impairment (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1991). For the purpose of this study, the definition of disability defined in the ADA will be used. One of the unique aspects of the definition of disability used in the ADA is that it protects individuals who have been regarded as having a disability. The psychosocial impact that being labeled as having a disability can be serious which is why it is important to protect these individuals. This impacts the field of career development of individuals with disabilities because this legislation further levels the playing field for people with disabilities in the work place. Title II of the ADA is transportation and mandates that public entities such as trains, airplanes, and buses must be 20 accessible for people with disabilities. Historically, transportation has been and still is a large problem for people with disabilities. This was the first legislation to mandate public transportation services to allow people with disabilities to better participate in communities. Title III of the ADA provides public access and accommodation for people with disabilities. This includes public stores, restaurants, movie theatres, banks, shopping malls, gas stations, etc. All public places are to be made accessible for people with disabilities unless the entity can prove the structure to be historic and that modifying the structure or grounds could lessen the historical integrity. This title of the ADA is important because people with disabilities have historically been left out of consideration when the layout or design of a business was created. Due to this law, people with disabilities are considered throughout the process of opening a business with physical layout, restroom design, and accessibility from parking and transportation. Title IV of the ADA is the section on telecommunications and it allows individuals with speech or hearing disabilities to have access to nationwide telephone and telecommunications systems (Smart, 2009). This opened the doors for people with these types of disabilities to fully participate in communication with anyone they chose to. This also enables individuals with these types of disabilities to complete more job tasks then before this legislation. It impacts the field of career development by providing more options for possible jobs for a person with a hearing or speech disability. Title V of the ADA is miscellaneous and reinforces the mandate from the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 regarding accessible wilderness and parks (Smart, 2009). This strengthens the 21 mandate and assists individuals with disabilities in participating in recreational activities. Other legislation lends itself to more specific career development legislation. The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 was enacted ?to consolidate, coordinate, and improve employment, training, literacy, and vocational rehabilitation programs in the United States? (quoted from P.L. 105-220). In order to achieve this, Career One Stop Centers were created collapsing older programs and systems of delivery. These centers provide services in areas such as intake, assessment, case management services, occupational training, educational training referrals, labor market information, job development services, vocational rehabilitation services, unemployment insurance information, and Veteran?s programs (State of Alabama Workforce Investment Act Annual Report, 2010). These are centrally located centers throughout the state of Alabama to provide delivery of WIA Title I Core Services to employers and job seekers in need of these services. Each career center has cooperative agreements for services with local representatives of WIA partner agencies. Agencies included are two year colleges, vocational rehabilitation, and any other agencies available for collaboration. Title II of the Workforce Investment Act deals with Adult Education and Literacy. The purpose of this is to improve the literacy skills and basic education for those who lack the mastery of basic education skills (P.L. 105-220). Another area of services through WIA monies is programs for disadvantaged youth. The purpose of the Workforce Investment 22 Act is to meet the needs of America?s employers with well trained citizens (Rubin & Roessler, 2008). Legislation that affects people with disabilities, inmates, incarcerated juveniles, people in mental health facilities, and other persons in institutionalized settings is the Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act of 1980. This legislation protects these individuals? federal rights. Before this legislation, people who were institutionalized were not given the required federal civil rights. This legislation brings the human rights that all deserve to the forefront and requires that people who are in institutions be guaranteed their rights. Career Development Work is one of the most important elements for many people?s lives yet people report to work every day for different reasons (Niles & Harris-Bowlsby, 2009). Many people work to provide a means to survive and to sustain a lifestyle. Besides the economic benefit of a paycheck, work also provides other, more intrinsic rewards such as the opportunity to create new human relationships. These human relationships provide social interaction and friendships that help make a job a career. Other benefits of employment include helping one?s self esteem, self-efficacy, and feelings of achievement and task competency or mastery (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). With this much emphasis placed on the relationship between an individual?s positive self-worth and a positive employment experience, career development services are an important contribution to society and culture. Career development programs exist to assist people in work transition to achieve their goals, both extrinsic and intrinsic. 23 Individuals who may be in need of career development services are those who face obstacles in relation to successfully achieving these goals. Such obstacles may be due to a disability, an arrest record and/or subsequent incarceration, or someone experiencing a transition from one job to a new job or career (Bissonnette, 1994). Individuals seeking career development services are often unemployed or underemployed (Raphael, 2007). Most industrialized nations are concerned with unemployment as it can affect the economy at large and large numbers of individuals (Brown & Lent, 2005; Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). By viewing unemployment from the individual perspective and not a community perspective, individuals feel lost and uncared for. Over the past 100 years, unemployment has been more commonly viewed from the community perspective. By seeing it from this perspective, unemployment services have evolved into career development services for communities, providing services to job seekers. In many communities, programs are available to support citizens in their job search, community job boards, and groups available to attend to help people through the unemployment process (Bissonnette, 1994). There are often non-profit agencies and state agencies to provide career development and counseling services to individuals in need of them. Communities view working with the unemployed as an investment their future. The principal intervention strategy for the unemployed is seeing a career counselor or career development service provider to enable the person needing work to be an active part of their job search and transition into employment. Career development service providers need to assist consumers in identifying 24 community resources available and view themselves as part of a system and not an isolated person. Kieselbach and Lunser (1990) conducted research on the unemployed and identified the major psychosocial problems experienced by the group. Results indicate that 47% of participants have a problem with their partner, 47% experience accusations by family, 44% report excessive alcohol use, 39% report difficulty contacting others, 36% report problems looking for work, 33% experience a loss of status. This reaffirms that unemployment affects many variables in people?s lives. The concept of underemployment is the idea that some people are over qualified or over educated for the positions they are working. Some believe that if someone has a job, the person is employed and there is nothing else to worry with. When examining a person?s job in relation to their intellectual ability, past work experience, education, and career interests you must also look at it relative to what is going on with the local economy and jobs available. Due to advances in technology, older workers are often discriminated against when looking at jobs that require high levels of knowledge in areas that the older worker may be lacking. Workforce Investment Act monies are often utilized when appropriate for areas that experience a large layoff to help get the workers re-trained in a new job or to provide academic or technical training assistance. Underemployment is often work found by a job seeker when needing work and is usually part time work. It can be viewed as less fulfilling, less satisfying economically, and affects the self-esteem of the worker (Crites, 1981; Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). 