SATISFACTION MATTERS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN THE ACADEMY Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this dissertation is my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This dissertation does not contain any proprietary or classified information. _________________________________________ Obiora Nnamdi Anekwe Certificate of Approval: Cynthia J. Reed William A. Spencer, Chair Associate Professor Professor Educational Foundations, Leadership Educational Foundations, Leadership and Technology and Technology Ivan E. Watts Ellen H. Reames Associate Professor Assistant Professor Educational Foundations, Leadership Educational Foundations, Leadership and Technology and Technology George T. Flowers Interim Dean Graduate School SATISFACTION MATTERS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN THE ACADEMY Obiora Nnamdi Anekwe A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty Auburn University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Auburn University May 10, 2007 iii SATISFACTION MATTERS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN THE ACADEMY Obiora Nnamdi Anekwe Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this dissertation at its discretion, upon requests of individuals or institutions and at their expense. The author reserves all publication rights. Signature of Author Date of Graduation iv VITA Obiora Nnamdi Anekwe was born in Tuskegee Institute, Alabama and reared in Lagos, Nigeria. Currently, he is a counselor and instructor at Tuskegee University. In addition, he is a doctoral candidate in Administration of Higher Education at Auburn University. His dissertation research study focuses on the satisfaction rate of African American students in education programs at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities. During his tenure as a doctoral student, Obiora has presented educational research in Little Rock, Arkansas; Houston, Texas; Northfield, Minnesota; Bremen, Germany; and Rome, Italy. His research dissertation was accepted for presentation at national and international conferences in California, Holland, and Poland. He presented his preliminary dissertation research study in October 2006 before his defense at the Cracow University of Technology in Krakow, Poland. In addition, he is scheduled to present his post- dissertation research study in June 2007 after his defense at the Institute of Education, University of Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom of Great Britain. Obiora is a 1997 summa cum laude Bachelor of Arts degree graduate of Clark Atlanta University in Mass Media Arts and a 1999 Master of Education degree graduate of Tuskegee University in Counseling and Student Development. v DISSERTATION ABSTRACT SATISFACTION MATTERS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN THE ACADEMY Obiora Nnamdi Anekwe Doctor of Education, (May 10, 2007) (M.Ed., Tuskegee University, 1999) (B.A., Clark Atlanta University, 1997) 180 Typed Pages Directed by William A. Spencer Research has shown that when students have high-quality experiences on campus, student satisfaction levels increase. The mixed methods research presented is a comparative pilot study on the student satisfaction rate of African American students in teacher education programs attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and Historically White Colleges and Universities (HWCUs). The Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey (HESSS) and focus group interviews were used in an effort to learn what African American students report about their experiences. Results of the pilot study may be used to improve the satisfaction rate of African American vi college students, improve the student and university relationship, and increase the admission and retention rates of African American college students. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge Christ the King, Who enabled him to complete his studies and Who sustained him through every seen and unseen obstacle. Additionally, the author wishes to acknowledge the generous support of Dr. Maria M. Witte, who first informed the author of his acceptance into the doctoral program. The dissertation committee members: Dr. William A. Spencer (committee chair/major professor), Dr. Cynthia J. Reed, Dr. Ivan E. Watts, and Dr. Ellen H. Reames, for their willingness to review my work. The outside reader, Dr. James V. Wright, who assisted the committee in reading the dissertation. Prof. Albert Calhoun, who assisted the author in the statistical overview. Ms. Altamese Stroud-Hill, who assisted the author in formatting the dissertation document. Mr. Michael Ellison-Lewis, for his spiritual advice. Ms. Saleemah and Mr. Eric Jackson, for their committed friendship. The Swinney Family (Addie, Robert, Jennifer, and Bradley), for their continuous hospitality and encouragement. Mr. and Mrs. Helmut Gertjegerdes, for their support. My brother, Prof. Ejinkonye C. Anekwe, for assisting me in developing my dissertation charts/power point presentation. My mother, Ms. Emma J. Anekwe, for her belief in my abilities. My grandfather (deceased), (Ret.) Sgt. 1 st Class Arthur A. Maddox, who taught me perseverance. And finally, my grandmother, Mrs. Eliza W. Maddox, a retired teacher/principal, for encouraging me to study higher education administration. viii Style manual or journal used: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition Computer software used: Microsoft Excel, Version 11; SPSS, Version 13.0; Microsoft Word 2000 ix TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... xiii I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1 Goals of the Research .................................................................................... 4 Quantitative Research Questions ................................................................... 4 Guiding Questions ......................................................................................... 5 Research Design............................................................................................. 5 Methods.......................................................................................................... 6 Interpretation.................................................................................................. 8 Contribution to the Field................................................................................ 9 Significance of the Work ............................................................................... 10 Assumptions................................................................................................... 10 Limitations of the Study................................................................................. 11 Definition of Terms........................................................................................ 12 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................ 14 Student Satisfaction ....................................................................................... 14 The First Year of College .............................................................................. 21 Expectations and Experiences of Ethnic Minority Students.............. 22 African American Males in College .................................................. 24 African American College Student Attendance Statistics ................. 25 Attendance Outcomes of African American Students....................... 26 Minority Students at Selective Colleges............................................ 26 Engagement at Minority Serving Institutions.................................... 26 Hispanic Serving Institutions and Historically Black Colleges and Universities ............................................ 30 Achievement Motivation and College Satisfaction ........................... 32 Recent Court Rulings......................................................................... 32 Race, Class, and Skin Color............................................................... 34 Modern Ghanaian Perceptions of Skin Color .................................... 41 Achieving Diversity through Informal Interactions........................... 42 Resilient Factors among African American College Students .......... 42 College Student Departure Rates....................................................... 44 x Theoretical Framework Overview ................................................................. 