Examining the Influence of Parental Behavior on Adolescent Problem Behavior 
 
by 
 
Felicia Denise Pressley 
 
 
 
 
A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of 
 Auburn University 
 in partial fulfillment of the  
requirements for the Degree of  
Doctor of Philosophy 
 
Auburn, Alabama 
December 14, 2013 
 
 
 
 
Key words: Recidivism, Adolescent Behavior, Parenting Styles and Visitation 
 
 
 
Copyright 2013 by Felicia Denise Pressley 
 
 
Approved by 
 
Chippewa M. Thomas, Chair, Associate Professor of Special Education, Rehabilitation, and 
Counseling 
Margaret Shippen, Associate Professor of Special Education, Rehabilitation, and Counseling 
Rebecca Curtis, Associate Professor of Special Education, Rehabilitation, and Counseling 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
Abstract  
 
The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which parents? behaviors 
influence lead to an adolescent?s involvement in the juvenile justice system.  Previous research 
suggests, adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system seem to lack conformity to rules and 
regulations and avoid responsibility of their actions.  This research examined the aspect of 
parental influence as a variable for continual problem behavior of their child?s propensity to 
recidivate.  The research variables of parental influence in this study included: frequency of 
parental/family visitation, the age of youth, and family characteristic (rigid parenting, smothering 
parenting, and discipline lacking parenting) as it relates to adolescent involvement in the juvenile 
justice system.  Previous research included parental and family influences on adolescent moral 
and identity development.  However, this study expanded the current research in this area for 
further development of family programs.  Also, this study discusses the impact of the 
aforementioned variables and recommendations for further research on family factors of 
adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system.  Previous research discussed adolescent 
moral, behavioral, and male identity development as a pre-curser to adult incarceration. 
Archival data used in the study was provided by the Texas Department of Youth 
Services.  The researcher analyzed the identified variables to ascertain significance, if any, 
between the research variables.  The researcher determined implications for future family 
program development for adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system and their parents. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ii 
 
Acknowledgements 
 
Thanks to the God who has brought me this far. I would like to thank my committee who 
has helped me to achieve this goal of Ph.D. I would be remiss if I did not publicly acknowledge 
my parents who have financially, emotionally and physically supported me through this process. 
I want to especially thank my Father Sylvester Pressley who paid my tuition these last years of 
my completion. Thanks to my mother Marilynn Pressley for allowing me to continue to grow as 
a person and untiring support. I would like to thank my Brother Sylvester Pressley, Jr. for your 
emotional and quiet support of my dream. You know I dream big and you should too My Sister 
in law, Rotasha Presley who gave me the two joys of my life my nieces; Symia Denise Pressley 
and Symaya Evette Pressley. Also thanks for providing a sounding board and acceptance. 
Thanks to my sister in law for raising my nieces and supporting my dream, love you Rotasha. To 
my extended family, Cousins too numerous to name but to my special support team Steven, 
Michael, Mykel, Curtis, Porsche, and Sandranetta. To my cousin who I really miss and who is no 
longer here Cassandra Rogers thanks baby for all the support, laughter, space for peace and rest. 
I miss you. To my family cheerleader my aunts and uncles, Thank You. To my village Dr. Joan 
Williams, Dr. Tomeka McGhee, Dr. Maranda Brown and Dr. M. Carolyn Thomas I am because 
of these beautiful souls which God allowed in my life to keep me grounded, supported, and 
protected both mentally and spiritually. To my Pastor who continually encouraged me that the 
processes is a marathon and not a sprint Thank you, Dr. Calvin McTier. To my friends and 
family who listed to my disappointment and struggle; Delisha, Wendy, Sonya, Angela, Angel, 
Zandra and Chenetra. I hope I have not missed anyone but to my constant friend Drew thank you 
for my being a listening board. To my prayer warriors we did it. Love you guys. 
iii 
 
Lastly, but not least I would like to thank my committee for being my cheerleaders and 
supports of this project even with all the pitfalls that occurred. I would like to personally Thank 
Dr. Chippewa Thomas, Chair, Dr. Margaret Shippen, Dr. Rebecca Curtis, and Dr. Margaret 
Ross. I am Truly Grateful to have the support of these women in my life and for the process of 
completing this dissertation. 
  
iv 
 
 
 
Table of Contents 
 
 
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii 
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... iii 
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii 
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1 
 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................2 
 Research Questions ..............................................................................................................3 
 Significance of the Study .....................................................................................................4 
 Operational Definitions ........................................................................................................4 
 Summary ..............................................................................................................................6 
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW   ......................................................................................8 
 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................8 
 Adolescent Development .....................................................................................................9 
  Identity Development .............................................................................................10 
  Moral Development ...............................................................................................13 
  Family Influences ...................................................................................................15 
  Gender Differences ................................................................................................16 
  Male Identity Development ...................................................................................17 
  African America Male Identity Development .......................................................19 
 Adolescent Maladaptive Behavior .....................................................................................19 
  International/Cultural Perspective .........................................................................22 
 Juvenile Justice ..................................................................................................................24 
v 
 Recidivism .........................................................................................................................26 
 Parenting Attitudes, Styles, and Behaviors ........................................................................27 
 Parental Attitudes ...............................................................................................................30 
  Parent-Adolescent Relationship .............................................................................30 
  Single Parents and Married Parents .......................................................................32 
Media Influences ............................................................................................................................33 
Counseling Theoretical Orientation ...............................................................................................35 
 Reality Theory ...................................................................................................................35 
 Multi-Systematic Therapy .................................................................................................36 
 Resilience Model ...............................................................................................................37 
 Summary ............................................................................................................................38 
CHAPTER III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................................39 
 Research Design .................................................................................................................39 
 Research Questions ............................................................................................................39 
 Participants .........................................................................................................................40 
 Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................40 
 Procedures ..........................................................................................................................41 
 Correlational Analysis .......................................................................................................41 
 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................42 
 Limitations of the Study.....................................................................................................42 
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS .............................................................................................................43 
 Introduction of Findings ....................................................................................................43 
 Research Questions ............................................................................................................44 
vi 
 Demographics ....................................................................................................................45 
  Research Question 1 ..............................................................................................47 
  Research Question 2 ..............................................................................................47 
  Research Question 3 ..............................................................................................48 
  Research Question 4 ..............................................................................................48 
  Research Question 5 ..............................................................................................49 
 Summary ............................................................................................................................49 
CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................50 
 Introduction ........................................................................................................................50 
 Findings..............................................................................................................................51 
 Limitations of the Study.....................................................................................................53 
 Implications for Further Research .....................................................................................53 
 Implications for Change .....................................................................................................56 
 Implications for Counselors ...............................................................................................57 
 Summary ............................................................................................................................57 
References ......................................................................................................................................61 
Appendix A Research Agreement .................................................................................................74 
Appendix B Institutional Review Board Approval ........................................................................76 
 
 
  
vii 
viii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
List of Tables 
 
 
Table 1 Demographic Information  ...........................................................................................44 
 
Table 2 Father?s Monthly Income .............................................................................................45 
 
Table 3 Mother?s Monthly Income ...........................................................................................45 
 
Table 4 Age of Youth & Visitation Statistics ...........................................................................46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 
The juvenile justice system?s population has an increased need for mental health services 
and evidence-based programs for juvenile offenders (Greenwood & Turner, 2010).  
Subsequently, this need is due to juveniles? escalation of criminal activity and movement into the 
adult justice correctional facilities (Sickmund, 2010).  According to research, many adults 
incarcerated were confined to the juvenile justice services (Sickmund, 2010).  Currently, 
adolescents with educational deficiencies and behavioral problems throughout the United States 
are serving time in correctional facilities and residential treatment facilities (Risler, & O?Rourke, 
2009).  Also, the adolescent population is increasing in the juvenile justice system; so has 
research on the influences of behavioral and emotional issues that are important in evaluating the 
juvenile justice population.  Generally, the focus of this study was on the family and the parental 
guidance of adolescents during pivotal stages of emotional and behavioral development. 
Previous research discussed the influences of behavioral and emotional issues of parents 
and how these issues influence their children.  Research suggested that problem behavior in 
adolescents has been identified in the early stages of their childhood.  Furthermore, children 
developing behavior problems in school and their neighborhoods seem to grow into adolescence 
with problem behaviors. These problem behaviors identified include: lack of respect, impulse 
control, poor self-esteem, masculinity development, and lack of social ties to community (Van 
Der Geest & Bijleveld, 2008). Finally, these children that are continually experiencing emotional 
and behavioral problems seem to have a range of identified negative parental behaviors (i.e., 
1 
domestic violence, substance abuse, and/or involvement with the justice system) (Dembo et al., 
2007). 
In 2003, the state of Alabama ranked the second highest in the nation of percentage of 
youth in custody for non-violence offenses (Peaton, 2010).  Offenses of youth involved in the 
juvenile justice system include; truancy, theft of property, harassment, domestic violence, 
burglary, and assault charges.  Adolescents without appropriate skills seem to continue 
exhibiting problem behaviors.  Adolescent problem behavior encompasses many factors: 
disrespect to authority, lack of impulse control, poor decision making skills, poor anger 
management, and irresponsibility (Minor, Wells & Angel, 2008).  This study examined the 
variables which contribute to continual problem behavior in adolescents.  Examination of which 
variables contribute to some of adolescent problems, including recidivism, may be the result of 
physical child abuse, runaway, emotional child abuse and neglect, in addition to increased school 
drop outs (Minor, Wells & Angel, 2008).  Specifically, this study examined parental 
characteristics and adolescents continually involve with the juvenile justice system.  
Purpose of the Study 
The purpose of this study was to understand if parenting styles or family characteristics 
have a relationship to adolescent maladaptive behavior which can lead to incarnation and 
recidivism.  The indicators and variables that were examined in this study are parenting, family 
characteristics and parental behaviors.  These variables examined for correlation and significant 
relevance to the growing issues of adolescent maladaptive behavior which can continue into 
adulthood.  The researcher used a multiple regression method of analysis to detect if the 
identified variables are correlated. 
2 
There seems to be an epidemic of more adults being housed in jail than those who are 
gainfully employed and on college campuses; this seems to be evident in the headlines seen 
today (Sickmund, 2010).  This issue of the growing population of incarcerated persons further 
hinders the economy by not adding productive citizens for promoting the economic growth of the 
nation.  Therefore, this study explains the possible predictors of adult incarnation from the 
hypothesis of adolescent problem behaviors leading to incarcerations with continual behavioral 
issues continuing until adulthood. The variables used in this study to identify predictors include 
family characteristics of parenting (rigid, smoothing and discipline lacking). These variables 
have been assigned and collected by the Texas Youth Commission. 
Some contributing factors leading to juveniles becoming involved in the justice system 
are school dropout (disengaging in the scholastic activity) while engaging in the criminal and 
other maladaptive activities (Risler & O?Rourke, 2009). Since, parents are required by law to 
send adolescents to school and can be unaware of the progressing situation of adolescents? 
continual truancy.  Therefore, parents are being held responsible for forcing adolescents to attend 
school or go to jail in some communities as a severe consequence. 
This study examined the issues and possible factors affecting adolescent male problem 
behavior.  Due to the national average of more males being in the penal system than females this 
study will only include the male population from the Texas Youth Commission.  The researcher 
utilized the primary caregiver in this study to examine parenting variables. Thus, examining the 
variables of parents with adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system and suggesting 
possible solutions to the behavior and emotional issues.  A suggested beginning point is 
evaluating parenting skills and training as part of the issues of adolescent emotional and behavior 
problems. The following research questions are addressed in this dissertation study. 
3 
 
Research Questions 
 The following are the research questions which were examined in this study: 
1. Is there a relationship between frequency of visitation and the recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
2. Is there a relationship between age of youth during treatment and recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
3. Is there a relationship between family characteristics of rigid parenting and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
4. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of smothering and recidivism 
of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
5. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of lacking of discipline and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
Significance of the Study 
This study is important for identifying the parenting attitudes and characteristics needed 
to benefit the emotional, social, moral and behavioral development of youth.  The scope of the 
study included exploring parental characteristics; rigid, smothering and lack of discipline, which 
are more than likely to influence and perpetuate the behavioral, social, moral and emotional 
issues during adolescence.  Last, the study will focus on juveniles who have been committed to 
the juvenile justice system either a short-term or a long-term facility in the state of Texas. 
Operational Definitions 
Absenteeism: not attending school for some time period regardless of the reason (Teasley, 
2004). 
4 
 Adolescents: young adults between the ages of 12 to 19 years old (Boyd & Bee, 2009). 
Delinquency: adolescents committing assault, truancy, shoplifting, criminal trespassing 
and drug/alcohol use (Quinn & Van Dyke, 2004). 
Family/Family Structure: people living in a traditional nuclear situation (mother, father 
and child/children), single parents living with children, cohabitating unmarried parents living 
with children, children living with foster parents including relatives.  Family includes also 
extended family: grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins and close friends (extended family 
members) living in close proximity (Boyd & Bee, 2009). 
Family Influence: in this study identified as the quality of family relationships, level and 
amount of family interactions. 
Lacking Discipline: failure to guide children to develop into responsible adults 
(Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2007). 
Parenting: behavioral, goal oriented actions of parents (Hutchinson, Baldwin & 
Caldwell, 2007). 
Parenting Style: the general manner or way of parenting and practice as a behavioral 
action and communications (Hutchinson, Baldwin & Caldwell, 2007). The parenting styles 
identified is variables in this study include the following; rigid, smothering, discipline lacking. 
Problem Behavior: stealing, bribery, assault (fighting with peers), domestic violence 
(family or relationship), verbal and nonverbal harassment, possession of stolen property, attempt 
to sell stolen property, possession of illegal substance, attempted distribution of illegal 
substances, driving under the influence, sexual assault (peer or minor), stalking, possession of a 
weapon and use of a weapon in the act of another crime.  
5 
Prosocial Behavior: the opposite of antisocial behavior, caring about the welfare of 
others and the ability to feel empathy and sympathy to others (Hart & Carlo, 2005; Ma, 2003). 
Recidivism: the percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested and reoffend after a 
period of time of release (Van Der Geest & Bijleveld, 2008). 
Recidivist: an adolescent who committed a crime and the occurrence of the second 
offence is less than three years after the first commitment date (Katsiyannis, Zhang, Barrett & 
Flaska, 2004). 
Rigid Parenting: parents who adhere strictly to rules and the environment; usually less 
affectionate (Black, Hutcheson, Dubowitz & Berenson-Howard, 1994). 
Smothering: To cover closely or to suppress (Palmer & Hollin, 1997). 
Troubled Youth: children with behavior problems including involvement with the law 
(Kurtines et al., 2008).  
Truancy: unexcused and unlawful absence from school without the consent and 
knowledge of the guardian (Teasley, 2004). 
Summary 
Overall, this study examined specific parenting variables such as rigid, smothering and 
lack of discipline parenting, family visitation as possible variables effecting adolescent 
recidivism and behavioral issues.  This study attempted to identify parenting and other issues 
which affect adolescents? lives, either negatively or positively toward the juvenile justice system.  
Therefore, this study addressed parenting which could be necessary for parents of adolescents 
who continually exhibit problem behaviors.  However, this study purpose was to further the 
research in the area of adolescent development of problem behavior.  This research has examined 
influential factors of parental behavior. This research examined influential factors of parental 
6 
behavior, attitudes and including family influences on adolescent problem behavior leading to 
involvement with juvenile justice system. 
  