25 Generational Information Parks (2009) identifies four generations of individuals participating in the workforce. The four categories are the (a) Veterans/Traditionalist, (b) Baby Boomers, (c) Generation X, and (d) Millennials. Each generation has uniquely generalized characteristics that can be found in the work force. First, the Veterans/Traditionalist generation represents individuals born between the years of 1925-1945, and is the eldest generation working. Individuals born during this time-frame lived through the Great Depression, and have seen the workforce change in marked ways. This generation is also the first to see women in factories, doing work that was considered previously suited only for men. Worker characteristics of Veterans/Traditionalist are that this generation likes things to be consistent, uniform, and standardized. This group also believes in conversation staying on appropriate topics and not disclosing too much personal information. Veterans believe in rules, law and order, the value of money, and are often brand loyal to American manufacturers. Next, Baby Boomers are the generation born between the years of 1946? 1964. To date, this is the largest generation at work, comprising 53% of the workforce (Schroeder & Zeller, 2005). The Baby Boomers generation began in 1946 and did not end until 1964, when the birth rate dropped below 4 million for the first time since the beginning of the boom. Worker characteristics of this generation are that these individuals believe in growth, expansion, are often optimistic, and think of themselves as ?cool?. As this generation begins to fade out of the workforce, there will be many shoes to fill in the American job market. 26 Generation X is the group of individuals born between 1965 and 1978. This is the first generation of people who came from homes likely to have two working parents or a single parent, often called ?latchkey kids.? This generation values a 40 hour work week, not a 60 hour work week like many of their parents. This generation?s work ethic is often described as self-reliant, desiring balance between work and personal life, preferring informality, and having a casual approach to authority. The core values of this generation include individualism and cynicism, yet there is a true tolerance for diversity in culture and lifestyle. Finally, this generation is more ?tech savvy? in comparison to their predecessors the Baby Boomers (Parks, 2009). The youngest generation that is currently in the workforce is the Millennials. The Millennials are individuals born between the years of 1979 and 2001. It is believed that Millennials are the busiest, and therefore the most stressed generation to date (Raines, 2002). Worker characteristics for the Millennials are that this generation has more to offer employers in terms of volunteer experience, internships, part-time jobs, and knowledge from their education. The core values of this group center on being optimistic, social, and open to new ideas. This generation has also been raised with technology at their side. Millennials are very connected with the Internet, cellular phones, and PDAs. People with Disabilities In the United States alone, there are estimated to be over 45 million individuals living with a disability (Smart, 2009). It is hard to estimate the number 27 of individuals living with a disability because of the disparity that exists among definitions of what a disability is. There are approximately 15.76 million people who reported a work-related limitation in the United States in 2011 (Disability Statistics, 2012). This means that over 8% of the population report having a disability that hinders them in the area of employment. Moreover, the Center for Disability Statistics at Cornell University (2012) report employment rates in Alabama for individuals with disabilities between the ages of 18?64 that are not institutionalized falls below 28%. The term ?disability? can be defined in different contexts but for the purpose of this study will be defined utilizing the definition of disability used in the Americans with Disability Act of 1990: (1) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of major life activities of such individual; (2) a record of such an impairment; (3) being regarded as having such an impairment (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1991). Historically, people with disabilities have not been welcomed into society with open arms and embraced. The 1960s and 1970s proved to be a time of unease and social injustice for certain minority groups and this empowered groups to advocate for the basic civil rights they deserved. Significant legislation passed during this time eliminated many of the barriers in multiple life areas resulting in a better quality of life. Individuals with disabilities have specific needs in regard to work. Often times a disability can complicate the world of work for this population. People with disabilities require working with a practitioner that is trained to meet their career development needs. One of the reasons people with disabilities have specific career development needs is when a person acquires a 28 disability. The person may have sustained an injury or disability resulting in a significant life change. People who are in the stage of adjustment of disability face attitudinal barriers and environmental barriers in all areas of life including work (Martin, 2007). Professionals trained to work with people with disabilities in relation to work are typically called Rehabilitation Counselors. Rehabilitation Counselors are advocates for people with disabilities in the work place and typically believe in examining a person?s abilities rather than what the consumer cannot do. These professionals work with individuals with disabilities to help to provide access to employment opportunities through a professional counseling relationship. Transition from school to work is an area of career development that has not been identified as a unique period in the career development process (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). Typically students exit school and either are expected to attend higher education or work. Students who have a high school diploma are typically limited to the types of jobs they can find upon graduation without any specialized training or knowledge. Only 6% of high school counselors dedicate up to 30% of their time assisting students with job placement for those transitioning into the world of work post-graduation (Barton, 1991). For students with disabilities, this transition can be an even more complicated process. Students with disabilities are provided more transition services than those without if they are served under an IEP since the IEP document addresses transition services. Career guidance counselors, special education teachers, job coaches, and vocational rehabilitation practitioners are some of the stake holders in the 29 transition process for students transitioning with disabilities (Flexer, Baer, Luft, & Simmons, 2008). Individuals with disabilities between the ages of 18 and 29 have an employment rate of 57%, compared to 72% for those without disabilities in this age range (National Organization on Disability, 2004). Of all individuals with disabilities that are of the working age, only 35% report having a full or part time job versus 78% of the population without disabilities (NOD, 2004). Most desire independence and a means to live independently. Unfortunately, one in three adults with disabilities earns an annual household income of less than $15,000 per year (Butterworth & Gilmore, 2000). In order to break this cycle and startling statistic, we must better prepare our transition age students for employment. The combination of services available from the school and community help prepare individuals for realistic jobs in real settings. If students utilize vocational rehabilitation services and are found eligible, the student consumer will have the opportunity to pursue a career in an occupational field congruent with the student?s interest and abilities with support and services of a vocational rehabilitation counselor. Best practices in transition from school to work encompass a variety of methods that are proven to be the most effective ways of getting individuals in transition to work. In order to get transition age students to work, students cannot rely solely on the school. There must be a combination of service providers working together in order for the student to receive the necessary services needed to fully prepare for the workforce. Two main categories of employment preparation are 30 school based employment preparation and community based employment preparation. Community based preparation consists of job shadowing, internships, apprenticeships, volunteering or community service projects, mobile work crews/enclaves, and competitive employment. With there being many options for community based work preparation, each one differs with its level of supervision and instructional intensity (Test, Aspel, & Everson, 2006). In Alabama, the Alabama Occupational Diploma exit option (AOD) requires that the student work for 270 paid work hours during his/her senior year. This is a great way for a student to earn money, gain employment skills, develop a feeling of self-worth, and work within one?s community. Colley and Jamison (1998) found that 52% of former special education graduates that had paid work experience while in high school obtained full-time employment, compared to the rate of 30% of those who graduated without paid work experience (Colley & Jamison, 1998). Including paid work experience as part of an employment program is considered to be a best practice (Kohler, 1993). School-based employment preparation should begin with the curriculum the student is pursuing. Whether the student is on a functional curriculum or an academic curriculum, there should be a focus on career development (Test, Aspel, & Everson, 2006). There are certain programs within schools that have a heavy emphasis on career development. Career education is an approach to career development that can apply to any student within the school. 