44 Tinto?s Model of Institutional Departure........................................... 44 Race Identity Theory.......................................................................... 51 III. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 56 Study Participants .......................................................................................... 56 Liberal Arts College........................................................................... 56 Setting .................................................................................... 56 A Brief History of Liberal Arts College ................................ 56 College Accreditation ............................................................ 57 Division of Education ............................................................ 57 Objectives of the Division ..................................................... 58 College Housing..................................................................... 58 Food Service .......................................................................... 59 The Student Union Building .................................................. 59 Metropolitan University..................................................................... 60 A Brief History ...................................................................... 60 Standards of Achievement ..................................................... 61 Accreditation.......................................................................... 61 School of Education............................................................... 61 Areas of Study........................................................................ 62 Accreditation (School of Education) ..................................... 62 Services.................................................................................. 63 Demographics ........................................................................ 64 Urban University................................................................................ 64 History.................................................................................... 64 Mission Statement.................................................................. 64 Purpose Statement.................................................................. 65 University Institutional Goals................................................ 66 Philosophy (School of Education) ......................................... 68 Mission Statement (School of Education) ............................. 68 Vision (School of Education)................................................. 69 Goals and Objectives (School of Education)......................... 69 School of Education Special Programs.................................. 70 Cohort Field-Based Training for School District ........ 70 Professional Development School Program................ 70 xi Undergraduate Teacher Preparation Programs............ 70 Graduate Programs ...................................................... 71 River City University......................................................................... 71 Setting .................................................................................... 71 University History.................................................................. 71 University Mission Statement................................................ 72 University Vision Statement.................................................. 72 University Accreditation........................................................ 73 The Mission Statement (College of Education)..................... 73 Goals (College of Education)................................................. 74 Teaching..................................................................... 74 Scholarship................................................................. 74 Professionalism.......................................................... 75 Special Initiatives................................................................... 75 Reference Study................................................................................. 75 Student Housing Feasibility................................................... 75 Quantitative Survey Results........................................................................... 78 Reference Statistics........................................................................................ 79 Teacher Education Data..................................................................... 79 Data Collection .............................................................................................. 80 IV. RESULTS ...................................................................................................... 81 Qualitative Results......................................................................................... 81 Descriptive Interview Responses................................................................... 87 Quantitative Research Questions ................................................................... 90 Quantitative Data Results .............................................................................. 90 Qualitative Data Results ................................................................................ 93 Multiple Comparison Tests............................................................................ 102 Written Survey Response Results...................................................... 106 Student Citizenship Behavior ............................................................ 107 Staff Attitude and Behavior ............................................................... 107 Administrative Attitude and Behavior............................................... 108 Residential Life Experiences ............................................................. 108 Facilities............................................................................................. 108 xii Satisfaction with Faculty.................................................................... 109 Classes and Courses........................................................................... 109 Instructional Support.......................................................................... 110 Diversity............................................................................................. 110 Clubs and Activities on Campus........................................................ 110 Physical Environment ........................................................................ 111 Fitness and Health.............................................................................. 111 Career Placement ............................................................................... 111 V. IMPLICATION, FUTURE RESEARCH, AND CONCLUSIONS .............. 112 Implications.................................................................................................... 112 Faculty/Student Mentoring Programs................................................ 112 Teacher Education Mentoring Relationships..................................... 113 Peer Mentoring Initiatives.................................................................. 114 Cultural Initiatives and Programs ...................................................... 115 Centers for Minority Success and Engagement................................. 115 Physical Plant and Preventive Maintenance on College Campuses .. 116 Minority Faculty Recruitment............................................................ 117 Areas for Future Research ............................................................................. 119 White Student Enrollment at Historically Black Colleges and Universities ............................................ 119 Native American Persistence at Majority White and Tribal Institutions ................................................. 120 Black Student Identity at Selective Colleges and Universities.......... 122 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 124 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 126 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 151 Appendix A: Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey 2006............. 152 Appendix B: Auburn University Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval Letter................................................. 164 Appendix C: Informed Consent Letter........................................................ 