7 
 
 
 
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
Introduction 
This review of the literature and research begins with adolescent development.  Also, this 
review of research examines certain aspects of whether parenting has a relationship to 
maladaptive/problem behaviors in troubled adolescents especially recidivism.  Furthermore, it 
includes the discussion of the gender as it relates to delinquent and maladaptive behavior.  The 
maladaptive behaviors discussed in this research review include delinquency, truancy, violence, 
gang involvement, negative response to authority, and negative response to school climate (Frey, 
Ruchkin, Martin & Schwab-Stone, 2009).  Smetana, Metzger, Gattman, and Campione-Barr 
(2006) reported that during adolescence many still need parental monitoring because they are 
spending less time with family and more time with peers.  It is also noted; adolescents who share 
information with parents have lower incidents in juvenile delinquency and high levels of trust 
with parents (Smetana et al., 2006). Additionally, this section will discuss Jean Piaget?s identity 
development as well as Kohlberg?s moral development as it relates to adolescent social and 
emotional development. The overview of moral development will discuss the lack of self 
regulation as it relates to decision making for prosocial activities.  Adolescents who find 
themselves involved in the juvenile justice system due to decisions made from the lack of 
adequate moral development. Continually, this review of literature will explore the influences of 
male identity development as well as media influences on adolescent problem behavior. This 
literature review will discuss the theoretical orientation of Cognitive Behavioral therapy as it 
8 
relates to changing behavior. Lastly, this section will discuss adolescent development as it relates 
to the issues which occur specifically identified during this time of human development.  
Adolescent Development 
Physical changes in the body signify the initial stage of puberty as well as the onset of 
adolescence (Boyd & Bee, 2009; Woolfolk & Perry, 2012).  Eric Erickson (1986) explained 
when youth attempt to try on different identities this process will actually help to facilitate the 
establishment of their permanent identity (Woolfolk & Perry, 2012).  Therefore, adolescents 
should be allowed to explore the different aspects of their personality as they grow and develop 
into mature adults.  Erikson?s psychosocial stages of development explain that the ages of 12?18 
are signified by identity versus role confusion (Woolfolk & Perry, 2012).  Moreover, adolescent 
identity development is essential to the basis of a youth?s identity once they reach adulthood.  
Consequently, when adolescents fail to develop their identity along with failing to integrate ideas 
of values, work, and commitments, then role confusion is probable (Woolfolk & Perry, 2012).  
Furthermore, Erickson discussed that the results of role confusion in an adolescent will be 
experienced by an inability to continue responsibilities as adults. 
Research suggests that adult moral development begins during adolescence (Hart & 
Carlo, 2005).  Kohlberg?s moral judgment development appears to have a parallel relationship 
between age and stage (Dawson, 2002).  Further research discusses engagement in civic 
commitments, and community involvement facilitates the development of moral obligation to the 
community and families.  Adolescent moral development also is facilitated by good relationship 
with parents and family (Hart & Carlo, 2005).  For this reason, when adolescents spend more 
time with their influential peers they tend participate in delinquent activities.  These situations 
9 
can occur when adolescents are not connected to their community and their moral character is 
underdeveloped (Hart & Carlo, 2005). 
Adolescent development is also signified by a change in the relationship with parents; 
occasionally includes family conflict (Ohannessian, Lerner, Lerner, & von Eye, 2000).  
Moreover, adolescents begin to question the rules of their parents, norms and levels of control, 
and the expectations of behavior are usually violated often during this time (Ehrensaft, Cohen, 
Chen, & Berenson, 2007).  This change in adolescence is usually an indication of an individual?s 
development of multiple perspectives in social relationships.  These multiple perspectives can 
expand into prosocial behavior or antisocial behavior (poor moral judgment during adolescence) 
(Ma, 2003).  ?Researchers have shown relatively consistent associations between responsiveness 
and socially competent and prosocial behaviors in adolescence? (Carlo, McGinley, Hayes, 
Batenhorst, and Wilkinson, 2007, p. 148).  Moral judgment is focused on the cognitive viewpoint 
as compared to moral orientation.  Moral orientation is focused on the aspects of moral 
development (Ma, 2003).  Finally, moral development influences adolescent decision making as 
well as adolescent behavior. 
Identity Development 
Eric Erickson (1968) explained factors which have been linked with healthy identity 
development.  These factors include security, trust, safety, as well as freedom to explore and 
master their environment (Burdett Schiavone, 2009; Erickson, 1968).  Klimstra (2012) suggests 
that identity development is facilitated through family involvement as well as community 
environment.  Community environment with high incidents of violence appears to be a risk 
factor to identity formation of adolescents (Burdett Schiavone, 2009).  Previous research 
discussed high risks of negative effects for the adolescents living in a community with frequent 
10 
violent incidents (Mrug & Windle, 2010; Burdett Schiavone, 2009).  These risks to adolescents 
include post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, substance abuse, and aggression (Burdett 
Schiavone, 2009).  Continually, the influence of these risks to adolescent identity development 
depends on the involvement of the parents to counterbalance these risks.  Furthermore, frequent 
occurrences of community violence hinder adolescent healthy identity development by creating 
an environment of instability and feelings of being unsafe (Burdett Schiavone, 2009).  Therefore, 
adolescents living in a high-risk violence area could be influenced to participate in the violent 
activities due to their moral judgment being normed on their community environment (Burdett 
Schiavone, 2009). Kilmstra (2012) suggests that childhood personalities are pre-cursers to 
adolescent identity and behavior. Continually, adolescent development is influenced through 
environmental factors which can contribute to the evolution of a shy or aggressive personality 
type (Klimstra, 2012).  
Jean Piaget?s formal operational stage explains that adolescence is representative of 
development of logical reasoning towards abstract concepts (Boyd & Bee, 2009).  During the 
formal operational stage adolescents experience ?adolescent egocentrism,? which is a 
manifestation of hypothetic-deductive reasoning.  Adolescent egocentrism thinking can be 
harmful when engaging in risky behaviors such as drugs, sexual activity, gang activity, and 
delinquency.  Hypothetic-deductive reasoning assists the adolescent in their understanding of 
participating in risky behaviors without the belief of associated consequences (Boyd & Bee, 
2009). The complete outline of Piaget?s stages of identity development is in the Chart below. 
 
Piaget Stages of  Identity Development 
Approximate Ages Stages Description 
11 
Birth to 18 months Sensorimotor Baby begins to understand the world around 
them.  Baby learns to pretend play and use 
single words. 
18 months to 6 years Preoperational By age 2 and above, the child can use 
symbols, ability to talk to others and use 
simple logic 
6 to 12 years Concrete operational The child?s logic in development of new 
internal operations but still tied to the world. 
Also con reason simple questions of ?what 
if?. 
12 + years Formal operational The child begins to learn to manipulate 
ideas hypothetically as well as objects. 
Entering adulthood the adolescent organize 
mentally ideas and objects. 
Adapted from Boyd & Bee (2009) 
  
Systematic problem solving is significant to the formal operational stage of Piaget; in this stage 
the development of skills to solve and answer problems within complex tasks are formed (Boyd & Bee, 
2009).  However ?neo-Piagetian theorist? expands on the Piaget?s theory (Boyd & Bee, 2009).  ?It has 
been consistently found that adolescents who had made identity commitments without prior personal 
exploration reported higher levels of problem behavior? (Good, Grand, New-Clark, Adams, 2008, p. 
223).  Identity development is further influenced through cultural, social, and moral development and 
familial environments (Dryfoos & Barkin, 2006).  The Information-Processing Theory expands on 
memory processing and capacity to move information from short-term memory to long-term memory 
(Boyd & Bee, 2009).    This theory has three components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and 
12 
long-term memory.  This theory discusses how younger children solve problems in their short-term 
memory which is more limited than older children and less effective (Boyd & Bee, 2009).  However, 
older children and adults are able to process and solve problems with complexity at the same time (Boyd 
& Bee, 2009).  Finally, as explained previously cognitive development is influential to decision making 
and moral development. 
Moral Development 
Moral development is associated with adolescent antisocial behavior; consequently, 
prosocial behavior can be differentiated within adolescence (Ma, 2003).  Further research 
suggests the moral reasoning and judgment is higher in prosocial adolescents than adolescents 
with maladaptive/behavioral issues (Ma, 2003).  Hart and Carlo (2005) suggested prosocial 
behaviors are promoted during adolescences through good relationships with parents, 
experiences with community service and civic engagements.  For example, prosocial thinking 
includes: ?what is the right thing to do,? versus antisocial behavior which includes any form of 
delinquency.  Therefore, delinquency in adolescence seems to prompt involvement to the 
juvenile justice system.  However, adolescents without the experiences and challenges of moral 
dilemmas with the understanding of the consequences also seem to have experienced less 
parental involvement (Hart & Carlo, 2005).  Furthermore, research suggests that parental and 
family involvement is essential to the positive influence of moral development (Hart & Carlo, 
2005). 
Lawrence Kohlberg?s moral development was developed from the research and principles 
of Jean Piaget?s identity development (Crain, 1985; Dawson, 2002). According to Crain (1985) 
Kohlberg?s moral development id focused on the cognitive process rather than the actual moral 
actions of a person. Continually, persons who are able to cognitively discuss appropriate moral 
13 
choices do not always exhibit moral behavior. Furthermore, persons can know the right moral 
decision to make and decide to respond in the opposite manner. Continually, Dawson (2002) 
found that there is a high relationship between Kohlberg?s moral stages with the age range of 
childhood and adolescence. Listed below in the chart is the outline of the six stages of Kohlberg's 
moral development. 
 
Kohlberg?s Six Stages of Moral Development 
Level Stages Description 
Level I 
Preconventional  
Stage 1: Punishment and  
Obedience Orientation  
Egocentric view point and doesn?t consider 
others interest. Doing right only to avoid 
punishment.  
 Stage 2: Individualism,  
instrumental purpose, and  
exchange 
Concrete individualistic view point and  
aware of others have a view point but this  
conflicts with their interests 
Level II 
Conventional 
 
Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal 
expectations, relationships, 
and interpersonal conformity 
 