31 By providing specific coordinated services to individuals with disabilities, individuals with disabilities are typically very successful in the workplace. Research indicates that individuals with disabilities work at jobs longer than individuals without disabilities and despite myths do not miss work more than individuals without disabilities (Test, Aspel, & Everson, 2006) Ex-offenders In the United States at 2005 yearend, more than 7 million adults were in prison, in jail, on probation, or on parole (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2007). Over 1.4 million are incarcerated in state and federal prisons at any given time (Hrabowski & Robbi, 2002). The Educational Testing Service conducted a study and found that the crime rate has essentially remained flat over the last 20 years, yet the US prison population has tripled since 1980 (Hbrabowski & Robbi). In 2008, the United States had approximately 13 million ex-offenders of working age living in communities across the nation (Schmitt & Warner, 2010). Over 90% of ex-offenders are men, which impacts the employability rate of males nationwide. The impact of the large numbers of male ex-offenders is that the overall employment rates for men are approximately 1.6% lower. Ex-offenders are hired at a lower rate than someone that has not served time in prison or received a felony. Research indicates that spending time in prison or having a felony can have a substantial negative effect on future employment. Spending time in an institutional setting such as prison limits involvement in all domains of life, including employment (Raphael, 2007). Spending time in prison can also prove 32 to be a financial nightmare. For inmates with child support obligations and money to be paid for restitution, exiting prison in a successful transition can be hard due to large deductions from paychecks once employed (Holzer, Raphael, & Stoll, 2004). For the first time in history more than one in every 100 adults in America is in jail or prison (Pew Report, 2008). Additionally, a large number of these offenders have diagnosed and undiagnosed disabilities and are in need of rehabilitation services they will never receive (Harley, 1996). Maruschak and Beck (2001) found that nearly a third of state inmates and a quarter of federal inmates reported having some physical or mental condition. The high number of incarcerated individuals with disabilities signifies a need for concerted assistance when re-entering society, specifically concerning employment. Offenders with and without disabilities typically have high rates of unemployment prior to incarceration. James and Glaze (2006) found that 30% of individuals in state prison, 28% in federal prison, and 33% in local jails were unemployed prior to incarceration. They also found that 38% of state and federal inmates and 47% of jail inmates who were mentally ill were not employed in the month prior to arrest (James & Glaze). While in prison, individuals may spend each day lying in a bed staring at the ceiling, they may hold a job within the prison that they report to, or they may be involved in an institutional educational program. Prison systems are failing society because they are locking individuals up for significant lengths of time, not promoting self-efficacy, providing little to no educational programs, and re-enter ex-offenders back into American communities ill equipped to handle real life 33 situations like locating a place to live, finding a job, navigating the public transportation system or buying a car, reporting for parole or probation, and addressing mental health or substance abuse needs (Raphael, 2007; Vernick & Reardon, 2001). There is a need for structured programs in areas of educational and technical programs, vocational education, substance abuse recovery, mental health programs, and programs identifying resources for a successful re-entry and follow up post-release. While most prisons provide at minimum, some sort of educational program, access to these programs are limited with large numbers of inmates and few service providers providing programs. It is also noted that despite some of the general educational courses, there is a lack of programs and courses available to inmates in areas of transition, re-entry, and employment post-release (Vernick & Reardon). Recently, Derzis, Shippen, Meyer, Curtis, and Houchins (in press) conducted research exploring the career interests of incarcerated males. Their findings were that the majority of their sample reported career interests with the first letter code of the Holland code as R (realistic). Curtis, Derzis, Shippen, Musgrove, and Brigman (2013) found that often inmates report the kind of work they want to do for future work was a job they previously held. Further exploration in this area of research is needed in order to examine what the career interests of incarcerated individual?s means for practitioners and those re- entering into society. 34 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY This study sought to examine the relationships among career interests as measured by the Self Directed Search (SDS) and career thinking as measured by the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) and relationships that exist among independent variables and career interests and career thinking. This study is a correlation study examining the relationship between career thoughts and career interests of incarcerated individuals. Correlation is simply determining the extent of a relationship among variables (Creswell, 2003). Correlation procedures result in a correlation coefficient ranging from -1 to +1 that indicates a positive weak relationship, a positive strong relationship, a negative weak relationship, or a negative strong relationship (Green & Salkind, 2008). Inferential statistic one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine effects on the population to see if factors are affected the same. One way ANOVA procedures involve examining differences between groups (Huck, 2008). The independent variables in this study are age/generation, race, education level attained, presence of a specific type of disability, length of incarceration, and whether the participant is a repeat offender or not. The dependent variables are results yielded from the Career Thoughts Inventory with subscales measuring decision-making confusion, external conflict, and 35 commitment anxiety. The other dependent variable is the results yielded from the SDS which is the three letter Holland code. Participants The participants in this study were men (n=53) who are incarcerated at Bullock County Correctional Facility, a medium security facility in Union Springs, Alabama. Medium security prisons house inmates that (a) have not committed capital crimes, (b) are not on death row, and (c) are eligible for parole. The participants were inmates that participated in a mandatory re-entry program. During this program, inmates were 90 days or less from release or a parole hearing was scheduled that allowed participation in programs related to re-entry and transitioning back into the community. The re-entry programs are broken into modules: (a) addiction and recovery; (b) job, career, communication and financial skills; (c) faith, communication and character building skills; (d) health education, screening, referrals; (e) family re-integration; and (f) law enforcement (Alabama Department of Corrections, 2013). At the time of this study, there were 31,025 inmates in the Alabama Prison system (Alabama Department of Corrections, 2013). There were 17,029 Black males, 820 Black females, 11,441 White males, 1,682 White females, 53 Other males, and 5 Other females incarcerated in the Alabama prison system. Bullock County Correctional Facility was designed for a capacity of 639 inmates; it is currently filled at a 209% occupancy rate with 1,327 beds (Alabama Department of Corrections Monthly Report, 2012). Bullock County Correctional Facility is 36 also designated as a mental health facility providing mental health services to inmates with diagnosed mental health disabilities. A purposive selection of participants was used for this study. Although a sample of convenience, this population is representative of incarcerated individuals transitioning back to the community to reintegrate into employment and society. The goal of this research project was to gain a better understanding of inmate?s career thinking and readiness for work during the transition period, and the relationships that exist with career interests. By utilizing participants from the re-entry program, the researcher gained information from individuals near the end of their sentence when work and employment is a realistic goal for the individual. Instrumentation The Self Directed Search (SDS; Holland, 1994) inventory was used in this study. The SDS is a well-known vocational interest inventory that has been used by over 22 million individuals and translated into 25 languages. Psychological Assessment Resources (1994) reported that the SDS continues to be the most widely used measure of a person?s fit to a preferred vocational setting. Psychometric studies have suggested that the SDS is a reliable and valid interest inventory. Therefore, the SDS has been used with great confidence and utility in the career guidance field (Rayman & Atanasoff, 1999). Specifically, the three letter occupational code reflects an individual?s likes and dislikes and demonstrates how these factors relate to various work environments (Rayman & Atanasoff). There are six occupational code types: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), 37 Conventional (C), Artistic (A), Enterprising (E) and Social (S). Each of these represents a different occupational group (Holland, 1997) (see Figure 1). The three letter occupational code is yielded by identifying the individual?s three highest measured occupational types from the Holland?s typology, with the highest recorded type being the