166 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Quantitative Survey Response Return Rate....................................... 78 Table 2 Historically Black Colleges and Universities .................................... 92 Table 3 Historically White Colleges and Universities.................................... 94 Table 4 Historically Black Colleges and Universities .................................... 96 Table 5 Historically White Colleges and Universities.................................... 97 Table 6 Comparison of Variables for Campus Experience (Rank Order of the Highest to Lowest Satisfaction Variables at HBCUs and HWCUs) .................................................................... 99 Table 7 Comparison of Variables for Personal Development (Rank Order of the Highest to Lowest Satisfaction Variables at HBCUs and HWCUs) .................................................................... 101 Table 8 Overall Campus Experience Variables Table (Independent Samples Test)............................................................... 103 Table 9 Comparisons Table of Campus Experience Variables (Independent Samples Test)............................................................... 104 Table 10 Overall Personal Development Variables Table (Independent Samples Test)............................................................... 105 Table 11 Comparisons Table of Personal Development Variables (Independent Samples Test) .............................................. 106 1 I. INTRODUCTION Throughout the 21 st Century, many economic and social trends have been apparent. Competition in the national economy has increased the growing importance of cooperation among institutions of higher education whose successes and failures are readily based on our interdependence. Demographers predict that by 2050 one-half of the United States population will consist of people today considered ?minorities? (The President?s Board of Advisors on Historically Black Colleges and Universities Annual Report, 1996). Therefore, the United States must provide education services for all its citizens, not just a select few. Today, Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities play a vital role in providing educational opportunities for underrepresented populations such as African Americans. In order to equip African American students for future challenges in the workforce, institutions of higher education must maintain and increase the rate of satisfaction among the students. The increase in educational quality is both a national priority and a complex challenge. One way to increase student satisfaction and retain students is to ?create pathways to engagement that are clearly marked, so that satisfaction can more easily find their way to educational resources and become involved in purposeful activities? (National Survey of Student Engagement, 2004, p. 5). Through a combination of crafted 2 policies and practices, institutions can teach students on campus what they can expect from faculty, staff, and other students, and what they themselves need to do to thrive. For instance, institutions may ?arrange for students to participate in events and activities upon matriculation to help them effectively navigate their new experiences? (p. 5). Student satisfaction is a significant indicator of the institution?s responsiveness to student needs and a measure of institutional effectiveness, success, and vitality (Hallenbeck, 1978; Low, 2000; Nichols, 1985; Upcraft & Schuh, 1996). Accordingly, ?measuring student satisfaction is also important for maintaining and increasing enrollment, managing attrition and retention problems, and making better-informed decisions in the area of student affairs? (Hallenbeck, 1978, p. 1). A central issue that faculty members and university administrators face today is how to create an environment on campus that fosters student growth and development. Studies have demonstrated that engagement in activities outside of class, meaningful involvement in course work, and a climate that supports learning collectively fosters intellectual and personal development among students in college (Graham, 2000). Theoretically, student satisfaction measurement is a core element of any comprehensive institutional assessment plan. It serves as a formal needs assessment (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2004). ?Satisfaction assessment enables institutions to strategically and tactically target areas most in need of immediate improvement? (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2004, p. 3-A). In addition, ?it facilitates the development of planning and intervention priorities, and it helps institutions examine student transactions with all major aspects of their experience, including academic, co-curricular, general services, etc.? (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2004, p. 3-A). Higher education officials must understand how satisfied their 3 students are with their overall educational experience in order to provide the best service to students. ?By collecting satisfaction data from students on a regular basis, campuses are able to determine where they are best serving students and where there are areas for improvement? (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2004, p. 3-A). Research indicates that satisfied students are more likely to be successful students. ?Institutions with more satisfied students have higher graduation rates, lower loan default rates, and higher alumni giving? (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2004, p. 3-A). A student?s satisfaction with an institution may include an array of academic and social factors. ?These include their interaction with faculty as well as the service they receive from staff and administrators; the physical resources on campus; the policies that are in place; and their overall feeling of being welcome on campus? (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2004, p. 3-A). The higher education consulting firm, Noel-Levitz, Inc. (2004), notes the importance of student satisfaction assessment in higher education: The landscape of higher education is changing rapidly: rising costs, increasingly diverse student populations, low retention and graduation rates, and diminished funding. Higher education leaders must respond effectively to these critical challenges while at the same time responding to increased calls for accountability, expectations to do more with less, the need to be more strategic and informed, and discovering how to tie planning, budgeting, and performance together. Under these circumstances, assessment becomes an imperative rather than a luxury. (p. 3-A) Within the study, student satisfaction ranks as the primary agent in assessing and defining the quality of education among African American college students. The study 4 serves to facilitate several goals that will enhance the satisfaction rate of minority and majority students in higher education. Goals of the Research 1) To determine to what extent African American students attending a Historically Black College/University are satisfied with their overall campus experience. 2) To determine to what extent African American students attending a Historically White College/University are satisfied with their overall campus experience. 3) To increase the degree of satisfaction among African American students in the academy. Quantitative Research Questions 1. To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall campus experience at a Historically Black College/University? 2. To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall campus experience at a Historically White College/University? 3. To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall personal development at a Historically Black College/University? 4. To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall personal development at a Historically White College/University? 5 5. To what extent do African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities differ in their overall campus experience in comparison to their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities? 6. To what extent do African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities differ in their overall personal development in comparison their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities? Guiding Questions 1) What factors play a role in increasing the satisfaction rate of African American college students in the academy? 2) What factors play a role in decreasing the satisfaction rate of African American college students in the academy? 