Individualistic perspective in relationship 
with others and aware of (feelings, 
agreements and expectations) and put others 
before self. (Golden Rule?Do unto others 
as you would want them to do unto you)  
 Stage 4: Social system and 
Conscience (Law and Order) 
Differentiates societal point of view from 
interpersonal perspective which defines 
roles and rules. 
Level III 
Postconventional 
Stage 5: Social contract or 
utility and individual rights 
Perspective independent of rules; however 
aware of rules and rights while considering 
the moral point of view. (prior to social) 
 Stage 6: Universal Ethical 
Principals 
Moral point of view socially derived. 
Recognizing the nature of morality and 
perspective of a rational individual. 
14 
Adapted from Woolfolk & Perry (2012). 
Family Influences 
The importance of family influences on the behavioral and emotional development of 
adolescents has been examined in previous research.  Dryfoos and Barkin (2006) explained the 
importance of a healthy living environment so that the adolescents will mature into responsible 
adults.  The contributions of family to adolescent development are as important as parental 
influence, gender, and moral development.  This importance is gauged through the cohesiveness 
of the family and extended family unit (Bruhn, 2009).  Seginer, Shoyer, Hossessi and Tannous 
(2007) examined correlations between adolescents and the influence of family interaction with 
results explaining that adolescents are aligned to their family environment in certain societies.   
The researchers found that in Israel family does affect peer relationships (Seginer et al., 2007).   
Therefore we can then infer that family is influential to adolescent development either prosocial 
or antisocial behaviors.  Additionally from a cultural perspective influences including gender of 
family members and volume of family interactions affect adolescent development (Seginer et al., 
2007).  For example, Israeli Arabs and Israeli Druze raise their adolescents from a male-
dominated religious and cultural perspective, whereas females must have a subordinate role in all 
interactions with males including their brothers.  In contrast, Israeli Jews have a more equality 
perspective of raising both males and females in the Jewish culture (Seginer et al., 2007).  Israeli 
youth upon the age of adulthood all are mandated to join the armed forces (Israeli Army) 
including the Jewish youth (Seginer et al., 2007).  Research found that family relationships 
within Israeli Arab and Israeli Jews tended to provide support to foster a greater independence of 
adolescents than the Israeli Jewish adolescents (Seginer et al., 2007).  
15 
Adolescents seem to regulate family behavior through their interactions with parents, 
siblings, and their growing need for independence and autonomy (Fulkerson et al., 2010).  ?For 
example, positive parent-child communications is a reciprocal process through which children 
and parents learn about themselves and their worlds through repeated interactions and is linked 
with healthy adolescent development and family social  functioning? (Fulkerson et al., 2010, p. 
261).  In Fulkerson et al. (2010), family dinner time was examined as a family influential factor 
impacting adolescent development.  Specifically, Fulkerson et al. evaluated the impact of 
communication during early adolescence family dinner time and the level of continued 
communication during late adolescence. 
Gender Differences 
The importance of gender in adolescent development has been minimally researched.  
?On average, girls undergo puberty earlier and are socially more advanced than boys (Ounsted & 
Taylor, 1972), so if physical and social maturity drive changes in the parent-child relationship, 
one would expect to observe changes earlier in adolescence with girls than with boys? (McGue, 
Elkins, Walden, & Iacono, 2005, p. 972).  According to the literature on the development of 
emotional issues and the risk of development for mental health issues during adolescence, boys 
are more likely than girls to have increased risks to issues (McGue, Elkins, Walden & Iacono, 
2005; Worthen, 2012).  Furthermore, research implies that the environmental influence is more 
of a factor for adjustment abilities in girls than in boys (McGue, Elkins, Walden & Iacono, 
2005).  During adolescence mothers seem to have more conflict with daughters, who cause stress 
and tension in the home (Sliverberg & Steinberg, 1987).  According to Silverberg and Steinberg, 
fathers seem to exhibit more internal conflict when their sons experience a need for more 
autonomy.  Overall, research suggests that males are more likely to engage in delinquent 
16 
behavior than females (Cohn & Modecki, 2007; Whitney, Renner, & Herrenkohl, 2010).  
Furthermore, adolescent boys are more likely to engage in risky behaviors due to social 
relationships and the need for social acceptance (Perry & Pauletti, 2011).  Continually, 
adolescent boys exhibit more direct aggression (physical and verbal), whereas, girls will display 
aggression indirectly and can be symptomatic by internalizing emotional issues (Perry & 
Pauletti, 2011).  Adolescent girls? internal emotional issues can stem from ?self-blaming, poor 
body image, negative social comparison, hyper vigilance for potential stress and rumination (i.e., 
obsessing over the future consequences of hypothetical decisions)? (Perry & Pauletti, 2011, p. 
63).  For adolescent boys, ?a combination of high testosterone and poor parent-youth 
relationships quality is associated with risk taking? (Perry & Pauletti, 2011, p. 69). 
According to past research on adult moral development, during adolescence moral 
character is most influenced by external factors (Hart & Carlo, 2005; Mayhew & Engberg, 
2010).  Furthermore, moral reasoning is organized through perceptions and interactions 
experienced by the individual (Mayhew & Engberg, 2010).  Research revealed females have 
more moral judgment values than males but with conflicting evidence.  Ma (2003) discussed 
extended research that suggests females being more moral than males as measured on the Moral 
Development Test (MDT).  Additionally Ma (2003) found that males scored higher on the 
Adolescent Behaviour Questionnaire (ABQ) delinquent scale than females. 
Male Identity Development 
In the United States, males are disproportionately the higher number of individuals in the 
juvenile justice system (Pleasants, 2007). During adolescence the adult identity is developed with 
major consideration to our gender. Male identity for many adolescents is based on traditional 
masculinity gender roles. Parents as well as the adolescent peers are rigid in the ideas of male 
17 
and female gender roles and are often mistreated for being feminine or a tomboy respectively. 
The public appearance and family ideas pressures adolescences to act and confirm to more 
masculine roles. Since male children do not often have the advantage of being raised with a 
stable male father figure, their development of masculinity is based on community, peer and 
media discussions and observations. 
Furthermore, ?Traditional masculinity teaches boys to be strong, stoic, competitive, 
aggressive, and authoritative? (Pleasants, 2007 p. 250). Therefore, the masculine ideas of 
competitiveness and aggressiveness could development into maladaptive behaviors of joining a 
gang and becoming physically violent (Phillips, 2006). Since, masculinity is ingrained during 
adolescents the ideal suggests that maladaptive anti-social behavior is acceptable to families. 
Moreover, male adolescents who feel obliged to act out their masculinity do so in unhealthy 
ways; skipping school, drink alcohol, use drugs, act out against authority, and are sexually 
active. Furthermore, Black males seem to have adopted a lack of concern or caring for others as 
a maker of full masculinity development (Wood & Hilo, 2013). This lack of concern and caring 
is to further the distance of showing emotion and compassion which is considered a female 
characteristic (Phillips, 2006; Wood & Hilo, 2013). Researchers Lazur & Majors identified the 
term ?cool pose? for black males who associate masculinity with expressing anger and bitterness 
with distrust towards the dominate culture while creating social competence (Phillips, 2006). 
Considering the ingrained ideals of masculinity adolescent males can feel these are the 
aforementioned behaviors are only ways to exhibit masculinity. These unhealthy behaviors of 
masculinity ways can lead to the involvement in juvenile justice system. 
 
 
18 
African American Male Identity Development 
There are many factors within the African American community which influence 
masculinity development. African American males of lower income tend to gravitate more to 
peers than family during adolescence (Harris, 1995). Since low-income persons especially 
African Americans experience prejudice and racial discrimination men internalize masculinity. 
Whereas European American would not but African American males usually have to compensate 
for the feelings of powerlessness, guilt and shame from the racial discrimination (Harris, 1995). 
These feels result from the inability to respond and develop the traditional masculinity roles 
(Harris, 1995). ?African American male youth of low-income social state have redefined 
masculinity to emphasis sexually promiscuity, toughness, thrill seeking and the use of violence 
in interpersonal interactions? (Harris, 1995 p.280). Therefore, African American youth are 
striving for acceptance from peers and if low-income the aforementioned maladaptive behaviors 
are often exhibited. During identity and masculinity development African American male 
adolescents find influences from peers and the community. Since statistics show that African 
American males make up three times the justice system population, masculinity and identity 
development is often influence by the absent male, peers and family. 
Adolescent Maladaptive Behavior 
The adolescent maladaptive behavior progression can begin as early as the first grade 
with absenteeism and can continue into adolescence (Lehr, Sinclair, & Christenson, 2004).  The 
early development of delinquent behavior, as discussed in the research, increases the risk of 
continual involvement with the justice system in later years (Whitney, Renner, & Herrenkohl, 
2010).  Additionally, a 19-year study of at-risk children acknowledged that even before the first 
grade risk factors for truancy are present (Lehr, Sinclair, & Christenson, 2004).  These risk 
19 
factors include the quality of care giving, and early home environment which can predict the 
future of children dropping out of school (Lehr, Sinclair, & Christenson, 2004).  In addition, 
variables identified some predictors for drop out or truancy which include behavior problems, 
low grade point averages, quality of care giving, parent involvement, peer competence, gender, 
and socioeconomic status (Frey, Ruchkin, Martin, & Schwab-Stone, 2009; Lehr, Sinclair, & 
Christenson, 2004; Teasley, 2004). 
Adolescent truancy seems to be one of the first signs of antisocial and maladaptive 
behavior (Teasley, 2004).  The most prevalent problem behaviors adolescents are engaged in 
while truant include: sexual promiscuity, alcohol, drug use, and delinquency activities (Teasley, 
2004). Time away from school as well as home, increase the rates of delinquency and truancy 
(Gutman, McLoyd & Tokoyama, 2005; Teasley, 2004).  Feindler & Engel (2007) explained that 
physical aggression, relational aggression, and lack of responsiveness interacting with authority 
figures can lead to the development antisocial behavioral patterns during the adolescence.  
Teasley (2004) research studies highlighted that youth living in single parent homes versus two 
parent homes are at a higher risk for skipping school, fighting, using alcohol or tobacco, and 
participating in sexual activities.  Moreover, other risk factors for truancy involve socioeconomic 
indicators: low-income households, poorly funded schools, and experience acts of violence 
(maltreatment as compared to youth thriving in affluent resources).   
Research suggests poverty is at the forefront of children experiencing difficulties with 
academics, socioemotional development, behavioral, and health problems (Gutman, McLoyd & 
Tokoyama, 2005).  African American children for instance, are more likely to continue to live in 
poverty more often than European Americans (Gutman, McLoyd & Tokoyama, 2005; Teasley, 
2004).  The aforementioned concerns and issues of childhood poverty include; parental distress, 
20 
spousal conflict, and parenting behaviors, evidenced by research outcomes can lead to increased 
adolescent problem behavior (Gutman, McLoyd & Tokoyama, 2005). 
Laird, Pettit, Dodge, and Bates (2003) suggested that level of parental monitoring is a 
variable associated with adolescent anti-social behavior.  Parental monitoring is identified as an 
indication of knowing the whereabouts, activities and friends of the child. Whereas, high levels 
of parental monitoring of adolescents is considered effective parenting.  On the other hand, lower 
levels of monitoring could indicate that children?s relationships range in varied degrees of 
antisocial and delinquency.  Additionally, the link between antisocial/delinquent behaviors and 
parental monitoring has decreased to a lower level over time (Laird, Pettit, Dodge, & Bates, 
2003).  A plethora of research identifying monitoring as a protective factor for problem behavior 
in children has increased over the last few years.  Laird et al. (2003) previous research indicated 
that as adolescents matriculate through high school, parents decrease parental monitoring which 
resulted in the increase of antisocial behavior.  Young adolescents living in urban areas are at a 
higher risk for violence, poor health status, sexually transmitted infections, and incarcerations all 
while still attending school only periodically (Edinburgh & Saewyc, 2008).  Therefore, a higher 
level of parental monitoring is needed for youth living in urban areas where high risks and 
exposure to the aforementioned issues are more prevalent. 
Additionally, the issues of young adolescents who are living in urban areas involvement 
in gang activity, illegal activity for survival (including stealing), sexual exploitation and drug 
dealing (Edinburgh & Saewyc, 2008).  Furthermore, youth exposed to community violence 
demonstrate violence as well often more than others not exposed to consistent community 
violence.  Community violence also affects youth both internally and externally which can result 
21 
in post-traumatic stress disorder, deviance, anger/aggression and dissociation (Edinburg & 
Saewyc, 2008; Frey, Ruchkin, Martin, & Schwab-Stone, 2009). 
International/Cultural Perspective 
 Mexican American adolescent acculturation and adjustment to the American culture can 
be a difficult transition.  During the acculturation into the American culture, Mexican American 
adolescents have a high risk to delinquency (Pasch et al., 2006).  Adolescent adjustment issues 
also consist of anxiety, aggression depression, school misconduct, substance use, and high risk 
sexual behaviors (Pasch et al., 2006). Furthermore, the higher incidents of parent-child conflict 
the more likely the adolescent is to exhibit problem behaviors (Pasch et al., 2006). 
Adolescents in the United Kingdom have similar issues to Americans whereas there is a 
correlation between family relationships and problem behavior.  ?A student?s behavior is likely 
to be greatly influenced by the quality of love, the stability of the home environment and the 
parental control received? (Riding, 2003, p. 47).  The implication of consistency of rules for 
adolescents seem to provide knowledge for the internalization of appropriate behaviors and 
values (Riding, 2003).  In contrast, parents whose discipline attitude is harsh, unfeeling, or lacks 
control usually correlates with development of problem behavior in adolescents (Riding, 2003).  
Furthermore, harsh discipline, including physical abuse during adolescence years, is related to 
delinquency, homicide, drug/ alcohol abuse, poor social relationships and low self-esteem 
(Riding, 2003). 
Brazilian ?street kids? are children and adolescents that, due to poverty, live on the streets 
or spend a majority of their time on the streets to help their families by begging and performing 
informal work (Bzuneck & Boruchovitch, 2003).  Brazilian adolescents who are ?street kids? 
engage in gang and drug trafficking activity and usually have difficulty learning impulse control 
22 
(Bzuneck & Boruchovitch, 2003).  However, runaway ?street kids? are also associated with a 
need to flee and have freedom from living in child abuse, thereby also leaving school early 
(Bzuneck & Boruchovitch, 2003). Young adolescents of the street are categorized by youth 
under the age of 15; living on the street without parental supervision (Edinburg & Saewye, 2008; 
Frey, Ruchkin, Martin, & Schwab-Stone, 2009). Although some Brazilian adolescents engage in 
street activity such as peddling and begging, they are not thieves or actual criminals (Bzuneck & 
Boruchovitch, 2003). 
Taiwan adolescents engaging in delinquent behavior are usually ages between 12 and 18 
years old (Huang, 2003).  The punishable offenses include, but are not limited to; staying out late 
with criminals, carrying weapons, truancy or running away from home (Huang, 2003). 
According to researchers in Taiwan, education should be the primary focus instead of 
punishment for juvenile delinquents (Huang, 2003).  The juvenile court cases in Taiwan vary in 
number because the actual population of adolescents fluctuates yearly (Huang, 2003).  The most 
tried type of cases in the juvenile court system in Taiwan in contrast to Brazilian adolescents is 
burglary and larceny (stealing) (Huang, 2003).  The possible judgments in juvenile court include 
probation, counseling (a period of re-education), detention, and family/parent counseling and 
education which is continued year round (Huang, 2003).  Comparatively, United States parenting 
verses Australian parenting is not as strict on children?s academic and scholastic success.  The 
differences are evident in the parenting styles between Americans and Australians.  Therefore, in 
comparison to American children, Australian children appear to have higher rates of behavioral 
problems and lower rates on social competencies.  Pasch et al. (2006) found that in the Mexican 
American culture parents equally have issues with adolescent problem behavior (e.g. substance 
use, school misconduct, anger, and anxiety).  Pasch et al. (2006) further examined the effects of 
23 
the variable of acculturation on parent-adolescent conflict; however, the research did not find a 
high correlation.   
Juvenile Justice 
Historically, the creation of juvenile court in the United States occurred in the late 1800s 
(Shannon, 2004).  Placement of juveniles either on probation or into a residential facility 
depended on the offense committed.  Juveniles engaged in a number of offenses, including first- 
time offenders, are given probation and interventions depending on the severity of the offense 
(Quinn & Van Dyke, 2004). The offenses which result in the probations and interventions 
without incarceration are nonviolent offenses. Comparatively, first-time offenders? cases are 
processed differently than chronic offenders who either have dropped out of the intervention 
programs or reverted to previous behaviors, referred to as recidivism (Quinn & Van Dyke, 
2004).  Previous recidivism research discussed the possible issues within the family upon 
adolescent release as well as the lack of preparation for continued education or future 
employment (Risler & O?Rourke, 2009; Van Der Geest & Bijleveld, 2008). 
The Office of Juvenile Justice Programs in 2008 estimated that 2.11 million arrests for 
persons under the age of 18 were made (Sickmund, 2010).  This nationwide estimate has 
increased from the 1.7 million estimated cases in 2007.  These statistics are consistent with the 
national number of delinquent youth arrested in 2002 including 2.2 million arrests (Dryfoos & 
Barkin, 2006).  These arrests were made based on offenses ranging from fighting on the school 
campus or in the community area to assault with weapons (Sickmund, 2010).  Therefore, it 
would be beneficial to develop an overall theoretical family perspective of the social breakdown 
and the increasing numbers of juveniles involved in maladaptive behaviors.  According to 
24 
research, juveniles are more involved with assaults, harassment, and burglary/robbery than in 
previous years (Sickmund, 2010).  
According to the Georgia Department of Juvenile Justice, there are approximately 52,000 
youth served yearly due to recidivism or new offences (Risler & O?Rourke, 2009).   Programs 
designed within the juvenile justice system to avert recidivism include education and General 
Equivalency Diploma (GED) classes, mental health counseling, family sessions, and 
rehabilitative and vocational training.  However, participation and completion of the 
aforementioned services depends on the goals of the youth, also a predictive indicator of 
recidivism (Gavazzi, Russell & Khurana, 2009; Minor, Well & Angel, 2008; Risler & O?Rourke, 
2009). Other predictors of delinquency include; aggression/assaults, substance abuse, 
impulsiveness, running away, and antisocial parents (Dryfoos & Barkin, 2006; Van Der Geest & 
Bijleveld, 2009).  This increases the probation case load yearly in addition youth becoming an 
economic burden to the community instead of adding to the economic development of society.  
Developing programs to address the multiple variables of juvenile justice relating to initial and 
repetitive offenses previously identified as being societal issues (Minor, Wells, & Angel, 2008; 
Risler, & O?Rourke, 2009; Van Der Geest, & Bijleveld, 2009).  Because, research suggests that 
juvenile delinquency risk factors are identifiable and include; family and parenting issues, 
personal issues, social issues and peers issues, then more intervention programs are needed.  
These programs are especially needed in the United States due to violence and the juvenile 
delinquency risk factors. Finally, the United States has higher teen violence incidents than any 
other Western country (Dryfoos & Barkin, 2006). 
 