first letter of the code, the second highest type being the second letter of the code, and the third highest type being the third letter in the code. Figure 1. Holland Occupational Code Groups The SDS format includes (a) self-administered, (b) self-scored, and (c) self-interpreted; including a combination of occupational dreams, preferred activities, self-assessment competencies, and occupations. The SDS can be group administered or given individually (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). The inventory initially has a respondent complete a daydream section. The daydream section 38 is a self-reported section of the inventory allowing a respondent to self-report vocational interests. Overall, the day dream section provides information for further career exploration (Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1997). The activities section of the SDS investigates the individual?s hobbies and tasks. Tasks are defined as those performed by the individual for leisure. These sometimes include activities which the individual may not enjoy. Individuals can evaluate likes or dislikes and thus gain an idea of how leisure time is spent. The competency section follows and asks individuals to describe their skills. This section allows an individual to evaluate skills of which they have no interest. This section is viewed as key in the Holland career development process. The occupation section follows. This section lists occupations from which the individuals may select. The individuals make occupational choices based on interest (Holland, 1997). The self-estimate section asks a respondent to rate their competencies for completing specific tasks. The SDS process has received empirical support from Holland?s studies. Holland theorized in 1994 that if the first letter of the code of an individual?s daydreams or current occupation is the same as the tested first letter code, then the individual will maintain the occupation over time (Reardon & Lenz, 1998). The SDS is constructed with forced choice questions with exception of the day dream section which are open-ended in nature. The SDS consists of 198 questions total and is typically completed in 30 minutes. It is written at the ninth grade reading level. All versions of the SDS have been tested for reliability. The 39 most recent version (1994) has test-retest reliability on adults with testing intervals ranging from 4 to 12 weeks. The retest outcomes for the summary scales range from .76 to .89 indicating stability (Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1997). Internal consistency coefficients for the Activities, Competencies, and Occupations scales range from .72 to .92 while the summary scale coefficient ranged from .90 to .94. Correlations between the two self-estimates sections range from .37 to .84 indicating variance (Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell). The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) is based on the cognitive information processing (CIP) approach to career development and career services (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). The CTI can be used as a screening measure, a needs assessment measure, or as a learning resource. The CTI can screen individuals to assess their current level of negative career thinking and identify the specific nature of their dysfunctional thinking. Additionally, the assessment can be incorporated with various counseling interventions to improve negative career thinking (Sampson et al.). Individuals complete the CTI by responding to each of the 48 item statements using a 4-point scale (zero representing Strongly Disagree to three representing Strongly Agree), and can be completed in 7 to 15 minutes and scored in 5 to 8 minutes (Sampson et al.). The CTI yields a total score and three subscale scores (Sampson et al., 1996). The CTI total score is a single global indicator of dysfunctional thinking in career problem solving and decision making. The three subscale scores are Decision-Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict. The 40 Decision-Making Confusion scale reflects difficulty initiating or continuing the decision-making process from a result of immobilizing emotions and/or a lack of understanding on how to make a decision in general. An example of an item from this scale is ?no field of study or occupation interests me? (Sampson et al.). The Commitment Anxiety scale reveals an inability to make a commitment to a specific career choice or path, accompanied by generalized anxiety about the decision-making process. An example of an item from this scale is ?my interests are always changing.? The External Conflict scale reflects difficulty balancing the input from significant others and the individual?s own thoughts on important decision-making processes. An example of an item from this scale is ?I know what job I want, but someone?s always putting obstacles in my way? (Sampson et al.). The CTI was developed through a rational-empirical approach and has been empirically shown to be a reliable and valid measure of dysfunctional career cognitions (Sampson et al., 1996). The CTI scales are internally consistent and stable (test-retest correlation for the CTI total score = .77). The assessment also has reasonable content, convergent, criterion-related, and construct validity (Sampson et al., 1996). Descriptive data were collected through the CTI as well with the participants voluntarily filling out the demographic portion of the assessment. The data included their name, date, age, gender, ethnicity, education level, education status, and employment status (Sampson et al.). 41 The CTI has been used in several studies to show how evaluating negative career thoughts can be an essential starting point to efficiently solving an individual?s career problem (Meyer-Griffith, Reardon, & Hartley, 2009; Paivandy, Bullock, Reardon, & Kelly, 2009; Sampson et al., 2004; Strauser, Lustig, & Ciftci, 2008; Sud & Kumar, 2006). The CTI has also been used to examine negative cognitions in individuals with disabilities (Lustig & Strauser, 2003; Yanchak, Lease, & Strauser, 2005). The relationship found between negative career thoughts and disability can be applied to prison populations due to the high incidence of disability among offenders. Procedures Upon approval from the Auburn University Institutional Review Board (IRB), the administration of the Self-Directed Search and the Career Thoughts Inventory took place during a re-entry program at Bullock County Correctional Facility. The researcher arrived at the prison at the scheduled time on the day scheduled to conduct the research. The researcher introduced himself and individuals assisting with data collection. The data collection was part of a presentation on job searches and obtaining a job upon release. The researcher explained the purpose of the presentation and the data collection. The researcher then passed out a folder to each participant. The folder contained the informed consent document, a Self-Directed Search Protocol form, a Career Thoughts Inventory protocol form, a sheet of paper with the Holland hexagon, and a demographic sheet collecting the participant?s age, race, length of incarceration, if they reported having a disability, and if they are a repeat 42 offender. The informed consent document was read aloud to control for individuals with reading difficulties. Once all participants had time to check the box either allowing their results to be used in research or not and signed the document, the researcher then asked the participants to place the informed consent form back into the folder. The participants were then asked to fill out the demographic sheet which was read aloud to control for individuals with reading difficulties. Once the demographic sheet was completed they were asked to remove the SDS protocol. Instructions for the SDS were read aloud as were the interest inventory items. It was emphasized that there was not a right answer for this test and that the questions were more concerned with what each person enjoys in terms of work and environments. Once all test items were completed, instructions were given on how to self-score the SDS. There was assistance available for anyone that needed assistance with scoring and calculating the yielded three letter Holland code. Once results were completed, the researcher asked for the participants to record their SDS score and name on their sheet of paper with the Holland hexagon. The researcher then discussed what each letter of the Holland code represented and what the implications were related to work and the participants? personalities. Once the SDS activity was completed, the participants were then asked to open their folder again. They were instructed to place the SDS protocol form back into the folder and to remove the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) then to close the folder. Instructions and information about the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) were given and read aloud, as were all test items. Once 43 participants completed the CTI, they were finished with the activity. All materials that have been collected have been placed in a secure office at Auburn University. Data Analysis Data were analyzed utilizing Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics are values that describe the characteristics of a sample or population (Salkind, 2008). Descriptive statistics allow the researcher to view large amounts of data in a sensible way. Inferential statistics help a researcher make judgments about what a population might think or make inferences about a set of results based on a sample of a population (Salkind). Correlation procedures were calculated for primary variables in this study to see if statistically significant relationships exist among the first letter of the SDS code and CTI overall scores and subscales. Computing a correlation coefficient for two variables will examine the relationship that may exist utilizing the Pearson product-moment correlation and Kendall?s Tau (Huck, 2008; Salkind, 2008). Correlation coefficients are expressed as a numerical value ranging from -1 to +1 (Huck). For this research study, the type of inferential statistics utilized in analysis is one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine differences between groups. 