3) What are some of the personal qualities developed as a student in the academy? Research Design The study focuses on studying the satisfaction rate of 19 year old and older African American junior and senior undergraduate students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities in the Alabama regional area. The study was conducted during the summer 2006 session. The study seeks to determine the academic and social satisfaction of the students in order to improve the satisfaction rate of African American students, recruit minority students, and retain the academy?s present population of minority students. 6 The Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey, which was designed by the researcher to measure six dimensions of college student satisfaction (satisfaction with attitude and behavior, satisfaction with on-campus living and physical facilities, satisfaction with academic services, satisfaction with social and physical environment, satisfaction with health and fitness activities, and satisfaction with career placement opportunities), consists of 72 items relating to various aspects of college life. The survey requires the student to choose, on a 5-choice Likert type scale, the degree of satisfaction he/she feels regarding each aspect of his/her college. The response ranges are Very Satisfied, Satisfied, Neutral, Dissatisfied, and Very Dissatisfied. Junior and senior African American students will be interviewed in focus groups near the completion of the semester at both types of institutions. Methods Surveys were provided to junior and senior participants at Historically White Colleges and Universities and at Historically Black Colleges and Universities in the Alabama regional area. The principal investigator compared and contrasted survey and interview responses of juniors and seniors at Historically White Colleges and Universities and at Historically Black Colleges and Universities. The participants were African American junior or senior college and university students age 19 or older who were enrolled in education programs attending Historically Black Colleges/Universities or attending Historically White Colleges/Universities in the southeast region. The researcher recruited participants through an information letter about the survey and focus group. After class, the instructor distributed an information letter about 7 the upcoming survey. After the next class session, students who wanted to participate in the survey were provided with a self-addressed stamped envelope containing an informed consent form and survey. The informed consent forms included a section where the student provided his or her telephone number and email address if he or she wanted to participate in the follow-up focus group interviews. Once the student completed the survey, the survey and the informed consent form were mailed to the Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership, and Technology at Auburn University (see Appendix A). The surveys were coded at the top for statistical tracking purposes only. Each set of surveys and informed consent forms sent to the designated schools were coded at the top. For example, the institutions may receive the coding (001, 002, etc.). The coding system assisted the researcher in distinguishing the institutional origin of survey and informed consent materials. In addition, the institutions were coded by colored paper in order to further assist in distinguishing the various schools. After the participants completed the surveys, the survey data were analyzed using SPSS statistical analysis software. Students who decided to participate in the follow-up interview were contacted by the email or telephone number provided on the informed consent form. After the principal investigator contacted the participants and set a date for interviews, the interviews were conducted individually in the main departmental conference room or vacant classroom at scheduled times that did not overlap with each individual interview session. Students used synonyms during the tape-recorded interviews in order to prevent identification and maintain confidentiality. Focus group interview participants were 8 provided coding such as (Sue/Bob 1-Institutional Pseudonym, Sue/Bob 2-Institutional Pseudonym, etc.). These participants were interviewed during scheduled time intervals that did not overlap with the other interview sessions. The researcher provided a raffle that may have resulted in monetary benefits for the interview participants. Participants who volunteered to be interviewed by the researcher automatically qualified for four monetary rewards of $25.00 that was distributed in a raffle. The collected data from the surveys and interview process was stored in a safety deposit box. Both the researcher and the faculty advisor had key access to the safety deposit box. Interpretation The primary objective of this survey was to analyze African American students? perceptions of satisfaction with three aspects of the campus environment: campus services, academic services, and campus climate. The data generated from the responses on the Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey (HESSS) were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software program. The Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey yielded five scale scores. For each respondent, five scale scores, ten background variables, and three demographic variables were obtained. Scale scores were computed for each of the five scales of the Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey. The data for this survey were collected during the semester of the designated year. After an adequate return rate was achieved on campus, a limited number of students from 9 each designated institution were interviewed in a focus group to obtain in-dept answers to areas covered by the Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey (HESSS). Contribution to the Field Several departmental areas at Historically Black Colleges/Universities and Historically White Colleges/Universities may benefit from the findings learned in the study. These areas include admissions, retention services, student services, and academic affairs. Consequentially, the study may improve recruitment efforts by university officials, strengthen student service initiatives, and enhance the academic quality of the university. The study may suggest further study in the following areas: ? A comparative study on the student satisfaction rate of Native American college students attending Tribal Colleges and Universities vs. Historically White Colleges and Universities. ? A comparative study on the satisfaction rate of White college students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities versus Historically White Colleges and Universities. ? A comparative study on the satisfaction rate of African American college students attending Historically Black Private Colleges and Universities versus Historically Black Public Colleges and Universities. ? A comparative study on the satisfaction rate of African American college students attending historically black male liberal arts colleges versus historically black female liberal arts colleges. 10 ? A comparative study on the satisfaction rate of Latin American college students attending Latin American Serving Institutions versus African American college students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Significance of the Work Within the academy, more attention needs to be directed toward the improvement of higher education for minority students because of increasing pressure to compete globally and the low percentage rates of some minority students who graduate from college. The study is pertinent because it specifically seeks to improve the satisfaction rate of African American college students, improve the African American student and the university relationship, increase the number of African American students in college, and improve the admission and retention rates of African American college students. In addition, the study should improve recruitment efforts by university officials, provide alternative strategies to implement affirmative action policies, and serve as a model to increase the number of other minority students in college. Assumptions The study was based on the following assumptions: 1. The students responded honestly and appropriately to the corresponding items on the survey and during the focus group interviews. 