 
25 
Recidivism 
Research on preventing recidivism has been vast in recent years to assist with the 
problem of troubled youth continually involved in the justice system and graduating to the adult 
penal system.  There are certain risk factors that are attributed to the recidivism of adolescents in 
the juvenile justice system.  These risk factors include, but are not limited to, parental and 
familial antisocial behavior, absence of parent(s), low emotional warmth, peer group novelty-
seeking, peer rejection, lack of structure and peer deviance (Balkin, Miller, Ricard, Garcia, & 
Lancaster, 2011; Mulder, Brand, Bullens, & Van Marle, 2010).  Additionally, besides family and 
external risk factors, an adolescents? disability and diagnosis of a conduct disorder can be risk 
factors to recidivism (Balkin et al., 2011).  The referral to services such as special education is 
important to the success in academics (Dalun, Hsien-Yuan, Katsiyannis, Barrett, & Song, 2011).  
According to Dalun et al. (2011), identification and placement of adequate services for 
adolescents with disabilities can reduce truancy and delinquency.  Adolescents, who are truant 
and chronically out of school are at a greater risk for delinquency due to poor academic 
achievement, lack of structure and substance abuse (Dembo et al., 2007).  Therefore, reviewing 
the aspect of adolescents with disabilities include the estimated high number of juveniles in 
custody previously referred for special education services (Dalun et al., 2011). 
Juveniles who are currently in custody or on probation require addition services from 
agencies such as; mental health, child welfare, and social services.  Therefore, a multiagency 
approach is needed for prevention of further involvement in the justice system (Cocozza et al., 
2005).  Mental health and social services are needed for adolescents who are identified as having 
a conduct disorder (Balkin et al., 2011).  A relatively new program not widely used instead of 
incarcerations is called Family Group Conferencing (Baffour, 2006).  This intervention to reduce 
26 
the risk of recidivism includes mediation with the victim, serving on reparative boards for 
victims, and circle sentencing.  This particular intervention also encourages family involvement 
with assisting the youth in taking responsibility for their actions with or without incarceration 
(Baffour, 2006).  This process involves a formal apology, community service, restitution, 
possible mental health counseling, drug treatment programs, and or job training (Baffour, 2006).  
Programming is important for assisting families with reducing their continued involvement with 
the justice system. 
Parenting Attitudes, Styles, and Behaviors 
According to Spera (2005), the terms ?parenting style? and ?parenting practice? cannot be 
used interchangeably.  Parenting practice is further defined by Spera (2005) as the behavior used 
to socialize children.  Whereas the parenting style is defined by Spera (2005) as the environment 
and emotional atmosphere in which the children are living. Furthermore, parenting style and 
parenting practices are different by definition and through the experiences of the children.  The 
parenting style might then dictate the parenting practice or vice versa.  Therefore, we can infer 
that parenting practice is focused more on goals, values, and aspirations of the child (Spera, 
2005).  Coplan, Hastings, Lagace-Seguin and Moulton (2002) explained parenting styles in 
general terms as techniques that are used in childrearing.   
The styles of parenting are divided into two dimensions: demandingness and 
responsiveness (Baumrind, 1978; Carlo, McGinley, Hayes, Batenhorst, & Wilkinson, 2007).  
Responsiveness is also referred to as parental warmth and support while demandingness is 
considered control and enforcing behavioral standards (Carlo, McGinley, Hayes, Batenhorst, & 
Wilkinson, 2007).  Baumrind?s (1978) research of parenting identified three separate types of 
27 
parenting.  Baumrind (1978) defined and identified the styles of parenting as authoritative, 
authoritarian and permissive. 
Authoritarian parenting style appears to operate with more control of the child without a 
warming and nurturing character.  Authoritarian parents appear to assert power of respect, strict 
enforcement of rules, and order with obedience.  The authoritarian parents can be seen as a 
smoothing type parenting and being in total control of their child life. With this control over the 
child we can infer that during adolescence maturity is limited. Baumrind (1971) completed 
extensive research on parenting styles and identifying three primary prototypes of if styles: 
permissive, authoritative, and authoritarian. The permissive parenting style is characterized as 
high in on warmth and nurturance while behaviorally having a lack of discipline.  The 
authoritarian parent is low in warmth and nurturance and very high on behavioral control with 
rigid and strict rules and values. Authoritative parenting is the third style with both warmth/ 
nurturing characteristic along with implementing reasonable guidelines for behavior from their 
children. Therefore, the rigid parenting style is considered when a parent is very strict and 
completely enforces the rules without the present of nurturing the child.  
The authoritative parents are the opposite of authoritarian parents. On the other hand, 
authoritative parenting is identified as guidance through warmth and affection to children while 
supporting their exploration of their world within limits and parental expectations (Baumrind 
1978).  The authoritative parenting style is seen as helpful to the child with direction of activities 
and support (Baumrind, 1978).  While, the permissive parenting style is identified as a laisser-
faire expectation of children and having lower demands for maturity development of the child.  
This type of parent also has a minimum level of responsiveness to the needs of their children and 
lacks discipline (Baumrind, 1978). Whereas, the authoritarian style of parenting is seen as having 
28 
maximum control for shaping the behavior of their child.  Authoritarian parents do not provide 
warmth or responsiveness to children, but still have high expectations of maturity within the 
constraints of rules and order.  Authoritative parenting style seems to be the most common style 
of parenting (Warash & Demasi, 2007).  Whereas, the permissive parent acts reactively to the 
child?s behavior and can be over-indulgent (Baumrind, 1978).  Only two of the three parenting 
styles previously discussed have been researched as identifying significant influence on 
development of the child?s social development (Russell, Hart, Robinson, & Olsen, 2003).  Those 
two styles addressed were authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles.  Furthermore, Russell 
et al. (2003) emphasized that the connection and importance of understanding the temperament 
and social behavioral development of the child is often influenced by culture and gender. 
While research on parenting styles are not limited to Baumrind. Alfred Adler expanded 
the research on indentifying and categorizing parenting. Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, and Keehn 
(2007) argued that the autocratic parenting style, suggested by Adlerian theory, may not be 
effective because this style gives more power to the parent and results in feelings of inferiority in 
the child.  The Adlerian theory of autocratic style of parenting is similar to authoritarian 
parenting as described by Baumrind.  Furthermore, the permissive parenting style is seen by 
Adlerian theory as harmful because it does not instill a sense of achievement into children.  
Autocratic and permissive parenting styles fail to guide children to develop into responsible 
adults (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, & Keehn, 2007).  However, the democratic parenting style 
seems to be the more appropriate from the Adlerian theory point of view because of the ideals of 
autonomy, psychological adjustment, and behavioral compliance (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter, 
& Keehn, 2007).  
29 
Smothering parenting is also termed over-protective, as well as helicopter parenting. 
Smothering is defined as providing a protection of their child to the point that the child is limited 
in their abilities to express their individuality (Ungar, 2009). Hence smothering can inadvertently 
limit the psychosocial development as well as adolescent physical development (Ungar, 2009).  
Smothering could lead to adolescents to acting out due to the limited ability of autonomy 
developed as a child (Taylor, 2010). Furthermore for healthy development of individual identity 
children need to experience separation of the family and caregivers.  This limitation of 
individuality can foster self -esteem issues and lead to outward expression of negative behavior. 
All previous research on parenting styles draws from the groundbreaking research of 
Baumrind (1978) which categorized parenting styles.  Research suggested that the authoritarian 
parent is inflexible with strict limits, authoritative parent is flexible within limits, and lastly the 
permissive parent is flexible without limits (Baumrind, 1978 & 2005).  Other research suggests, 
the permissive parent is also neglectful because this style does not promote grow and 
development of a stable and mature citizen (Baumrind, 2005; Hutchinson, Baldwin, & Caldwell, 
2003).   Finally, having two parents with different parenting styles who are able to balance and 
be flexible with their limitations and control is considered optimal parenting (Baumrind, 2005; 
Hutchinson, Baldwin, & Caldwell, 2003). 
Parental Attitudes 
Parent-Adolescent Relationship 
Socialization of adolescents and children falls on the parents and family as they are the 
primary sources for social development (Hutchinson, Baldwin, & Caldwell, 2003).  Managing 
the social schedule of an adolescent is part of parental duties so that the child is not overwhelmed 
with developmental tasks (Hutchinson, Baldwin, & Caldwell, 2003).  Parents who help their 
30 
adolescents to develop by structuring leisure behavior can be a contest where each party 
struggles over control.  This can be a source of contention between the adolescent and the 
parents while learning to navigate discussions and negotiations surrounding priority activities 
(Hutchinson, Baldwin & Caldwell, 2003).  The parent-adolescent relationship is usually already 
strained due to the changes in the teen behavior and parental adjustment occurring during this 
stage of development (Ohannessian, Lerner, Lerner, & Eye, 2000).  According to Ohannessian et 
al. (2000), the adolescent is seeking to gain independence from the family unit which can cause 
conflict between the adolescent and parents.  During adolescence, most parents make a shift from 
restrictive strategies of parenting to more of a developmental strategy of support for their child.  
This shift is dependent on the emotional and social development of the adolescent (Ehrensaft, 
Cohen, Chen, & Berensin, 2007).  Adolescent-parent conflict could be summarized as the results 
of parents not communicating their expectations to their adolescents effectively.  Parents do not 
always have a grasp or awareness of the emotional and social development of a child moving 
through the stages from pre-adolescence through late-adolescence (Ehrensaft et al., 2007). 
When adolescents live in violence-ridden neighborhoods, research suggests parents can 
mediate the effects by exhibiting parental warmth and supervision all while providing support 
and remaining involved in their lives (Frey et al., 2009).  Basically, the success of the youth 
living in neighborhoods with violence and negative factors would be determined by the parental 
support provided as a buffer for resilience to life circumstance (Frey et al., 2009).  Therefore, the 
relationship and interactions with parents further assists adolescents with developing a sense of 
self (Plunkett et al., 2007).  Parental behaviors? such as marital discord seems to affect the self-
esteem level in adolescents (Plunkett et al., 2007).  
31 
Research suggests that parents who are viewed as highly critical promote feelings of 
being less supportive to adolescents and they can appear less self-competent (Betts, Gullone, & 
Allen, 2009; Plunkett et al., 2007).  Usually these adolescents are experiencing depression due to 
parents? off-putting and ?cold? behavior and attitudes (Betts, Gullone, & Allen, 2009).  Parents 
who are warm and nurturing but who are less supportive tend to promote depressive feelings as 
well in adolescents.  Therefore, adolescents experiencing issues with depression are susceptible 
to at-risk behaviors; anxiety, being disruptive, impaired social competence and functioning, and 
poor school achievement.  Moreover, depression during adolescence also increases the risk of 
adult depression (Betts, Gullone, & Allen, 2009; Plunkett et al., 2007).  Plunkett et al. (2007) 
discussed the connection between parental behaviors and marital issues to adolescent depression 
and emotional issues. 
Single Parents and Married Parents  
According to research, parents who are more likely utilizing authoritative parenting style 
usually have a spouse who is permissive (Warash & Demasi, 2007).  In one report, adolescents 
explained that their family dynamics reflect lower levels of intimacy, but high levels of conflict 
as compared to the mothers? responses (Mounts, 2007).  Conversely, parents who are constantly 
making negative statements can be experienced as harmful by the child and viewed as 
punishment.  Research conducted by Erensaft, Cohen, Chen and Berenson (2007) discussed 
parents of adolescents who identify as single parents and existing in a low socio-economic status 
(SES) had less complaints of adolescents concerning maladaptive or oppositional behavior. 
Letiecq (2007) little research has been conducted on parenting practices of African 
American fathers in low-income situations and environments.  Research continues to report that 
fathers as well as mothers living in urban or violent neighborhoods use specific parenting 
32 
practices.  Letiecq (2007) identified these practices as: 1) close mentoring and teaching about 
personal safety; 2) discussing neighborhood safety openly; 3) reducing the exposure to violence 
in the media; 4) teaching children to fight for protection; and 5) activism (teaching by example) 
by joining the neighborhood watch. 
Letiecq (2007) also explained that previous research suggested that African American 
parents are stricter in the area of parenting, placing emphasis on obedience and self-control.   
Fagan (2000) reported differences in Puerto Rican and African American parenting styles.  The 
report suggested that African Americans are less nurturing and responsive to preschoolers than 
Puerto Rican parents (Fagan, 2000).  However, African American parents suggested that they are 
just preparing the children for real life as adults as justification for lack of nurturing (Fagan, 
2000). 
Letiecq (2007) found also that highly spiritual fathers were more often authoritative in 
their parenting style and utilized more positive parenting practices while rearing their children 
than less spiritual fathers.  On the other hand, highly spiritual fathers use the authoritative style 
on their sons; consequently, sons were less spiritual than their fathers.   
Further studies on parenting styles include the review and comparison of parenting on a 
global scale (Letiecq, 2007). Finally, adolescent problem behavior is a global issue which needs 
to be addressed to facilitate programming to decrease incidents of continual adolescent problem 
behavior. 
 