44 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS Demographic Data for the Population Demographic characteristics were identified in the form of descriptive data asking participants to indicate their status as to repeat offender; length of incarceration; generational affiliation; race, presence of a disability as identified by the participant; and educational status. Repeat Offender Status For the sample, when asked to identify their status as being repeat offender, 96% responded (51 of n = 53). Of the 96%, 53% reported not being repeat offenders while 47% reported being a repeat offender. Length of Incarceration For the sample, when asked to identify their length of incarceration, participants wrote in the number of years they had been incarcerated. For this question, 100% of the sample responded (n = 53). Those numbers were transposed into categories from 0?3 years (47%), 4?8 years (21%), 9?12 years (9%), and 13+ years (23%). 45 Table 1 Length of Incarceration in Years Length of Incarceration Number of Participants Percent of Sample 0-3 25 47 4-8 11 21 9-12 5 9 13+ 12 23 Generational Affiliation Participants were asked to report their age. The variable of age was conceptualized as generational affiliation so that categories for age were transposed into the value labels of ?baby boomer? (ages 49?67), ?generation X? (ages 35?48), and ?millennial? (ages 12-34). For the population, 98% responded (52 of n = 53). Of the 98%, 39% were identified as ?baby boomer,? 31% were identified as ?Gen x,? and 31% were identified as ?Millennial.? Table 2 Generational Affiliation Generational Affiliation Frequency Percent of Sample Baby Boomer 20 39 Gen X 16 31 Millennial 16 31 46 Race Participants were asked to report their race. Categories to select from were African American, Caucasian, and Other. For the sample, 98% responded (52 of n = 53). Of the 98%, 60% identified as African American, 36% Caucasian, and 2% as other. Disability Status For the sample, 64% reported as having a disability, 36% of participants reported not having a disability. Of the 64% who reported having a disability, 50% identified as substance abuse, 18% as physical disability, 9% emotional disorder, 9% vision loss/blindess, 6% low intelligence/low IQ, 3% hearing loss/deafness, and 3% other. Table 3 Disability Status Reported by Participants Disability Frequency Percent of Sample Vision Loss/Blind 3 9 Hearing Loss/Deafness 1 3 Low Intelligence/IQ 2 6 Attention Deficit Disorder/ADHD 1 3 Emotional Disorder 3 9 Physical Disability 6 18 Substance Abuse 17 50.0 47 Educational Status The demographic form asked for highest level of education completed. For the sample, 98% responded (52 of n = 53). Of the 98% who responded, education completed was reported as 31% ?some high school?, 25% ?some college?, 19% ?GED?, 12% ?completed high school?, 8% ?some grade school?, 4% ?completed grade school?, and 2% ?completed college?. Table 4 Educational Status Attained by Participants Education Status Frequency Percent of Sample Some Grade School 4 7.7 Completed Grade School 2 3.8 Some High School 16 30.8 Completed High School 6 11.5 GED 10 19.2 Some College 13 25.0 Completed College 1 1.9 Total 52 100.0 Statistical Analysis A correlational analysis was conducted for the first four research questions. Starting with the first letter code only of the SDS the relationship to the overall score for the CTI was examined. Additionally, the first letter code of 48 the SDS and the three subscales of the CTI were analyzed as to the strength of their relationship. Research Question 1 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a correlational analysis of the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score. Results revealed a Kendall?s tau-b correlation coefficient of -.097 indicating no relationship between these variables. Research Question 2 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a correlational analysis of the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion standard score. Results revealed a Kendall?s tau-b correlation coefficient of -.128 indicating no relationship between these variables. Research Question 3 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a correlational analysis of the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety standard score. Results revealed a Kendall?s tau-b correlation coefficient of -.077 indicating no relationship between these variables. Research Question 4 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a correlational analysis of the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale External Conflict standard score. Results revealed a Kendall?s tau-b correlation coefficient of -.083 indicating no relationship between these variables. 49 One-Way ANOVA Results A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis was utilized in an effort to examine a relationship among the variables identified in Research Questions 5 to 10. These included generational affiliation, race, disability, repeat offender status, education status, and length of incarceration. Research Question 5 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a one-way analysis of variance between generational affiliation and the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score and subscales. Results for the ANOVA indicate no significant relationship between generational affiliation and the first letter code of the SDS, F(2,49) = .459, p=.635, CTI overall standard score, F(2,49) = 2.228, p=.119, CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion standard score, F(2,49) = .670, p=.517, and CTI subscale External Conflict, F(2,49) = .075, p=.928. Statistical significance was identified among generational affiliation and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(2,49) = 3.508, p=.038. Research Question 6 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a one-way analysis of variance between race and the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score and subscales. Results for the ANOVA indicate a significant relationship between race and the first letter code of the SDS, F(2,49) = 4.223, p=.020. Results for the remaining variables indicate no significant relationship among CTI overall standard score, F(2,49) = .551, p=.580, CTI 50 subscale Decision- Making Confusion standard score, F(2,49) = .766, p=.470, CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(2,49) = .678, p=.512, and CTI subscale External Conflict, F(2,49) = 1.598, p=.213. Research Question 7 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a one-way analysis of variance between disability and the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score and subscales. Results for the ANOVA indicate a trend toward significance between disability and the first letter code of the SDS, F(7,26) = 2.302, p=.057, CTI overall standard score, F(7,26) = .747, p=.635, CTI subscale Decision- Making Confusion standard score, F(7,26) = .400, p=.893, CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(7,26) = 1.194, p=.341, and CTI subscale External Conflict, F(7,26) = 1.584, p=.185. Research Question 8 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a one-way analysis of variance between repeat offender status and the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score and subscales. Results for the ANOVA indicate no significant relationship between repeat offender status and the first letter code of the SDS, F(1,49) = 1.015, p=.319, CTI overall standard score, F(1,49) = 2.451, p=.124, CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion standard score, F(1,49) = .628, p=.432, CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(1,49) = .121, p=.729, and CTI subscale External Conflict, F(1,49) = .826, p=.368. 51 Research Question 9 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a one-way analysis of variance between education level and the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score and subscales. Results for the ANOVA indicate no significant relationship between education level and the first letter code of the SDS, F(6,45) = 1.836, p=.113, CTI overall standard score, F(6,45) = 1.032, p=.418, CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion standard score, F(6,45) = .968, p=.457, CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(6,45) = .661, p=.681. The results for the ANOVA indicate a trend toward statistical significance for the CTI subscale External Conflict, F(6,45) = 2.197, p=.061. Research Question 10 The null hypothesis to respond to this question was tested by conducting a one-way analysis of variance between length of incarceration and the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score and subscales. Results for the ANOVA indicate no significant relationship between length of incarceration and the first letter code of the SDS, F(3,49) = .941, p=.428, CTI overall standard score, F(3,49) = .947, p=.425, CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion standard score, F(3,49) = .813, p=.493, CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(3,49) = 2.209, p=.099, and CTI subscale External Conflict, F(3,49) = .730, p=.539. Descriptive Data Daydream Jobs As part of the SDS assessment, participants were asked to identify their daydream jobs and the number of daydream jobs they presently identify. 