2. The Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey (HESSS) is a reliable and valid instrument to assess student satisfaction of African American 11 students at the Historically Black Colleges and Universities and their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities. 3. Interview questions for the focus groups are reflective questions based on the survey and feedback from its participants. Limitations of the Study The following limitations were cited for the study: 1. The methodology employed for the majority of the study, the use of the Higher Education Student Satisfaction Survey, may not reflect a valid or accurate picture of their actual college environment and setting; therefore, qualitative data were obtained through interviews with junior and senior students in order to substantiate the quantitative data gathered through the survey. 2. The study was limited to institutions in higher education that are Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities in the States of Alabama and Georgia. 3. The number of students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities are disproportionately lower than the number of students at Historically White Colleges and Universities. 4. The number of African American junior and senior college and university students in teacher education programs is lower than the overall average number of their majority White counterparts. 12 Definition of Terms For the purpose of the study, the following terms are defined: Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs): These institutions of higher education ?evolved as a result of demographic shifts and changes? (Laird, 2004, p. 10). More specifically, the presence of Hispanic Serving Institutions is the result of shifting social, political, economic, and demographic issues over the past 30 years (Laden, 2001). For instance, ?in 2002, according to the most recent figures available, Latinos represent about 17 percent of the college-age population, but accounted for just 10 percent of all college students, and just 7 percent of students at four-year colleges? (Stavans, 2006, B20). Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs): Colleges and Universities that are degree-granting institutions of higher learning that were established prior to 1964 with the primary mission of educating Black Americans. To date, 119 HBCUs exist throughout the United States (Hurd, 2001). Historically White Colleges and Universities (HWCUs): Institutions of higher education whose original mission was to educate individuals of the majority race in America. These institutions are commonly known as Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). As a result of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s these institutions have been legally desegregated, but the greatest percent of the student population remains predominantly White (Vaughn, 1990). Student Satisfaction (SS): ?the extent to which the student?s needs are being met to assist in his/her successful graduation from the institution. Satisfaction, for this study, refers to the student?s satisfaction with the institution?s ability to meet the following 13 needs: compensation for efforts, social life, working conditions, a feeling of recognition, and quality of education? (Vaughn, 1990, p. 12). 14 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Student Satisfaction Student satisfaction is a significant indicator of the institution?s responsiveness to student needs and a measure of institutional effectiveness, success, and vitality (Hallenbeck, 1978; Low, 2000; Nichols, 1985; Upcraft & Schuh, 1996). Accordingly, ?measuring student satisfaction is also important for maintaining and increasing enrollment, managing attrition and retention problems, and making better-informed decisions in the area of student affairs? (Hallenbeck, 1978, p. 1). A central issue that faculty members and university administrators face today is how to create an environment on campus that fosters student growth and development. Studies have demonstrated that engagement in activities outside of class, meaningful involvement in course work, and a climate that supports learning collectively fosters intellectual and personal development among students in college (Graham, 2000). In past years, university administrators have recognized the significance of student affairs services on campus and the role they play in addressing the social, personal, and emotional needs of students. Recently, student affairs professionals have worked closely with on campus academic programs to build an integrated approach to learning (Graham, 2000). ?Services such as academic advising, career development 15 activities, and personal counseling have been structured to support the instructional mission of the colleges? (American College Personnel Association, 1994, p. 1). Many educators agree that learning includes cognitive, social, and emotional development. Throughout higher education, a common theme is to educate the whole student. ?The broader mission includes promoting increased self-understanding; expanding personal, intellectual, cultural, and social horizons; developing moral and ethical standards; and preparing students for productive roles in the workplace and society? (Graham, 2000, p. 1). The most effective student affairs services are those that engage students in active learning through departments and programs such as counseling, residence life, learning centers, and career centers (Ender, Newton, & Caple, 1996). Research has shown that significant learning takes place inside and outside the classroom (DeSousa & Kuh, 1996). ?For example, a recent review of the literature showed that cognitive learning is positively shaped by out-of-class activities such as living in a residence hall, working part-time on campus, and participating in internships? (Terenzini, Pascarella, & Blimling, 1996, p. 2). Additionally, Kul (1992) stated that involvement in academic and social life outside the classroom, how ?connected? the students feel to the campus, and interactions with peers whose values match those of the institution all support student development in college. Nevertheless, involvement in out- of-class experiences and involvement in the campus environment is correlated with affective and cognitive growth (Kul et al., 1991; Schroeder & Hurst, 1996; Terenzini et al., 1996). Collectively, faculty and student affairs professionals are responsible for providing integrated learning experiences for students to educate the whole person 16 (Graham, 2000, p. 2). ?Together, faculty and student affairs people can do more for the quality of education than they can accomplish separately? (Blake, 1979, p. 291). Recent research has suggested that the climate of an educational institution strongly influences learning (Kul, 1993a). According to Graham (2000), With proper efforts, colleges that seek to increase the students? satisfaction with both the academic aspects of the colleges as well as the advising, academic support services, and career development programs can create environments that are likely to promote more positive experiences for students. (p. 8) Therefore, to enhance student outcomes, everyone involved in higher education must view themselves as collaborators and teachers in service to learning (American College Pesonnel Association, 1994). The ?educational ethos?, a belief system of educational principles and values shared by faculty, administrators, staff, and students, promote participation and loyalty among participants involved in the educational process. Colleges and universities engaged in promoting shared values are referred to as ?involving colleges?, which highlight the importance of productive student learning outcomes. Satisfaction studies are seen as important by staff and faculty who work with students. ?Given that individual students are the primary beneficiaries of housing facilities and services, asking them about their satisfaction with those experiences and services is one way to measure the success of housing programs on campus? (Gielow & Lee, 1988, p. 1). Pressures from decreasing enrollment, budget cuts, shrinking fiscal resources, an increased competition for government funding and private support make the 17 assessment of student satisfaction necessary (Astin, 1985; Barr, Upcraft & Associates, 1990; Coate, 1991; Kuh, Schuh, & Whitt, 1991; Tinto, 1993). Love (1999) has suggested