Media Influence 
 Ward (2005), reports that children ages eight to eighteen in American watch 
approximately eight hours of television daily. Black adolescents have been infused with negative 
33 
depictions of black identity through the media (television, news, radio, and the internet (Wood & 
Hilto, 2013). These negative depictions of black males include; ?gangsters, rapist, womanizers, 
drug dealers and thugs? as ideal characteristics (Wood & Hilto 2013 p.14). Furthermore, a 
limited number of positive successful black males are in the media to counterbalance the many 
negative and glamorized depictions currently in the media. The popular and continual negative 
depictions seem to shape the attitudes, beliefs and development of black males. Therefore, the 
media influence is the norm and is the ideal portrayal of masculinity as well as acceptable moral 
behavior (Phillips, 2006). This is evident in the disproportionate number of black males 
incarcerated it seems that many adolescents adopted the negative stereotypes of ?thug and drug 
dealer?. The role of thug and gangster translates in the community as a since of pride for 
emulating the community film hero such as ?Nino Brown or Scarface?. Furthermore, committing 
a criminal act within society is a process of becoming the ideal black male as idolized by the 
media influences of appropriate behavior. 
 The lack of positive and prosocial behaviors in the media has other related consequences 
(Ward, 2005). The other related consequences include elevated levels of childhood and 
adolescent obesity, lowered self-esteem and unhealthy relationships. The development of healthy 
relationship paradigms are socially ingrained through the media (Chapin, 2013). Chapin found 
that many adolescents believe that their friends are influenced by the media ideals of relationship 
dynamics. Continually, violence in video games (gaming) can further the aggressive behaviors of 
adolescents (Espinosa & Clemente, 2012). Furthermore, constant gaming with overtly sexual and 
aggressive content appears to be related to the lack of social abilities and anti-social aggressive 
behavior. The gaming appears to replace the need to social interaction hence lead to a lack of 
development of adequate social skills (Espinosa & Clemente, 2012). 
34 
Counseling Theoretical Orientation 
The Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT) model is focused on clients having ?faulty 
beliefs and automatic thoughts that negatively impact their behaviors and contribute to 
development and maintenance of psychopathology? (Coyne, Burke, & Freeman, 2008, p. 694).  
According to the Cognitive Behavioral Theory, clients have preconceived distorted thinking 
which can be corrected through reframing (Hupp, Reitman, & Jewell, 2008).  The therapeutic 
interventions of CBT assist clients with identifying the cognitive deficiencies and to formulate a 
new behavior plan.  Gavita, Joyce, and David (2011) acknowledge that most CBT parenting 
programs are designed from the behavioral training perspective with the addition of cognitive 
techniques to assist with adult behavior.  In summary, understanding this study from the 
researcher?s perspective, one must be open to the possibility of reframing the cognitions of the 
adolescents and families to identify the faulty thinking that leads to arrests and rearrests of youth, 
further continuing the behavior pattern of recidivism and leading to adult incarceration.  This 
study would like to identify variables which lead to behavior patterns of adolescents and families 
which contribute to habitual recidivism. 
Reality Therapy 
Reality therapy was developed by Dr. William Glasser through is Choice theory model.  
Choice theory is based on the internal motivation of a person and basic human needs (Duba, 
Graham, Brtizman & Minatrea, 2009). The five basic needs of humans are; survival or self 
preservation. Love and belonging, power or self worth, freedom or independence, and fun and 
excitement (Duba, Graham, Brtizman & Minatrea, 2009).   
Therefore, depending on the human/ person one need can be lacking while needs are being 
fulfilled. Moreover, the person has to decide on which need has to be addressed and how to 
35 
fulfill that need. Hence the choice theory is identifying how to fulfill your needs. The external 
world will be directly affected and influence when making a behavioral choice (Duba, Graham, 
Brtizman & Minatrea, 2009). 
Reality Therapy is considered a cognitive behavioral method of counseling to assist 
clients with ?gaining control? and fulfilling their needs (Chongruksa, Parinyapol, Sawatsri, & 
Pansomboon, 2012). This therapy of counseling is more concentrated on having client decide on 
their goal and then charting their path to obtain that goal (Duba, Graham, Brtizman & Minatrea, 
2009; Chongruksa, Parinyapol, Sawatsri, & Pansomboon, 2012). Also the centralized theme of 
this counseling technique is having the client understand their wants and needs as they relate to 
their goals (Chongruksa, Parinyapol, Sawatsri, & Pansomboon, 2012). This therapeutic 
technique is very effective with teen to help them understand if what they are doing helping them 
obtain their needs and goals. Therefore through effective reality counseling a client can change 
the way they act or think regardless of how they feel (Jong-Un, 2007). Clients lean to make a 
choice to behave differently .regardless of the circumstances. 
 Multi-Systematic Therapy 
Multi-systematic Therapy is designed to attend to multiple issues and should be 
individualized for each participant and their specific protective and risk factors.   The multi-
systematic approach was developed form the systems theory and the social ecology perspective 
that there are interactions on different levels as well as across those levels (Pattie Yuk Yee, 
2008).  This approach identifies that family is the most influential system but not the only system 
(Pattie Yuk Yee, 2008).  For example, the possible systems are community/ neighborhood, 
school, social organizations, and other extracurricular activities. Therefore examining this and 
adapting this approach to facility effective change for juveniles at risk for recidivism. 
36 
Resilience Model 
Resilience is defined as an individual having a set of skills which protect them in stressful 
situations (Lee, Sudom & McCreary, 2011). Therefore persons who experience adversity seem to 
have a set of internal and external motivators with assist them with consistent behavioral 
functioning (Lee, Sudom & McCreary, 2011). The resilience factors which can be measured are; 
self-esteem, adaptability to change, hardiness, and optimism (Lee, Sudom & McCreary, 2011). 
Understanding and identifying the levels of resilience can facility the development of Personal 
Resilience.  
 The concepts of the Personal Resilience model are as such that the therapist can help 
clients build upon their identified strengths to help develop confidence in another area where the 
client is lacking. Therefore the client can see that because of their success on one area, success 
can be attained in an area they are pursuing (Padesky & Mooney, 2012). 
 
Summary 
Based on the literature reviewed, there is a need to explore the impact of parenting 
behaviors on continued adolescent problem behavior.  Previous research conducted examined the 
isolated effects of parental styles on adolescent development.  However, the gap in the literature 
was on the effects of family relationships and parental behaviors on adolescent problem 
behavior.  Furthermore, this research will also examine the variables parental behavior; 
visitation, and parenting styles (rigid, smothering and discipline lacking) as it relates to 
adolescents involved with the juvenile justice system.  Other influences to adolescent behavior 
reviewed in this section includes media related influences, and male identity development as 
possible relationships to the development of antisocial behavior. Therefore, the significance of 
37 
this study was affirmed to explore the variables of parental influence on delinquency and 
adolescent problem behavior since the literature found did not integrate these variables.  
Furthermore, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship of recidivism (habitual 
adolescent involvement) in the justice system and parenting behaviors. 
  
38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 
 
Research Design 
Research for this project was an exploratory design using regression analysis.  The 
researcher explored the variables identified in the literature and designed research questions by 
reviewing the electronic data available to the researcher from the Texas Youth Commission.  
Archival electronic data were used to explore the variables identified in the research questions.  
Regression analysis was effective to discuss the possible relationship between parental behavior 
and adolescent recidivism as described in Chapter two (Hadley & Mitchell, 1995). 
Research Questions 
1. Is there a relationship between frequency of visitation and the recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
2. Is there a relationship between age of youth during treatment and recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
3. Is there a relationship between the family characteristic of rigid parenting and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
4. Is there a relationship between the family characteristic of smothering and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
5. Is there a relationship between the family characteristic of discipline lacking and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
39 
Participants 
The participants in the study (n = 102) consist of adolescent males who are involved in 
the juvenile justice system in Texas.  Theses juveniles in this study were committed to state-level 
residential treatment facilities in Texas.  Therefore, these juveniles were involved in the justice 
system due to problems in the home and school, and behaviors exhibited in the community.  
Problems of the adolescents will covered a range of varying emotional and behavioral issues.  
The offenses in which the adolescents were incarcerated for include the following: theft of 
property, burglary, assault with a weapon, assault without a weapon, identity theft, grand theft 
auto, robbery, sexual misconduct, habitual delinquency, and murder. The study only included the 
male population from the Texas Youth Commission ranging from 12 to 19 years of age. This 
study included male adolescents who were incarcerated from 1998 to 2011.   This database has 
been maintained from1998 to 2011. This state agency gathered data on over 9000 males in the 
facilities with approximately 10,000 arrests each year Data was retrieved from a database 
reflecting juveniles in detention facilities in Texas serving time for which they were sentenced. 
The entire state database is comprised of both males and female of all ethnic groups who have 
been committed to the state-level residential facilities in Texas. However, the Texas Youth 
Commission singled out the research variables identified by the researcher and sent a condensed 
data set comprised of males only as well as parental factors for use in the study. 
Instrumentation 
Archival data was used, which was collected by the Texas Youth Commission reflected 
the actions of parents as well as the adolescent.  The data was sorted by the research variables 
identified by Table below and entered into the Statistical Program for Social Science (SPSS) 
quantitative statistical program for analysis.  The population and demographic composition 
40 
developed from the retrieved data, which has also been previously collected.  The demographic 
information to be analyzed includes family characteristics (rigid parenting, smothering, and 
disciple lacking), recidivism, and age of youth in the Texas Youth Commission. The data sample 
was derived from continuations data and changed into interval data. 
Procedures 
The initial communication was placed to the state commission of juvenile offenders via 
email.  Then, via email, a research agreement was completed See Appendix A.  The next step 
was to develop the procedures leading to the completion of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) 
Protocol Form which was reviewed and approved by the committee before completing the 
research study. After the approval of the research procedures involve submitting the approved 
IRB to the Texas Youth Commission as part of the research agreement to gain access to the 
archival data for review. After reviewing the data, the variables were entered into an Excel 
Spreadsheet to separate the identified variable from the original data.  The identified variables 
for the study that were analyzed are: Age of the youth, Family characteristics (rigid, smothering 
and discipline lacking parenting) and Visitation as they relate to Recidivism. Once the variables 
were then input in the Excel Spreadsheet then into the Statistical Program for Social Sciences 
(SPSS) program to analyze the relationship between the variables. The type of analysis 
conducted was a correlation; in an effort determine the significance of the relationships between 
the research variables.   
Correlational Analysis 
?Correlations measure the linear relationships between two random variables? (Engle, 
2009 p.15). This correlational analysis is between the independent variable of recidivism and 
dependent variables of parental influences/ characteristics (smothering, rigid, and discipline 
41 
lacking) and visitation. The identified variable were identified through the reporting system of 
the Texas youth commission. However, correlation is limited that it cannot establish a cause and 
effect relationship between variable however it can determine the extent to which variables are 
associated with each other (Engle, 2009). 
Data Analysis 
Data analysis included gathering archival data from Texas Youth Commission?s juvenile 
justice facilities.  After reviewing the data, the variables were entered into an Excel Spreadsheet 
to separate the identified variable from the original data.  The identified variables for the study 
that were analyzed are: Recidivism, Age of the youth, Family characteristics and Visitation.  
Once the variables were then input in the Excel Spreadsheet then into the SPSS program to 
analyze the relationship between the variables. The type of analysis conducted was a multiple 
regression; in an effort determine the significance of the relationships between the research 
variables. The research variables include the independent variable is recidivism and the 
dependent variables are age of the youth, family characteristics and visitation. 
Limitations of the Study 
A limitation for this study was selecting from a population of adolescents already 
involved in the Texas juvenile justice system.  Therefore, the data retrieved from this population 
may not be generalizable since this population will be predisposed to problem behavior.  The 
persons reporting the data were not trained researchers and could omit some information from 
the adolescent?s file.  These omissions from the file may produce a lack of coordinating 
evidence.  Moreover, the parents could attempt to misrepresent to be perceived as more positive 
than is actually true.  Finally, this study was conducted on the single gender population of males 
although there are many females involved in the juvenile justice systems across the country. 
42 
Furthermore the results of this study may not crossover from the male population to the female 
population in the juvenile justice system.  
 