52 Respondents were requested to indicate up to eight daydream jobs. Results from analyzing the number of daydream jobs indicate, the population reported 25% (13 out of n = 53) of participants provided 5 daydream jobs, with 21% (11 out of n = 53) of participants provided 4 daydream jobs, with the next highest percentage of the population at 19% provided 2 daydream jobs. First Letter of Holland Code The first letter of the Holland code indicates the most dominant interest area. For the population, R (realistic) accounted for 53% (28 out of n = 53) of the first letter code, I (investigative) accounted for 4% (2 out of n = 53), A (artistic) accounted for 6% (3 out of n = 53), S (social) accounted for 19% (10 out of n = 53), E (enterprising) accounted for 15% (8 out of n = 53), and C (conventional) accounted for 4% (2 out of n = 53). CTI Overall Standard Score, Subscale Standard Scores and Percentiles The standard score for the overall CTI measure indicates the population?s mean is 52.94. The CTI Decision-Making Confusion standard score indicates the population?s mean is 52.79. The CTI Commitment Anxiety standard score indicates the population?s mean is 54.42. The CTI External Conflict standard score indicates the population?s mean is 54.94. The mean percentiles for the population are reported as CTI total percentile 59.5%, CTI Decision-Making Confusion percentile 56.9%, CTI Commitment Anxiety percentile 61%, and CTI External Conflict 59%. 53 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of the Purpose of the Study The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether a relationship exists between two important factors related to the career needs of incarcerated men as they exit prison and transition back into communities. This study examined the career thoughts participants have about the world of work and their reported career interests. Gaining an understanding of career interests and knowing which occupational areas match which vocational interests assists in self-understanding and career exploration. Summary of the Research Procedure Methodology A convenience sampling strategy was utilized to gather data. Two separate instruments were administered to fifty-five male inmates incarcerated at a medium security prison in rural Alabama. Participants were at least 19 years of age. Two participants were not included in analysis due to not completing the assessments. The instruments used were the Self-Directed Search form R (SDS) and the Career Thoughts Inventory. The SDS is a vocational interest inventory that yields results as a three letter Holland code revealing which jobs most match a person?s interest in terms of work and environments to work in (Holland, 1997). The Career Thoughts Inventory examines a person?s level of career dysfunctional thinking (negative) or positive thoughts about work. Results 54 to the CTI provide an overall score and three subscale scores in Decision-Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict. The scores are derived as raw scores and were transformed into standard scores and percentiles (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996). Research Questions Ten research questions and corresponding hypotheses guided the study. Research questions 1?4 were statistically analyzed utilizing bivariate correlation procedures. The first research question examined the extent to which the relationship of the SDS first letter code and the overall CTI score were related. The null hypothesis was stated as follows: H?1: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall score. The second research question sought to examine the relationship between the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion. The null hypothesis was stated as follows: H?2: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion. The third research question examined the relationship between the SDS first letter code and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?3: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety. 55 The fourth research question examined the relationship between the SDS first letter code and the CTI subscale External Conflict. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?4: There is no relationship between the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI subscale External Conflict. Research questions 5?10 were analyzed statistically utilizing one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The fifth research question examined differences among the variables age/generational affiliation and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?5: There is no significant difference between age/generational affiliation and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The sixth research question examined differences among the variables race and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?6: There is no significant difference between race and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The seventh research question examined differences among disability and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: 56 H?7: There is no significant difference between disability and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The eighth research question examined differences among repeat offender status and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?8: There is no significant difference between repeat offender and the first code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The ninth research question examined differences among education level and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?9: There is no significant difference between education level and the first code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The tenth research question examined differences among length of incarceration and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The null hypothesis is stated as follows: H?10: There is no significant difference between length of incarceration and first code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. 57 Discussion and Interpretation of the Results The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among dependent variables of the Self Directed Search, the Career Thoughts Inventory overall score and three subscales, and independent variables age/generational affiliation, race, education level, presence of a disability, length of incarceration, and repeat offender status. Descriptive analyses were conducted on demographic data, and inferential analyses were conducted for research questions 1?10. Demographic data reported by participants provided a rich description of the population. When asked to report repeat offender status, 96% of participants responded (51 of n = 53) with 53% report not being a repeat offender while 47% reported being a repeat offender. Nationally, recidivism is a problem and concern for many reasons. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (2013), among nearly 300,000 prisoners released in 15 states in 1994, 67.5% were rearrested within 3 years. This present study did not collect information regarding time between offenses but does indicate that with this population, 47% of participants have been in prison before this present time and have committed a felony level crime to be housed in a medium security state prison. The population reported their length of incarceration as the number of years incarcerated. The population reported length of incarceration with 100% responding to the question. The variable length of incarceration was transposed into categories of length of time incarcerated. The categories were 0?3 years, 4? 8 years, 9?12 years, and 13+ years. The population reports 47% at 0?3 years, 58 20% at 4?8 years, 9% at 9?12 years, and 23% at 13+ years. These results are significant in looking at barriers inmates face transitioning out of prison. The individuals that have been incarcerated for 0-3 years are the largest portion of this sample. Individuals exiting prison in under 3 years will undoubtedly face lesser barriers with transitioning into a community and locating a job than will the 23% of this population that reports being in prison for 13+ years. Individuals who are incarcerated for over 10 years have also committed higher level acts of crime which can result in additional barriers to employment and community reintegration than someone with two years of incarceration with a lesser crime on record. The next demographic information that was collected was age/generational affiliation. Age was reported as a number in years and transposed into generational categories of affiliation. Parks (2009) reports Baby Boomers as individuals born between 1946 and 1964, Generation X as individuals born between 1965 and 1978, and Millennials as individuals born between 1979 and 2001. For the population, 39% were Baby Boomers, 31% were Generation X, and 31% Millennial. This is interesting to note for practitioners and inmates as they exit prison. Each generation has worker characteristics and if they are understood as implications for work reintegration, a higher level of successful employment may be seen. Baby Boomers are the generation born between the years of 1946 and 1964. To date, this is the largest generation at work, comprising 53% of the workforce (Schroeder & Zeller, 2005). Worker characteristics of this generation are that these individuals believe in 59 growth, expansion, are often optimistic, and think of themselves as ?cool?. Generation X is the group of individuals born between 1965 and 1978. This is the first generation of people who came from homes likely to have two working parents or a single parent, often called ?latchkey kids.? This generation?s work ethic is often described as self-reliant, desiring balance between work and personal life, preferring informality, and having a casual approach to authority. The Millennials are individuals born