that higher education institutions face significant financial constraints, in turn, increasing administrative efforts to enhance retention and persistence. Nonetheless, retention and persistence may be increased by creating an environment where learning is central to holistic development. A living and learning environment can be defined as ?bringing about a closer integration of the student?s living environment with his or her academic or learning environment? (Pascarella, Terenzini, & Blimling, 1994, p. 32). A positive relationship has been established between academic satisfaction and retention. Furthermore, it has been one of the most direct tests of postsecondary success. Additionally, satisfaction has been defined and measured as integration and involvement into college life (Anderson, 1981). Consequentially, many satisfaction measures have been treated as intervening variables to predict student retention (Bean, 1980; Hendel, 1985). ?These models suggested that higher levels of student satisfaction increase students? interaction with peers, enhance academic improvement and social involvement, promote integration within the program or university, and in turn promote students? involvement and persistence? (Lenning & Ebbers, 1999, p. 2). Marchese (1994) has suggested that residence halls are highly influential in improving undergraduate education quality because a large number of students live in the residence halls, which in turn, creates better opportunities to develop academically and socially. Living and learning programs within the residence halls were formed in order to provide residents with academic support. Increased student interaction with faculty and 18 well organized study-oriented activities have been found to provide more opportunities for social and academic involvement and enhance a good learning environment in the residence hall (Gabelnick, MacGregor, Matthews, & Smith, 1990; Lenning & Ebbers, 1999). Inkelas and Weisman (2003) found that living-learning students showed significantly more involvement in college activities than students not in such programs. Additionally, Pike, Schroeder, and Berry (1997) found that students in residential learning communities (LCs) reported significantly higher levels of interaction and involvement than other students living in traditional residence hall settings. Blimling (1993) and Terenzini, Pascarella, and Blimling (1996) found that ?students who lived in LCs with academic themes had higher levels of achievement, more involvement with faculty and peers, and informal academically oriented interactions more often than did students not living in an LC? (University of Missouri, 1996, p. 2). A dominant theme among residence hall learning communities is that learning happens within and outside the classroom setting. In a comparison of freshmen in living and learning centers to those freshmen in other residence halls, Kanoy and Bruhn (1996) discovered that residents in living-learning centers had significantly higher GPAs. Bean and Vesper (1994) researched the gender differences in satisfaction with being a college student. ?They found that social/relational factors were important for women, but not for men; additionally, they found that major and occupational certainty was significantly related to satisfaction for men, but not for women? (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005, p. 6). In addition, confidence in being a student and having attractive courses were important for both genders and the researchers 19 stated that the faculty comprise the most influential group on campus for both of these variables. The faculty are responsible for making courses relevant and they have the ability to influence the confidence of students. ?The authors concluded that formal contact with faculty is extremely important in the first and second years of the student?s college experience? (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005, p. 6). A study was conducted by Patti, Tarpley, Goree, and Tice (1993) in order to examine the link between college student satisfaction and student retention with facilities, programs, and student services. According to the University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study (2005), Their results showed a significant portion of variance in retention was predicted by three factors: 1) use of the Counseling Center; 2) use of the Career Services Center; and 3) responses to the item addressing ?concern for you as an individual?. (p. 6) The study also found that increased use of the Counseling Center and Career Services was associated with students choosing to depart from the university. ?The authors suggested that students are using counseling and career services as they anticipate leaving, and that stronger, innovative programs in these areas may facilitate student retention? (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005, p. 6). The relationship between the research and teaching climates of academic departments and undergraduate student outcomes are examined in a study by Volkwein and Carbone (1994). They found no evidence to support the common belief that research activity improves teaching; however, they found even less evidence to support the 20 criticism that research hinders teaching. Instead their findings suggested that the strongest undergraduate programs occur within departments where research and teaching are equally high priorities. (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005, p. 6) Institutional quality may be measured according to such factors as enthusiasm for continuous learning, interpersonal skills, a strong sense of responsibility for personal and community action, the ability to bridge cultural and linguistic barriers, and a well- developed sense of professionalism. Institutional attributes that may ensure the conditions for quality exist include commitment to specific ?good practices? in instruction, student- centeredness, efficiency and integrity of operation, and quality management practices (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005). The assessment of quality centered around four main areas for students. The first area was the ?bottom line? for students-having a degree that will increase marketability in the workplace, anticipated salary in relation to education costs and debts incurred, and the possession of key skills to assist in career mobility. Secondly, key experiences within the college environment, such as access to faculty and ?hands-on? learning experiences, are significant. Thirdly, assessing quality is based on support services such as advising, career and personal counseling, childcare, and efficient administrative processes. And lastly, the fourth area was cost. ?Actual cost incurred is a critical concern, but also costs in terms of time and effort. Students want to be sure that all types of expenditures required of them are not squandered by the institution? (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005, p. 8). 21 Research has demonstrated that three areas are likely to create superior learning experiences. These areas are organizational culture, curriculum, and undergraduate instruction. ?Quality in the area of organizational culture requires high expectations, respect for diverse talents and styles, and an emphasis on the early undergraduate years, especially the freshman year, as critical to student success? (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005, p. 8). Within the area of curriculum, quality requires synthesizing experiences, coherence in learning, ongoing practice of learned skills, and integrating experience and education. And lastly, quality in undergraduate instruction develops within collaboration and feedback, active learning, assessment and prompt feedback, out-of-class contact with faculty, and adequate time on task (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 2005). The First Year of College Tinto (1987) has suggested that the first year in college is the key time for students to begin to fit in and establish contacts. Many educational scholars agree that student success is largely determined by experiences during the freshman year. Success in college ?encompasses more than just graduating: it includes establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships, deciding on a career and lifestyle, and developing competencies, identity, and an integrated philosophy of life? (Malaney & Shively, 1995, p. 5). Upcraft et