  
43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS 
 
Introduction of Findings 
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship among influencing parental 
behaviors (smothering, lack of discipline and rigid parenting) and adolescent continual 
involvement (recidivism) in the juvenile justice system.   Previous research suggests that 
adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system seem to lack conformity to rules and 
regulations, and avoidance of responsibility for their actions (Ma, 2003).  This research 
examined the aspect of parental influence as a variable for continual problem behavior and the 
propensity to recidivate.  This section will explain the results of the analysis of the research 
generated both descriptively and by correlational analysis.  
Date from the population was use to select the variable samples. The variables examined 
included the socioeconomic status of the parents, parental involvement, visitation, and age of the 
juveniles while in treatment. The data included over 9000 adolescents however due to the 
incomplete sections in the data set the sample of the population was reduced for this study to 
include 102 participants for the validity of this study. The development of the hypotheses 
included; literature review, media coverage of parents displaying problem and socially 
inappropriate behavior. The media coverage included television shows which glamorize 
maladaptive behavior. The television shows include the Real Housewives franchisees and the 
wives franchises (Basketball, Baseball and Football) where adult women verbally and physically 
assault persons on the show. These television show characters display conflict resolutions skills 
which in everyday life will lead conflict that has the potential to escalation into situations that 
44 
lead a party or parties to arrest.  The research questions were developed to ascertain the 
correlation between adolescences recidivating and the other variables; age during treatment, rigid 
parenting, smother parenting, and lack of discipline parenting. The sample population included 
the demographic information of the family including the income of both parents. This 
information was reported in Tables1, 2 and 3, but not added to the statistical evaluation. 
Research Questions 
1. Is there a relationship between frequency of visitation and the recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
2. Is there a relationship between age of youth during treatment and recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
3. Is there a relationship between family characteristics rigid parenting and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
4. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of smothering and recidivism 
of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
5. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of discipline lacking and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system? 
 To collect the data, an email was generated to the Texas Youth Commission which has 
archival data on adolescents within the Juvenile Justice system.  The data was accessed after the 
Institutional Review Board Protocol approval was received, See Appendix B.  The data was 
received anonymously, all of the names and identifying information was removed therefore only 
the statically components of the research questions could be evaluated. 
 
 
45 
Demographics 
 There were 102 individuals identified from the archival data for this study.  Descriptive 
statistics were utilized to examine the demographics information of all 102 participants.  These 
data are reported in Table 1. Continually, the family income demographics are reported in Tables 
2 and 3.  
 
Table 1 
Demographic Information  
 N % 
Violent Crime (1) 62 60.8 
Non Violent Crime (2) 40 39.2 
Age   
12?15 46 45.1 
16?19 56 54.9 
Gender   
Male 102 100 
Recidivism   
Yes (1) 61 60.3 
No (2) 41 40.7 
 
The study subjects were distinguished by violent and nonviolent crimes, as well as if they 
were rearrested or re-incarcerated within the last three years of their release. The sample of this 
data was all male and the percentage of younger adolescents (age 12?15) was 45.1%, older 
46 
adolescents (age 16?19) were 54.9%. Adolescents who committed a violent crime were 60.8% 
compared to non-violent committed crimes was 39.2 %.  The number of adolescents who 
recidivated was 61 which was 60.3% of the research population and those who did not recidivate 
41 which was 40.7% of the research population.  The age range of the participants was between 
12?19 years with the mean age of 15.24, with a standard deviation of 1.28.  The number of visits 
per individual was examined; the range of visits was 0 to 180; however, the mean number of 
visits per sample was 23.50 with a standard deviation of 34.93 shown in Table 4. 
 
Table 2 
Father?s Monthly Income Information  
Monthly Salary Father Percentage 
$0- $1,200 67  65% 
$1,201- $2,400 30  29% 
$2,401- over 5  6% 
   
N 102 100% 
 
 
Table 3 
 
Mother?s Monthly Income Information  
Monthly Salary Mother Percentage 
$0- $1,200 39 38% 
$1,201- $2,400 46 45% 
47 
$2,401- over 17 17% 
   
N 102 100% 
 
Table 4 
Age of Youth & Visitation Statistics   
 N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 
AGE 102 12 19 15.24 1.283 
VISITS 101 0 180 23.50 34.933 
Valid N (listwise) 101   
 
Research Question 1 
 RQ1. Is there a relationship between frequency of visitation and the recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  A correlation analysis was conducted 
to examine the relationship between visitation and recidivism.    There was no significant 
relationship found between the frequency of visitation and recidivism, r=.183 and r
2
 =.033.   The 
r
2  
indicates that the approximately 3% of the variance in the recidivism and visitation. However, 
there is a low positive correlation to frequency of visitation and recidivism. 
 
Research Question 2 
 RQ2. Is there a relationship between age of youth during treatment and recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  A correlation analysis was conducted 
to examine the relationship between age of youth during treatment and recidivism.  The results 
48 
indicate that there is no significant relationship found between the age of youth during treatment 
and recidivism, r=.151 and r
2
 =.023.   
The r
2   
indicates that the approximately 23% of the variance in the recidivism and age of youth 
during treatment. However, there is a low positive correlation to age of youth during treatment 
and recidivism. 
 
Research Question 3 
 RQ3. Is there a relationship between family characteristics rigid parenting and recidivism 
of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  A correlation  analysis was 
conducted to examine the relationship between family characteristic rigid parenting and 
recidivism.  The results indicate that there is no significant relationship found between the family 
characteristic rigid parenting and recidivism, r=.086 and r
2
 =.007.   
The r
2   
indicates that the approximately 7% of the variance in the recidivism and rigid parenting. 
However, there is a low positive correlation to rigid parenting and recidivism. 
 
Research Question 4 
RQ4. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of smothering and recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  A correlation analysis was conducted 
to examine the relationship between Family characteristic smothering and recidivism.    The 
results indicate that there is no significant relationship found between the smothering and 
recidivism, r=.130 and r
2
 =.017.   
The r
2   
indicates that the approximately 17% of the variance in the recidivism and smothering 
parenting. However, there is a low positive correlation to smothering parenting and recidivism. 
 
49 
 
Research Question 5 
 RQ5. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of discipline lacking and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  A correlation analysis 
was conducted to examine the relationship between family characteristic discipline lacking 
parenting and recidivism.  The results indicate that there is no significant relationship found 
between the discipline lacking parenting and recidivism, r=.134 and r
2
 =.018.   
The r
2   
indicates that the approximately 18% of the variance in the recidivism and discipline 
lacking parenting. However, there is a low positive correlation to discipline lacking parenting 
and recidivism. 
Summary 
The analysis of the research provided by the Texas Youth Commission proved that in this 
sample population (n-102) recidivism was not a significant factor for adolescents with different 
parenting styles.  The results previously discussed, explained that none of the parenting 
approaches were more inclined to perpetuate recidivism within the identified population.  
Furthermore, the multiple regression analysis did not show significance between the identified 
parental and familial variables and adolescent recidivism.  Further research is needed to evaluate 
the potential for other factors such as media and maladaptive behavior depicted on reality 
television and its effects on adolescent problem behavior.  The limitations of the study, 
implications for counselors and further research suggestions will be discussed in chapter five. 
 
  
50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION 
 
Introduction 
The discussion of this research will continue by advocacy, the need for reeducation and 
the need to reduce recidivism.  There are various programs for juveniles across the United States 
with the common goal of successful transition from the juvenile justice system back into society.  
For example, there are parenting classes to decrease the social acceptability of the adolescent 
problem behavior.  Also, services are available for persons with low academic abilities and 
persons with disabilities to facilitate a successful reentry.  Further research will be needed on 
adolescents with low academic achievement system (Clark, Mathur, & Helding, 2011).  
Therefore, persons who score within the low academic range of achievement seems to account 
for a majority of persons incarcerated (Houchins, Jolivette, Krezmien, & Baltodano, 2008).  ?On 
a given day, more than 100,000 youth are incarcerated in the United States with over 80,000 
housed in various facilities? (Sickmund, 2008; Snyded & Sickmund, 2006).  Countless more are 
considered ?at-risk for incarceration, based on factors such as homelessness, poverty, gang 
membership, substance abuse, grade retention, and more? (Guerra, 2012, p. 385).  Booker and 
Mitchell (2011) described the overrepresentation of minorities in discipline programs in contrast 
to their Asian and Caucasian counterparts.  Booker and Mitchell examined the implications of 
different ethnic thresholds for disruptive behaviors which could lead to lower tolerance for 
minorities in society.  The belief that more minorities are involved in the justice system from a 
behavioral-cause perspective is even now more accepted. 
51 
Findings 
 The study revealed no significant relationship between adolescent problem behavior and 
parental characteristics.  Although the trend of juvenile crime arrests has decreased however 
there is an increase of incarnations within the juvenile justice system (Dembo, Wareham, 
Poythress, Cook & Schmeidler, 2006). 
The researcher?s hypothesis ? parental visitation along with the environment ? was 
directly correlated to initial criminal acts as well as recidivism has not proven to be a significant 
factor in this study.  Even though there is no significance to the hypothesis, interventions for the 
current sample should be consistent across the United States for continued lowered rates of 
juvenile incarcerations.  The sample of adolescents in this study was from households of parents 
with low monthly income as well as homes with income above the national poverty line. The 
national poverty is defined by income lower than $25,000 annually (Foulkes & Schafft, 2010). 
RQ1. Is there a relationship between frequency of visitation and the recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  The analysis of relationship between 
visitation and recidivism yielded no statistical significance. The possible reason for the analysis 
of no relationship between the variables occurred because the number of adolescents who 
recidivated was very similar to the number of adolescents who did recidivated. Therefore, a 
correlation to show a relationship between the numbers of visits made a difference with 
recidivism did not occur. 
RQ2. Is there a relationship between age of youth during treatment and recidivism of 
adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  The analysis of relationship between 
age of youth and recidivism yielded no significant correlation. The possible reason for this result 
included that while recidivism occurred with some adolescents but not with all, therefore age 
52 
was not a factor. Therefore, recidivism occurred across the range of ages leading to no specific 
relationship of variables. Also discussed in the demographics the offenses were categorized by 
violent and non-violent act. While not all of the younger adolescents who committed non-violent 
acts recidivate but the number was not enough to draw a significant correlation of relationship 
for the two variables. 
RQ3. Is there a relationship between family characteristics rigid parenting and recidivism 
of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  The analysis of a relationship 
between rigid parenting and recidivism yielded no statistical significance. The possible reason 
for this result included that while recidivism occurred with some adolescents but there was not a 
significant number to determine a correlation. Additionally possibility for no significance is that 
rigid parenting style did not have a significant influence on adolescents who recidivated. 
RQ4. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of smothering and recidivism 
of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  The analysis of relationship 
between smothering parenting and recidivism yielded no significance. The possible reason for 
this result included that recidivism occurred with but the frequency was not significant enough 
through the analysis to determine a correlation.  Therefore, the number of adolescents who did 
not recidivate were very similar to the adolescents who recidivated for the smoothing 
characteristic 
RQ5. Is there a relationship between family characteristic of discipline lacking and 
recidivism of adolescents involved in the Texas juvenile justice system?  The analysis of 
relationship between lacking parenting and recidivism yielded no significance. The possible 
reason concluded for this result included that while recidivism occurred with some adolescents 
53 
but not with all. Therefore, the number of adolescents who did not recidivate were very similar to 
the adolescents who recidivated. 
Limitations of the Study 
One of the primary limitations of this study was that the study data was archival and the 
data provided was inconsistent within the full data retrieved.  The strength of the study was 
diminished because some data variables were not complete.  Some of the information was self-
reported and other information was observed and documented by facility personnel.  There was 
no evidence of protocol for documentation provided to assure the researcher that facility 
personnel perspectives weren?t biased or were uniquely different for each evaluation the 
variables.  Finally, this study could possibly be different if the data was collected constantly by 
one person experienced and trained, or by the researcher, via interviews and survey methods. 
Another limitation of this study was that the archival data came from juveniles already 
involved in the justice system who had previously exhibited maladaptive behavior. The parental 
and familial influence for this population could possibly ?fake good? to prevent the 
characterization of being a ?bad? parent or family influences.  For comparative purposes 
parenting influences for persons not involved in the juvenile justice system would need to also be 
evaluated with the parenting styles and influence of adolescents exhibiting both prosocial and 
maladaptive behavior.   Thus examining and comparing the influences which contribute to 
adolescents not having an internal locus of control and development of maladaptive behaviors 
that lead to juvenile justice system involvement.  
Implications for Further Research 
 Behavior of children is reflective of the ?village? in which the child was raised. 
Continually, this ideal of the ?village? concept is one example of children being influenced of 
54 
their environment both nature and nurture.  Previous research endorses the holistic approach of 
family-based interventions and Family Transitions were effectively reducing recidivism for 
juveniles (Dembo et al., 2006; Clark, Mathur, & Helding, 2011).  
 The Family-based interventions other intermediations utilized to the prevent recidivism in 
juvenile diversion programs such as the juvenile arbitration program.  This program included 
case management of the family and monitoring of the arbitration program.  Over the last 40 
years there has been a 300% increase of juvenile delinquency cases, numerically is 
approximately 4,600 juvenile court cases daily.  According to a three year report on a national 
Juvenile Justice longitudinal study on recidivism, ?40% of offenders were in jail or prison and 
20% were in detention or contracted residential placement? (Clark, Mathur & Helding, p.511, 
2011). 
 Transition services can be an intervention for persons previously incarcerated includes a 
series of activities designed to assist the person to move adequately from the correctional facility 
back to the community (Clark, Mathur, & Helding, 2011).   Juvenile offenders previously 
incarcerated need the aforementioned services to help facilitate the process of transitioning back 
into the community to reduce the rate of recidivism.  According to the program for transition 
services a Transition Specialist works very closely with a juvenile to identify outcome-based 
goals to promote prosocial behavior after being released from being incarcerated (Clark, Mathur, 
& Helding, 2011).  The incarcerated population appears to have a higher than normal population 
of persons with disabilities and approximately a third of the individuals? exhibit lean and 
behavioral problems identifying them as candidates for special educations services (Clark, 
Mathur, & Helding, 2011).  Furthermore, the Transition Specialist can assist individuals and 
55 
their family linking them with services for special or vocational educational agencies to facilitate 
the positive reentry of juveniles previously incarcerated (Clark, Mathur, & Helding, 2011).  
 Family Integrated Transitions (FIT) is a proposed program to benefit persons of co-
occurring substance abuse disorders along with involvement in the justice system (Trupin, Kerns, 
Walker, DeRobertis & Stewart, 2011).  The primary goals of the FIT program; ?reduce the rates 
of recidivism, connect youth and family with community services, reduce/eliminate substance 
use, increase prosocial behavior, and increase educational and vocational opportunities, and build 
stronger family support? (Trupin et al., 2011, p. 424).  The FIT program includes a parenting 
component along with Multi-systemic Therapy (MST), dialectical behavior therapy, and 
motivational enhancement which builds upon treatment received while incarcerated (Trupin et 
al., 2011).  MST is designed to attend to multiple issues and should be individualized for each 
participant and their specific protective and risk factors.  The dialectical behavior therapy is 
utilized to assist adolescents with problems which could increase recidivism rates such as 
internal emotional control; emotion regulation, anger, impulse control and moodiness (Trupin et 
al., 2011).   
Finally, research has provided multiple approaches for reducing the juvenile and adult 
recidivism rate.  However the approaches identified in this research could be implemented 
collectively to provide positive outcomes for reentry.  Research suggests many juvenile 
delinquents development into adult offenders and onto that adult penal system.  Moreover, it is 
imperative that the juvenile justice system identify the most positive programs to facilitate and 
promote prosocial behavior in individuals who have been identified as having maladaptive 
behavior.  In conclusion, these programs can reduce the number of individuals who graduate to 
56 
the adult penal system and increase the number of persons who develop into prosocial and 
productive citizens. 
Implications for Change 
According to Smiley (2013), the reintegration process starts 3 months before the juvenile 
is released from being incarcerated. The process starts three months prior to release because of 
the low success of reintegration. Los Angeles school district works together with the juvenile 
justice system during the reintegration process so that students will be ready to reenter the school 
setting. The Los Angeles school district works to have a transition plan that when released youth 
are enrolled and come back to a welcoming environment without the negative stigma of ?bad 
kid? (PBS, 2013). 
In Los Angeles, the police officers start the day looking truants working in concert with 
the school district. Until recently, the Los Angeles police department has written as many as 
30,000 tickets/citations for truancy each year. The policy dictated that after receiving citations 
many of the youth were assigned to detention centers called camps. But this policy has not 
decreased the truancy or detention rate therefore an overhaul of the process was reviewed. The 
Police chief stated that ?we [society/police] are not going to arrest our way or ticket or way out 
of the problem. I think the issue becomes when we recognize a problem or identify someone who 
is breaking the rules or perhaps committing a minor violation. What is the end result we want to 
see? (PBS, 2013). 
Smiley (2013), expressed the need to change the fundamental policies of the juvenile 
justice system. Based on the ideas of helping juveniles who have developed poor choice patterns 
but should not be criminalized and to break the ?education to prison pipeline? to support rather 
than punish. 
57 
Judge Jimmy Edwards echoed by stating, ?How do you want these children to come back 
into our communities as educated citizens or angry criminals.? The documentary explained the 
wrap-around services provided to juveniles in the Los Angeles school district so that when they 
are released from the juvenile justice department there is a system in place to provide support for 
success. The term success is used to describe juveniles who finish High School or receive a 
General Equivalency Diploma and do not recidivate back into the justice system. Many states 
could benefit from implementing programs to collaborate with the local school districts so that 
the adolescents would have improved support for transitioning back into society successfully.  
Implications for Counselors 
 