between the years of 1979 and 2001. Worker characteristics for the Millennials are that this generation has more to offer employers in terms of volunteer experience, internships, part-time jobs, and knowledge from their education. The core values of this group center on being optimistic, social, and open to new ideas. The next reported demographic variable was race. For the population, 98% responded (52 of n = 53). Of the 98%, 60% identified as African American, 36% Caucasian, and 2% as Other. The variable of race results nearly mirrors the prison population in the State of Alabama. According to the Alabama Department of Corrections (2013), the male inmate population is currently 60% African American and 40% Caucasian, and under 1% Other. The participants were asked to identify the presence of a disability. For the population, 64% reported as having a disability while 36% of participants reported not having a disability or chose not to self-disclose. Of the 64% who reported having a disability, 50% identified as substance abuse, 18% as physical disability, 9% as emotional disorder, 9% as vision loss/blindness, 6% as low intelligence/low IQ, 3% as hearing loss/deafness, and 3% as other. This is 60 interesting to note because literature that reports disability rates in prisons typically report prisons as having a population with approximately 33% of individuals with a mental or physical disability (Maruschak, & Beck, 2001). There could be many reasons why the rate of disability was high in this sample. Substance abuse is often not viewed as a disability but in fields such as vocational rehabilitation, substance abuse is seen as a disability with barriers to employment. These individuals can qualify for rehabilitation services should the individual be deemed eligible for services. It should also be noted that there was not documentation of any of these disabilities reported, as they were self- reported on the demographic information sheet. The institution that this data was collected from is also deemed a mental health unit through the department of corrections and state mental health agency and probably experiences higher level of inmates with disabilities than at a prison that does not concentrate on providing mental health services. The final demographic question inquired about the participants? highest level of education completed. For the population, 98% responded (52 of n = 53). Of the 98% who responded, education completed was reported as 31% ?Some High School?, 25% ?Some College?, 19% ?GED?, 12% ?Completed High School?, 8% ?Some Grade School?, 4% ?Completed Grade School?, and 2% ?Completed College?. The larger portion of this sample (31%) reported the highest education they received was ?Some High School?. This is interesting to note because the prison system has a GED program at this prison as well as some other 61 educational programs. This prison is over capacity and it would be interesting to explore the population further to see if inmates experienced barriers to getting involved with educational programs in the prison or the GED program. It is also important to consider the ramifications of releasing individuals back into society without a high school equivalency due to the fact that the numbers of jobs that do not require a high school diploma or GED are limited and constitute a small proportion of the jobs available in the job market. The second highest portion of the population (25%) reported ?Some College? as their highest level of education completed. This is a large portion of the population reporting taking some college classes. It is important to note that many educational programs offered in Alabama prisons are provided through community colleges. The GED as the highest level of education completed accounted for 19% of the sample and indicates that this is the third highest level of education completed for the population. Holding a GED can provide many vocational options for individuals versus not holding a high school diploma or equivalency. GED programs are available in almost every facility and area made available through adult basic education. These programs appear to be assisting inmates with furthering their education with 658 Alabama inmates earning a GED in 2011 alone (Alabama Department of Corrections Annual Report, 2011). For the population, 12% report holding a high school diploma as the highest level of education completed. Results from this demographic question indicate that approximately 56% of the population holds a high school diploma or 62 equivalency. It is assumed that participants who report as ?Some College? hold a high school diploma or equivalency. For research questions 1?4, correlational analysis did not indicate a statistically significant relationship among variables. It is interesting to note that there was no correlational relationship between the first letter code of the SDS and the CTI overall and subscales Decision-Making Confusion, Commitment Anxiety, and External Conflict. This is interesting because it points to a lack of a linkage between a person?s reported vocational interests and their positive or negative thoughts about work for this sample. Research questions 5?10 were analyzed statistically utilizing one-way analysis of variance procedures. Questions 5 and 6 indicate statistical significance utilizing a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure. Questions 7 and 9 results indicate a trend toward statistical significance. Question five results indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship among generational affiliation and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety. The independent variable generational affiliation included three levels: baby boomers, generation X, and millennials. The dependent variables were the SDS first letter code, CTI total standard score, the CTI subscale Decision-Making Confusion, and CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety. Statistical significance was identified among generational affiliation and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety, F(2,49) = 3.508, p = .038. These results indicate that there is a difference in generational affiliation and the level of Commitment Anxiety experienced by participants but not for the other variables examined. The ANOVA indicates 63 group means for the CTI subscale commitment anxiety differ significantly than other groups. Generational affiliation affects the level of commitment anxiety that individuals may experience with regard to the inability to make a commitment to a specific career choice or path, accompanied by generalized anxiety about the decision-making process. This could be due to many factors but likely, older individuals who are incarcerated experience greater amounts of anxiety about committing to a job and career field thus causing higher levels of dysfunctional career thinking. This is particularly interesting to note because most prison transition programs do not specifically address career development from a perspective considering age but a generalized approach for all individuals. Question six results indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship between race and the first letter code yielded from the SDS but not the overall score and subscales of the CTI. The ANOVA indicates a significant relationship between race and the first letter code of the SDS, F(2,49) = 4.223, p = .020. These results indicate that there is a difference among groups which for this research question is race. The independent variable race included three levels: African American, Caucasian, and Other. The dependent variables were the SDS first letter code, CTI total standard score, the CTI subscale Decision- Making Confusion, and CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety. This indicates that there is a statistically significant difference among race and the first letter code of the SDS which is the predominant vocational interest area. This is interesting to note because often, individuals from lower socio-economic areas do not often have the opportunity to pursue higher education or other kinds of vocational 64 preparation programs due to their background and family?s financial status. It is interesting to note that interests are probably influenced by the kind of life experiences, education, and work experiences that each person has and contributes to certain groups relating to certain Holland code types than others. This has been the interest area participants have been exposed to, understand, and feel comfortable doing for work. Question seven results indicated that there was a trend toward statistical significance between disability and the first letter code yielded from the SDS but not with the overall score and subscales of the CTI. An ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the relationship between disability and the first letter code of the SDS, the CTI overall standard score, the Decision-Making Confusion standard score, Commitment Anxiety standard score, and the External Conflict standard score. Results for the one way ANOVA are F (7,26) = 2.302, p = .057, indicating that there is a trend toward significance relationship between disability and the first letter of the Holland code. The results of the one-way ANOVA reject the hypothesis that there was a relationship between disability and the first letter code of the SDS while not with the CTI overall or subscales. This would be interesting to further explore to see if this is generalizable to the greater population or if this is isolated to this sample and population. It is interesting to examine why disability and the first letter of the Holland code are related. This could be because individuals who identify as having a disability feel that there are limited areas that they feel they can be successful working. People