al. (1989) contends that academic and social integration of first-year students into a college or university are crucial for success. Student and faculty contact both within and outside the classroom contribute to the success of first year college students (Malaney & Shively, 1995). According to Upcraft et al. (1989), ?the best way to 22 assist first-year students in their academic and social integration is through new student orientation programs or seminars? (Malaney & Shively, 1995, p. 6). Such programs can narrow the gap between expectations and experiences. Expectations and Experiences of Ethnic Minority Students Allen (1981, 1985, 1988) noted that African American students in White colleges are often not prepared for the experiences they encounter and face more isolation, alienation, and dissatisfaction relative to White students. Additionally, Madrazo-Peterson and Rodriguez (1978) found that Native American and Latino students also experience isolation and alienation. Munoz (1986) noted ?Chicano students face more adjustment problems and stress than White students, and perceive themselves as less prepared academically? (Malaney & Shively, 1995, p. 7). Several factors such as low socioeconomic status, poor understanding of the higher education system, language problems, inadequate academic preparation, and lack of congruence between expectations and experiences may contribute to adjustment problems (Malaney & Shively, 1995). Therefore, ?Chicano students often are not assimilated into an institution and generally do not take part in mainstream student activities, which increase their feelings of marginality and leads to lower expectations and performance? (Malaney & Shively, 1995, p. 7). As Hispanic American populations grow in the South and West, colleges are working hard to recruit high school graduates. For example, ?based on current elementary enrollment numbers, officials estimate Hispanic will make up a third of North Carolina?s high school graduates by 2013? (Holmes, 2004, p. 1). According to David Longanecker, executive director of Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, Hispanics 23 will account for 21 percent of the country?s public high school graduates by 2008 (Holmes, 2004). Longanecker suggests that many colleges and universities need to implement subtle changes to make Hispanic students feel more welcome. For instance, schools may hire bilingual counselors to help recruit students from Spanish-speaking families, translate admissions package information into Spanish and advertise in national college guides for Hispanics. Additionally, college recruiters can hold receptions for Hispanic families and partner with Hispanic community groups to extend their reach. The Pew Hispanic Center found that although Hispanic high school graduates are seeking higher education at the same rate as comparable whites, they are only half as likely as whites to earn a bachelor?s degree (Holmes, 2004). ?The study said that is because a disproportionate number of Hispanic students end up at less-selective, ?open- door? schools that tend to have lower graduation rates? (Holmes, 2004, p. 2). Nonetheless, at Fayetteville State University, a historically black institution with about 5,300 students, the number of Hispanic students grew 30 percent between 1998 and 2003. ?About 4% of current students are Hispanic, the highest percentage at any state institution? (Holmes, 2004, p. 2). In 2003-04, the University of California, Berkeley?s admission of freshman African American students decreased by 30%. Furthermore, Latino students were admitted in lower numbers: 916 in 2004 vs. 998 for the 2003 class. Berkeley?s incoming 2004 freshman class was 2.6% African American, 9.8% Latino, 32.3% White, and 45.5% Asian American (Burdman, 2004). ?Those numbers are increasingly out of line with K- 12 enrollment, where 8% of students are Black, 46% are Latino, 32% are White, and 8% are Asian American? (Burdman, 2004, p. 31). 24 Gary Orfield, co-director of the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, believes that possible explanations for decreases in minority enrollment include higher tuitions across the nation and publicity over the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that struck down Michigan?s system for giving admission preference based on race (Locke, 2004). ?Berkeley recruiting efforts were further hurt, campus officials say, by new restrictions on their practice of flying students from predominantly minority high schools to campus for pre-application visits? (Locke, 2004, p. A9). African American Males in College By most social indicators, more young Black males are being incarcerated, more are rejecting fatherhood, more are dropping out of high school, and fewer are going to college. The decline of Black men enrolling in institutions of higher education has both sociologists and educators concerned (Hefner, 2004). Dr. Bruce Western, sociology professor at Princeton University and education policy expert at the Justice Policy Institution, postulates that ?as the education level of Black men falls in relation to the rest of the labor force, their economic position will also deteriorate? (Hefner, 2004, p. 71). Regardless of race, women out number men in college enrollment and graduation. In particular, Black women are enrolling and graduating from college at nearly double the rate of Black men, a disparity that is unique among African American students (Hefner, 2004). According to the American Council on Education?s ?Minorities in Higher Education Annual Status Report?, the growth rate of Black men enrolling in college is the lowest among minority groups. For example, between 1980 and 2000, the number of Black men who enrolled in college in the fall semester grew by 37%. For Black women, however, the number increased by 70% (Hefner, 2004). Therefore, there were 450,000 25 more Black women enrolling in college in 2000 than Black men. Nevertheless, nearly 70% of Black students who earned bachelor?s degrees in 2000 were women (Hefner, 2004). African American College Student Attendance Statistics According to the 1998 National Center for Education Statistics, only 7.8% of all college graduates who matriculate through bachelor?s degree-granting institutions are African American students. Although the majority of African Americans (85%) who attend college go to majority white institutions, historically black institutions award a disproportionate number of bachelor?s degrees (28%) to African American students (Constantine & Watt, 2002). More African American women (62%) attend college than African American males (Constantine & Watt, 2002). Furthermore, African American students who attend Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) tend to develop more effective assertiveness skills, while African American students who attend Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) tend to develop more leadership skills (Fleming, 1984). ?Moreover, African American students attending HBCUs tend to report a greater sense of happiness because of circumstances that are endemic to such institutions (e.g., more Black students, faculty, and staff) (Constantine & Watt, 2002, 185). Constantine and Watt (2002) found that African American women at HBCUs reported higher levels of cultural congruity and life satisfaction than their counterparts at PWIs. This particular finding supports previous literature suggesting that institutional climate may play a vital role in the academic and social adjustment and satisfaction of African American students on college campuses (Constantine & Watt, 2002). 