Adult and adolescent males can be incarcerated for maladaptive behavior related to 
masculinity development. Therapist can work with the incarnated male population to make 
different decisions whether they are cognitively aware of way they choose certain decisions or 
not. Group counseling can help individuals identify through cognitive behavioral techniques the 
process of their masculinity development. Additionally, this group can have suggested topic of 
positive masculinity role models versus negative masculine role models (Pleasant, 2007). 
Continually, the topics can discuss the masculinity as it relates to self-esteem, cooperative 
behaviors and respect for other?s person and property. Furthermore, individual counseling can 
influence the familial and parental influences to their development and subsequent behavior. 
Resilience Model 
Resilience was previously defined as an individual having a set of skills to protect them 
in stressful situations (Lee, Sudom & McCreary, 2011). Therefore as s therapist we help persons 
either develop these skills if they are lacking or enhance these skills. The resilience factors which 
can be measured are; self-esteem, adaptability to change, hardiness, and optimism (Lee, Sudom 
58 
& McCreary, 2011). Understanding and identifying the levels of resilience can facility the 
development of Personal Resilience.  
 The concepts of the Personal Resilience model are as such that the therapist can help 
clients build upon their identified strengths to help develop confidence in another area where the 
client is lacking. Therefore the client can see that because of their success on one area, success 
can be attained in an area they are pursuing (Padesky & Mooney, 2012). Lastly, therapist could 
evaluate these skills with clients especially one involved in the juvenile justice system. This 
process could help them identify and enhance these skills to become self-reliant and self-
motivated for positive and sustainable changes. 
Summary 
The United States seems to have an ongoing growing population maladaptive behaving 
adolescents and adults.  The media seems to influence and shape many adolescents moral and 
psychosocial development. The media?s infusion of reality shows, movies, and video games in 
which children spend approximately eight hours daily visually consuming. Many of the reality 
shows depict negative behavior that is socially acceptable and glamorize it for the increase of 
television viewership. Reality shows are proof of the main stream acceptance of such 
inappropriate behaviors, i.e. ?The Real Housewives? franchise and the ballplayer wives franchise 
(Basketball, Baseball, and Football).   Originally, reality television was developed to give the 
audience a sample of the real life of a person in a particular situation.  However, the adults on 
these shows have exhibited behavior that may, in many states, warranted an arrested and jail 
time.  Popularity of the reality shows glorifies behavior without consequences.  However, the 
inappropriateness of the adult behavior like handling conflict and lack of interpersonal skills (i.e. 
self-control, effective communication and impulse-control) is modeled as normal daily behavior.  
59 
These behaviors are observed by adolescents and are assumed acceptable and as a result, there 
are a growing number of persons reacting to situations with maladaptive behaviors, making poor 
choices coming into the juvenile justice system.  
Finally, it is imperative that as a ?village? we help to facilitate and model appropriate 
behavior so that children and adolescents can experience prosocial behaviors effectively.  As 
stated previously, ?it takes a village? and a community of persons to help direct and guide 
children more; so as adolescents they will develop adequate decision making skills, effective 
communication and conflict resolution skills.  Adolescents and children would benefit from these 
skills when they feel threatened or in a conflict. These skills will help them respond to situations 
with effective communication, self-respect without the situation ending in conflict and/or 
exacerbated with unnecessary violence. The Los Angeles School District example of helping to 
rehabilitate juveniles and assist them in acclimating back into the society needs to be the 
standard of care. Around the country there are many juveniles without family support and 
encouragement to facilitate the development of prosocial behavior. Therefore the juvenile justice 
departments? around the country could model the services of the Los Angeles School District for 
facilitating resources to reduce the rates of recidivism in the United States.  
  
60 
 
 
 