with disabilities are vulnerable in the work environment because often barriers that 65 prevent success can hinder the worker in current work and future jobs. Individuals who are incarcerated and have a disability may also be realistic when answering the interest inventory by assuming that they have limited job interests because they feel their disability prevents them from being able to do certain kinds of work. Transition programs in prisons should better educate inmates on accommodations for individuals with disabilities and barriers to employment to understand that they can work in different work areas with assistance to remove the barrier. Question eight results indicated that there is not a statistically significant relationship between repeat offender status and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. Question nine results indicated that there is trend toward statistical significance between education level and the CTI subscale External Conflict. Results from the ANOVA procedure are F(6,45) = 2.197, p = .061. These results mean that there is a relationship between education level attained and CTI subscale External Conflict. This is of importance to note because external conflict refers to difficulty balancing the input from significant others and the individual?s own thoughts on important decision-making processes. For individuals who are exiting the prison environment, often the relationships they have with friends and family contribute to the crime committed to become convicted and go to prison. It is of interest for practitioners that work with these populations to understand the importance of utilizing proper interventions with individuals who experience a higher level of external conflict. The education 66 component is interesting to examine because individuals who have higher education may not have realistic goals for employment with their education level attained and past criminal record. The external conflict may occur from a misunderstanding of realistic career goals, education level, and what participants have heard regarding their future employment opportunities. Question ten results indicated that there is not a statistically significant relationship between length of incarceration and the first letter code yielded from the SDS and the overall score and subscales of the CTI. Descriptive data was analyzed from variables in this study that assist in better defining this population in terms of career interests and positive and negative thoughts about work. The beginning portion of the Self-Directed Search is a daydreams section for participants to write in up to eight dream jobs, in chronological order starting with their most recent daydream job. For the population, 25% (13 out of n = 53) of participants provided 5 daydream jobs, with 21% (11 out of n = 53) of participants provided 4 daydream jobs, with the next highest percentage of the population at 19% providing 2 daydream jobs. This is of interest because recent research (Derzis, Shippen, Meyer, Curtis, & Houchins, in press) indicates that in another re-entry session, the SDS was administered with a mean number of daydream jobs for the sample (n = 132) of 4.66. Of interest would be to examine the mean number of daydream jobs with other populations. Since there are eight possible daydreams, it would be interesting to investigate why more people do not complete all eight opportunities. 67 The first letter of the Holland code was analyzed to see how the population broke down in terms of Holland career typology. For the population, R (realistic) accounted for 53% of respondents, I (investigative) accounted for 4%, A (artistic) accounted for 6%, S (social) accounted for 19%, E (enterprising) accounted for 15%, and C (conventional) accounted for 4%. This is of high interest because 53% of the respondents? results report realistic as the highest area of vocational interest and worker personality. Realistic jobs are jobs that typically involve the use of machines or tools or manual labor, and these people typically prefer working with things rather than people. Derzis, Shippen, Meyer, Curtis, and Houchins (in press) found that in a sample at another re-entry session in the State of Alabama, results were similar. They found that for 53% of the sample (n = 132), SDS results resulted in R as the first letter code, 3% identified as I, 7% identified as A, 16% identified as S, 19% identified as E, and 2% reported as C. Railey and Peterson (2000) conducted research with female offenders utilizing the CTI and the SDS instruments. Results from the study indicated that with their sample, 47% had the first letter code of S, 16% C, 12% E, 10% R, 10% A, and 4% I. The standard score for the overall CTI measure indicates the population?s mean is 52.94. The CTI Decision-Making Confusion standard score indicates the sample mean is 52.79. The CTI Commitment Anxiety standard score indicates the sample mean is 54.42. The CTI External Conflict standard score indicates the sample mean is 54.94. These results are of clinical significance due to the fact that for the normative adult group, the T score (M = 50; SD = 10) does not 68 differ very much from the norm group for this assessment instrument. This could be for several reasons. The participants could possibly elicit socially desirable responses for the researchers since the participants know that the researchers are from a university, are exploring the population, and have established relationships within the department of corrections. The population could also feel vulnerable to report true feelings about the world of work and feel that their negative views could impact research negatively. The mean percentiles for the population are reported as CTI total percentile 59.5%, CTI Decision Making Confusion percentile 56.9%, CTI Commitment Anxiety percentile 61%, and CTI External Conflict 59%. The CTI percentiles have a mean of 50, also indicating that the sample experiences slightly higher dysfunctional career thoughts than the norm group. Conclusions Conclusions from this current study are that there are statistically significant relationships among independent variables career interests as measured by the Self-Directed Search, career thoughts as measured by the Career Thoughts Inventory, and independent variables generational affiliation, race, education level, disability, length of incarceration, and repeat offender. There are statistically significant relationships among generational affiliation and the CTI subscale Commitment Anxiety. There was also statistical significance found among race and the first letter of the SDS results. There was a trend toward statistical significance with disability and the first letter code of the SDS, and with education level and CTI subscale External Conflict. Demographic data 69 proved to provide a rich description of the population being researched. Results from descriptive analysis indicate that similar results have been found in terms of the first letter of the Holland code, and number of job daydreams. Additional research examining the Career Thoughts Inventory and the participants? results on the overall standard score, three subscales, and overall percentiles would be interesting to compare to these results to see if the participants? results were near the mean as found in this study. Limitations There are limitations to this study that should be noted. The sample for this study was a sample of convenience and represents only 53 of 31,025 inmates in the Alabama prison system. This sample size limits the generalizability of the research. The researcher has established relationships in the Alabama prison system and has conducted other re-entry trainings at the prison where this study was conducted. This could potentially influence the responses inmates report on the assessments administered. Implications and Recommendations This study revealed that the first letter code of the SDS is not significantly related with the CTI overall score and subscale scores. It also explored relationships with age, race, education level, disability, length of incarceration, and repeat offender status. Statistical significance was found utilizing a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the variables generational affiliation and commitment anxiety and with variables race and the first letter code of the SDS. 70 Questions 7 and 9 indicate that the results trend toward statistical significance, the statistical value was not high enough to indicate significance. Practical significance was found with describing the population demographically and with the results from the SDS and CTI. For future research, the researcher would code the daydream jobs with a Holland code to examine reported vocational interests and actual Holland code. The researcher would also utilize Curtis? (n.d.) Vocational and Educational History Questionnaire (VEHQ) to examine past work history. Curtis, Derzis, Shippen, Musgrove, and Brigman (in press) found that often inmates report that the kind of work they want to do for future work was a job they previously held. The results from the CTI were very similar to the norm group. For future research, utilizing a social desirability scale would assist in deciphering if the participant is providing true responses or those that are desired socially. The researcher would also like to further examine the line of research and include women in future studies to see if similar results are found with regard to the results of the CTI and to build on current research regarding incarcerated women, the SDS and the CTI (Railey & Peterson, 2000). The world of work for diverse populations continues to be an area explored by researchers and those interested in serving individuals in need as practitioners and policy makers. 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