 
REFERENCES 
 
Ang, R. P. (2006). Effects of parenting style on personal and social variables for Asian 
adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 503?511. 
Bassey, M. (2003). Case study research. In J. Swann & J. Pratt (Eds.), Educational research in 
practice: Making sense of methodology. New York, NY: Continuum. 
Balkin, R. S., Miller, J., Ricard, R. J., Garcia, R., & Lancaster, C. (2011). Assessing factors in 
adolescent adjustment as precursors to recidivism in court-referred youth. Measurement 
and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 44(1), 52?59. 
Baumrind, D. (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children. Youth & 
Society, 9(3), 239?276. 
Baumrind, D. (2005). Patterns of parental authority and adolescent autonomy. New Directions 
for Child & Adolescent Development, 2005(108), 61?69. 
Betts, J., Gullone, E., & Allen, J. S. (2009). An examination of emotion regulation, temperament, 
and parenting style as potential predictors of adolescent depression risk status: A 
correlational study. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27(2), 473?485. 
Black, M. M., Hutcheson, J. J., Dubowitz H. & Berenson-Howard, J (1994). Parenting style and 
developmental status among children with nonorganic failure to thrive. Journal of 
Pediatric Psychology, 19(6), 689-707. 
Booker, K., & Mitchell, A. (2011). Patterns in recidivism and discretionary placement in 
disciplinary alternative education: The impact of gender, ethnicity, age, and special 
education status. Education and Treatment of Children, 34(2), 193?208. 
61 
Boyd, D., & Bee, H. (2009). Lifespan development (5
th
 ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 
Bruhn, J. (2009). Cohesive families in the group effect social cohesion and health outcomes. 
New York: Springer. 
Burdett Schiavone, D. (2009). The effects of exposure to community violence on aspects of 
adolescent identity development. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 
22(2), 99?105. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2009.00178.x 
Bzuneck, J. A., & Boruchovitch, E. (2003). Adolescence and education: Contemporary trends in 
Brazilian research. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), International perspectives on 
adolescence. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. 
Carlo, G., McGinley, M. Hayes, R., Batenhorst, C., & Wilkinson, J. (2007). Parenting styles or 
practices? Parenting, sympathy, and prosocial behaviors among adolescents. The Journal 
of Genetic Psychology, 168(2), 147?176. 
Chapin, J. R. (2013). I know you are, but what am I? Adolescents? third-person perception 
regarding dating violence. Journal of Educational Research, 106(5), 393-398. 
Chongruksa, D. Parinyapol, P. Sawatsri, S., & Pansomboon, C. (2012). Efficacy of eclectic 
group counseling in addressing stress among Thai police in terrorist situations. 
Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 25(1), 83-96. doi:10.1080/09515070.2012.66424 
Cocozza, J., Veysey, B., Chapin, D., Dembo, R., Walters, W., & Farina, S. (2005). Diversion 
from the juvenile justice system: The Miami-Dade juvenile assessment center post-arrest 
diversion program. Substance Use & Misuse, 40(7), 935?951. 
Cohn, E. S., & Modecki, K. L (2007). Gender differences in predicting delinquent behavior: Do 
individual differences matter? Social Behavior and Personality, 35(3), 359?374. 
62 
Coplan, R. J., Hastings, P. D., Lagace-Seguin, D. G., & Moulton, C. E. (2002). Authoritative and 
authoritarian mothers? parenting goals, attributions, and emotions across different 
childrearing context. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2(1), 1?26. 
Coyne, L. W., Burke, A. M., & Freemen, J. B. (2008). Cognitive behavioral treatment. In A. M. 
Gross (Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology, children and adolescents. Hoboken, NJ: 
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
Dalun, Z., Hsien-Yuan, H., Katsiyannis, A., Barrett, D., & Song, J. (2011). Adolescents with 
disabilities in the juvenile justice system: Patterns of recidivism. Exceptional Children, 
77(3), 283?296. 
Dembo, R., Wareham, J., Poythress, N. G., Cook, B., & Schmeidler, J. (2006). The impact of 
arbitration intervention services on youth recidivism: One year follow-up. Journal of 
Offender Rehabilitation, 43(4), 95?131. 
Dembo, R., Wareham, J., Poythress, N., Meyers, K., Cook, B., & Schmeidler, J. (2007).  
Continuities in problem behavior among high risk youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent 
Substance Abuse, 16(4), 91?118. 
Diamond, G., Siqueland, L., & Diamond, G. M. (2003). Attachment-based family therapy for 
depressed adolescents: Programmatic treatment development. Clinical Child and Family 
Psychology Review, 6(2), 107?127. 
Dryfoos, J. G., & Barkin, C. (2006). Violence and delinquency. In WHO (???), Adolescence: 
Growing up in America today (pp. 59?97). New York: Oxford University Press. 
Duba, J. D., Graham, M., Brtizman, M. & Minatrea, N. (2009). Introducing the ?Basic Needs 
Genogram? in Reality Therapy-based marriage and family counseling. International 
Journal of Reality Therapy, 28(2), 15-19. 
63 
Edinburgh, L. D., & Saewyc, E. M. (2009). A novel, intensive home-visiting intervention for 
runaway, sexually exploited girls. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 14(1), 41?
48. 
Ehrensaft, M. K., Cohen, P., Chen, H., & Berensin, K. (2007). Developmental transitions in 
youth behavioral opposition and maternal beliefs in social ecological context. Journal of 
Child and Family Studies, 16(4), 577?588. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9108-z 
Engle, R. F. (2009). Anticipating Correlation: A New Paradigm for Risk Management. 
Princeton: Princeton University Press. 
Farrell, A. D., & White, K. S. (1998). Peer influences and drug use among urban adolescents: 
Family structure and parent?adolescent relationship as protective factors. Journal of 
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 248?258. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.248 
Fein Engel, E. C. (2011). Assessment and intervention for adolescents with anger and aggression 
difficulties in school settings.  Psychology In The Schools, 48(3), 243?253. 
doi:10.1002/pits.20550  
Frey, A., Ruchkin, V., Martin, A. & Schwab-Stone, M. (2009). Adolescent in transition: School 
and family characteristics in the development of violent behaviors entering high school. 
Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 40(1), 1?13. 
Fulkerson, J. A., Pasch, K. E., Stigler, M. H., Farbakhsh, K., Perry, C. L., & Komro, K. A. 
(2010). Longitudinal associations between family dinner and adolescent perceptions of 
parent-child communication among racially diverse urban youth. Journal of Family 
Psychology, 24(3), 261?270.  
64 
Gavazzi, S. M., Russell, C. M., & Khurana, A. (2009). Predicting educational risks among court-
involved black males: Family, peers and mental health issues. Negro Educational Review, 
60(1/4), 99?114. 
Gavita, O. A., Joyce, M. R., & David, D. (2011). Cognitive behavioral parent programs for the 
treatment of child disruptive behavior. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An 
International Quarterly, 25(4), 240?256. 
Gestsdottir, S., & Lerner, R. M. (2007). Intentional self-regulation and positive youth 
development in early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H study of positive youth 
development. Developmental Psychology, 43(2), 508?521. 
Good, M., Grand, M. P., Newby-Clark, I. R., & Adams, G. R. (2008). The moderating effect of 
identity style on the relation between adolescent problem behavior and quality of 
psychological functioning. Identity, 8(3), 221?248. doi: 10.1080/15283480802181859 
Greenwood, P. W., & Turner, S. (2010). Juvenile crime and juvenile justice. In J. Q. Wilson & J. 
Petersilia (Eds.), Crime and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press. 
Gutman-Morrison, L., McLoyd, V.C., & Tokoyawa, T. (2005). Financial strain, neighborhood 
stress, parenting behaviors, and adolescent adjustment in urban African American 
families. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15(4), 425?449. 
Guerra, S. A. (2012). Using urban fiction to engage at- risk and incarcerated youths in literacy 
instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 55(5), 385?394. 
doi:10.1002/JAAL.00047 
Hadley, R. G., & Mitchell, L. K. (1995). Design principles. Counseling research and program 
evaluation (p. 215). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole 
65 
Harris, S. M. (1995). Psychosocial development and black male masculinity: Implications for 
counseling economically disadvantaged African American male adolescents. Journal of 
Counseling & Development, 73(3), 279.287. 
Hart, D., & Carlo, G. (2005). Moral development in adolescence. Journal of Research on 
Adolescence, 15(3), 223?233. 
Huang, D. (2003). Characteristics and problems for the development of adolescents in Taiwan. 
In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), International perspectives on adolescence. Greenwich, 
CT: Information Age Publishing. 
Hupp, S. D. A., Reitman, D., & Jewell, J. D. (2008). Cognitive behavioral theory. In A. M. Gross 
(Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology, children and adolescents. Hoboken, NJ: John 
Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
Hutchinson, S. L., Baldwin, C. K., & Caldwell, L. L. (2003). Differentiating parent practices 
related to adolescent behavior in the free time context. Journal of Leisure Research, 
35(4), 396?422. 
Joshi, A., & Gutierrez, B. J. (2006). Parenting stress in parents of Hispanic adolescents. North 
American Journal of Psychology, 8(2), 209?216. 
Jong-Un, K. (2007). A Reality therapy group counseling program as an internet addiction 
recovery method for College students in Korea. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 
26(2), 3-9. 
Kassouf, S. (1970). Normative decision making. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 
Katsiyannis, A., Zhang, D., Barrett, D. E., & Flaska, T. (2004). Background and psychosocial 
variables associated with recidivism among adolescent males: A 3-year investigation. 
Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 12(1), 23?29. 
66 
Klimstra, T. (2012). Adolescent personality development and identity formation. Child 
Development Perspectives, 7(2), 80-84.  
Kurtines, W. M., Montgomery, M. J., Eichas, K., Ritchie, R., Garcia, A., Albrecht, R., & 
Lorente, C. C. (2008). Promoting positive identity development in troubled youth: A 
developmental intervention science outreach research approach. Identity, 8(2), 125?138. 
doi:10.1080/15283480801938515 
Lazur, R. F. & Majors, R. (1995). Men of color: Ethnocultural variations of male gender role 
strain. Im R.F. Levant & W.S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 337-358). 
New York: Bacic. 
Lee, J.C., Sudom, K.A., & McCreary, D.R. (2011). Higher-order model of resilience in the 
Canadian forces. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des 
Sciences Du Comportement, 43(3), 222-234. doi:10.1037/a0024473. 
Letiecq, B. L. (2007). African American fathering in violent neighborhoods: What role does 
spirituality play? Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, & Practice about Men as 
Fathers, 5(2), 111?128.  
Laird, R. D., Pettit, G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J . E. (2003).  Change in parents? monitoring 
knowledge: Links with parenting, relationship quality, adolescent beliefs, and antisocial 
behavior. Social Development, 12(3), 401?419. 
Lehr, C. A., Sinclair, M. F., & Christenson, S. L. (2004). Addressing student engagement and 
truancy prevention during the elementary school years: A replication study of the check 
& connect model. Journal of Education For Students Placed At Risk, 9(3), 279?301. 
67 
Ma, H. K. (2003). The relation of moral orientation and moral judgment to prosocial and 
antisocial behavior of Chinese adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 38(2), 
101?111. 
Mason, M. J., Korpela, K., Coatworth, J. D., Valente, T. W., Pomponio, A., & Pate, P. A. (2010). 
Patterns of placed-based self-regulation and associated mental health of urban 
adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(2), 155?171. 
McGue, M., Elkins, I., Walden, B., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Perceptions of the parent-adolescent 
relationship: A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 971?984. 
Mayhew, M. J., & Engberg, M. E. (2010). Diversity and moral reasoning: How negative diverse 
peer interactions affect the development of moral reasoning in undergraduate students. 
The Journal of Higher Education, 81(4), 459?488. 
Milevsky, A, Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007).  Maternal and paternal parenting 
styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. 
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(1), 39?47. doi 10.1007/s10826-006-9066-5. 
Minor, K. I., Wells, J. B., & Angel, E. (2008). Recidivism among juvenile offenders following 
release from residential placements: Multivariate predictors and gender differences. 
Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 46(3/4), 171?188. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. 
Milne, D. (2008). Wraparound programs succeed in helping troubled youth. Psychiartic News 
Mounts, N. S. (2007). Adolescents? and their mothers? perceptions of parental management of 
peer relationships. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(1), 169?178. 
Mulder, E., Brand, E., Bullen, R., & Van Marle, H. (2010). A classification of risk factors in 
serious juvenile offenders and the relation between patterns of risl factors and recidivism. 
Criminal Behaviour & Mental Health, 20(1), 23-38. doi: 10.1002/cbm.754. 
68 
Nkurunziza, S. & Ejaz Ahmed, S. S. (2011). Estimation strategies for the regression coefficient 
parameter matrix in multivariate multiple regression. Statistica Neerlandica, 65(4), 387?
406. doi:10.11118j.1467-9574.2011.00491.x 
Ohannessian, C. M., Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., & Eye, A. (2000).  Adolescent-parent 
discrepancies in perceptions of family functioning and early adolescent self-competence. 
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(3), 362?372.  
Padesky, C. A & Mooney, K.A, (2012). Strengths-Based cognitive behavioral therapy: A four-
step model to build resilience. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19(4), 283-290. 
doi:10,1002/cpp.1795 
Palmer, E. J. & Hollin, C. R. (1997). The influence of perceptions of own parenting on socio-
moral reasoning, attributions for criminal behavior and self-reported delinquency. 
Personality and Individual Differences, 23(2), 193-197. 
Pasch, L. A., Deardorff, J., Tschann, J. M., Flores, E., Penilla, C. & Pantoja, P. (2006). 
Acculturation, parent-adolescent conflict, and adolescent adjustment in Mexican 
American families. Family Process, 45(1), 75?86. 
Pattie Yuk Yee, L. (2008). Initial development of a model of care and support for primary school 
children in changing familial situations: a Hong Kong hybrid case. Pastoral Care in 
Educations, 26(4), 281-295. doi:10.1080/0264394080247221 
Peaton, A. (2010). Shrinking Smart: Increasing fiscal responsibility in grants for community-
based services. JDIA National Inter-Site Conference. Alabama Department of Youth 
Services. Available: http://www.jdaihelpdesk.org/Docs/Documents/ 
shrinkinh%20smart%2010.6_0930_Peaton_AL%20DYS%20JDAI%20conf%20presentat
ion%20v5.pdf  
69 
Perry, D. G. & Pauletti, R. E. (2011). Gender and adolescent development. Journal of Research 
on Adolescence, 21(1), 61?74. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00715.x 
Petrocelli, J. V. (2003). Hierarchical multiple regression in counseling research: Common 
problems and possible remedies. Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & 
Development (American Counseling Association), 36(1), 9?22. 
Phillips, D. (2006). Masculinity, male development, gender, and identity: Morden and 
postmodern meaning. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 27(4), 403-423. 
Pleasants, R. K. (2007). Teaching young men in correctional education: Issues and interventions 
in male identity development. The Journal of Correctional Education. 58(3), 249-261. 
Plunkett, S. W., Henry, C. S., Robinson, L. C., Behnke, A. & Falcon, P. C. (2007). Adolescent 
perceptions of parental behaviors, adolescent self-esteem, and adolescent depressed 
mood. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(6), 760?772. 
Quinn, M. M., Rutherford, R. B., Leone, P. E., Osher, D. M., & Poirier, J. M. (2005). Youth with 
disabilities in juvenile corrections: A national survey. Council for Exceptional Children, 
71(3), 339?345. 
Quinn, W. H. & Van Dyke, D. J. (2004). A multiple family group intervention for first-time 
juvenile offenders: Comparisons with probation and dropouts on recidivism. Journal of 
Community Psychology, 32(2), 177?200. 
Raffaelli, M., Crockett, L. J., & Yuh-Ling, S. (2005). Developmental stability and change in self-
regulation from childhood to adolescence. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166(1), 54?75. 
Retrieved from EBSCOhost.  
70 
Reyna, V. F., & Farley, F. (2006). Risk and rationality in adolescent decision making: 
Implications for theory, practice, and public policy. Psychological Science in the Public 
Interest, 7(1), 1?44. doi: 10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00026.x 
Riding, R. J. (2003). Cognitive style and school performance in adolescents. In F. Pajares & T. 
Urdan (Ed.), International perspectives on adolescence. Greenwich, CT: Information 
Age Publishing. 
Risler, E., & O?Rourke, T. (2009). Thinking exit at entry: Exploring outcomes of Georgia?s 
juvenile justice educational programs. The Journal of Correctional Education, 60(3), 
225?239. 
Robin, A. L., Koepke, T., & Moye, A. (1990). Multidimensional assessment of parent-adolescent 
relations. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 
2(4), 451?459. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.2.4.451 
Robin, A. L., Koepke, T., Moye, A. W., & Gerhardstein, R. (2009). Parent Adolescent 
Relationship Questionnaire. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. 
Russell, A., Hart, C. H., Robinson, C. C., & Olsen, S. F. (2003). Children?s sociable and 
aggressive behavior with peers: A comparison of the US and Australia, and contributions 
of temperament and parenting styles. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 
27(1), 74?86.  
Shannon, S. K. S. (2010). Dereliction of duty: Training schools for delinquent parents in the 
1940s. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 37(3), 11?27. 
Sickmund, M. (2010). Juveniles in residential placement 1997?2008. Office of Juvenile and 
Delinquency Prevention. U.S. Department of Justice. Available: 
http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/229379.pdf 
71 
Silverberg, S. B. & Steinberg, L. (1987). Adolescent autonomy, parent-adolescent conflict, and 
parental wellbeing. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(3), 293?312. 
Seginer, R., Shoyer, S., Hossessi, R., & Tannous, H. (2007). Adolescent family and peer 
relationships: Does culture matter? New Directions for Child & Adolescent Development, 
2007(116), 83?99. doi:10.1002/cad.190 
Smetana, J. G., Metzger, A., Gattman, D. C., & Campione-Barr, N. (2006). Disclosure and 
secrecy in adolescent-parent relationships. Child Development, 77(1), 201?217. 
Smiley, T. (2013). Tavis Smiley Reports ?Education Under Arrest? 
video.pbs.org/video/2360529591 
Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles and 
adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 125?146. 
Snyded, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 National Report. 
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of 
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. 
Taylor, C. (2010). A practical guide to caring for children and teenagers with attachment 
difficulties. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 
Teasley, M. (2004). Absenteeism and truancy: Risk, protection, and best practice implications 
for school social workers. Children & Schools, 26(2), 117?128.  
Ungar, M. (2009). Overprotective parenting: Helping parents provide children the right amount 
of  risk and responsibility. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 37(3), 259-271. 
Van Der Geest, V., & Bijleveld, C. (2008). Personal background and treatment characteristics 
associated with offender after residential treatment: A 13-year follow up in adolescents 
males. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(2), 159?176. 
72 
Warash, B., & Demasi, E. (2007). Are middle class parents authoritative with a touch of 
permissiveness? Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 74(2), 28?31. 
Ward, L. (2005). Children, adolescents, and the Media: The molding of minds, bodies and deeds. 
New Directions for Child & Adolescent Development, 2005(19), 63-71. 
Whitney, S. D., Renner, L. M., & Herrenkohl, T. I. (2010). Gender differences in risk and 
promotive classifications associated with adolescent delinquency. The Journal of Genetic 
Psychology, 17(2), 116?138. 
Wood, L. J. & Hilto, A. A. (2013). Moral choices: Towards a conceptual model of black male 
moral development (BMMD). Western Journal of Black Studies, 37(1), 14-27. 
Woolfolk, A. & Perry, N. E. (2012). Child and adolescent development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: 
Pearson Educational, Inc. 
Worthen, M. G. F. (2012). Gender differences in delinquency in early, middle, and late 
adolescence: An exploration of parent and friend relationships. Deviant Behavior, 33, 
282-307. 
  
73 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX A 
RESEARCH AGREEMENT 
 
 
  
74 
  
 
 
75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX B 
INSTUTITIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL 
 
76 
 
77