26 Attendance Outcomes of African American Students As previously stated, African American students who attended Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) tend to develop more effective assertiveness skills, while African American students who attended Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) tend to develop more leadership skills (Fleming, 1984). Other attendance outcomes of African American students suggest that ?only 25% of U.S. high school students complete any college degree. Among African American youth, only 18% earn a baccalaureate by age 29? (Black Issues in Higher Education, 2004, p. 94). Historically Black Colleges and Universities produce nearly a quarter of the bachelor?s degrees earned by African Americans each year (Glenn, 2004). Minority Students at Selective Colleges Contrary to previously held notions, recent research shows that Black and Hispanic students are more likely to finish college if they attend a relatively selective institution, even if that means they are surrounded by better-prepared students (Glenn, 2004). Alon and Tienda (2004) found ?that while black and Hispanic students at selective colleges did drop out at relatively high rates, equally prepared black and Hispanic students who choose less-selective colleges were even more likely to drop out? (Glenn, 2004, p. A41). The researchers noted that such selective colleges tend to offer more financial aid, smaller classes, more contact with professors, and a more studious environment than their nonselective counterparts (Glenn, 2004). Engagement at Minority Serving Institutions Some research indicates that minority students benefit differently depending on the type of institution they attend. For example, research suggests that attending a 27 historically Black college or university (HBCU) contributes significantly to student outcomes for African American students (Flowers, 2002; Outcalt & Skewes-Cox, 2002). ?Most research on the HBCU experience is comparative in nature illuminating the different experiences of African American students at both types of institutions. Time and again these studies reveal a more satisfying experience that results in greater gains for African American students at HBCUs? (Laird, Bridges, Holmes, Morelon, & Williams, 2004, p. 4). According to existing research, the average Hispanic student is less likely to pursue and complete a baccalaureate degree in comparison to White, African American, and Asian students (Benitez, 1998; Cejda, Casparis, & Rhodes, 2002; Miller & Garcia, 2004; O?Brien & Zudak, 1998). Inadequate high school preparation often leads either to high drop-out rates or low college-going rates, which in turn affects the Hispanic baccalaureate pipeline (Garcia, 2001; O?Brien & Zudak, 1998). In addition, Hispanic students face challenges in college that include academic under-preparedness, vestiges of racism, status as first-generation, and culturally significant messages that might cause tensions between pursuing an education and maintaining familial obligations (Dayton, Gonzalez-Vasquez, Martinez, & Plum, 2004; Ortiz, 2004). Despite the fact that Hispanics constitute the fastest-growing minority in the United States and even though Hispanic participation in higher education has more than doubled over the past 10 years, their enrollment rate has not kept pace with their population growth (Benitez, 1998; Garcia, 2001; O?Brien & Zudak, 1998). ?Because many Hispanic populations are concentrated in urban centers, there is a propensity to be located in severely segregated neighborhoods? (Laird, et al., 2004, p. 6). Citing work by 28 Orfield (1997), O?Brien and Zudak (1998) report, ?African Americans and Hispanics are increasingly isolated in inferior schools and that both groups are far more likely than whites to attend schools in areas of concentrated poverty?. O?Brien and Zudak (1998) found that segregated neighborhoods usually equate to inferior resources, which eventually results in inferior levels of education. Rendon (1994), who notes that these students are primarily first-generation, uncovered the following issues that Hispanic students face in college: distrust of institutional infrastructures, fear of failure, fear about asking questions, fear of being perceived as ?stupid? or ?lazy,? cultural separation, doubts about being ?college material,? trauma associated with making the transition to college, and being intimidated by the system? (p. 9). Scholars conducting research on Hispanic students affirm the primary influence of family and community on students? ability and willingness to persist in higher education and find that the challenges they face negatively impact their educational experience, particularly at PWIs (Dayton, et al., 2004; Jones, Castellanos, & Cole, 2002; Laden, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004; Stern, 1995). Dayton et al. (2004) and Laden (2001, 2004) propose that faculty and administration, particularly those who are Hispanic, can play a key role in facilitating academic and social integration as well as academic success. ?The student engagement or involvement literature on African American students is also primarily limited to comparisons of African American students? experiences at PWIs versus HBCUs? (Laird et al., 2004, p.8). Wesglisky (1996) found that HBCU students have higher educational aspirations than African American students attending PWIs and that they are more likely to pursue and acquire professional degrees. Numerous 29 scholars (Astin, 1975, 1993; Cross & Astin, 1981; Pascarella, Smart, Ethington & Nettles, 1987) have found that attending an HBCU increases the potential for a student to persist. Bonous-Hammarth and Boatsman (1996) reported that HBCU students were much more likely to persist than their counterparts at PWIs. Scholars have consistently found that the supportive and nurturing environment at HBCUs, which avails students of academic and leadership development opportunities, facilitates greater satisfaction, confidence, and academic gains than for African American students attending PWIs (Allen, 1986, 1992; Allen, Epps, & Haniff, 1991; DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Fleming; 1984, 2001; Flowers & Pascarella, 1999; Watson & Kuh, 1996). Astin?s (1975) study is consistent with these findings and further suggests that racial isolation and alienation at PWIs has a negative effect on African American student success. ?There is also some indication that the homogenous environment at HBCUs does not inhibit African American students? in ways we might assume? (Laird et al., 2004, p. 8). For example, Flowers and Pascarella (1999) found that the HBCU environment does not inhibit African American students? openness to social and cultural diversity. Davis (1991) surmised that opportunities to participate in student-centered activities at HBCUs that cater to African American students? interests created social support networks that also facilitated student success. ?This is reflective of the African American and HBCU mission-centered curriculum, pedagogy, and academic and social activities in which students are involved on HBCU campuses? (Laird et al., 2004, p. 8). A study by the USA Group Foundation (Redd, 2000) reveals that this level of engagement continues after students graduate from HBCUs and become active in community and 30 volunteer service. ?Collectively, the research on Hispanic and African American students suggest that these two groups of students face serious challenges, although not identical sets of challenges, when they attend PWIs. The challenges present a major hurdle for engagement on these campuses and consequently can affect students? chances for academic success and persistence. There is strong evidence to suggest that HBCUs reduce some of the barriers to engagement and facilitate greater success among African American students? (Laird et al., 2004, p. 8). Hispanic Serving Institutions and Historically Black Colleges and Universities Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) and Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) differ in significant ways based on institutional legacies and cultures. According to Laird et al. (2004), HBCUs were created expressly for the purpose of educating African Americans and for years served as the only postsecondary option for the vast majority of this group of Americans. One of the positive legacies of this history is that the environments on these campuses seem particularly well-suited for promoting collegiate success among African American students. In contrast, HSIs evolved as a result of demographic shifts and changes. (p. 10) Laden (2001) more specifically suggests that the presence of HSIs is the result of shifting social, political, economic, and demographic issues over the past 30 years. ?HBCUs appear to provide an environment that encourages student engagement, retention, and success. There is also evidence to suggest that there are Hispanic-centered faculty, administration, and programs at HSIs and that these institutional resources can have similarly positive effects on Hispanic students? (Laird et al., 2004, p. 11). 31 Historically black colleges are recruiting Hispanic students now more than ever before. Black colleges that want to increase enrollment rates are revising recruitment strategies to include more members of the nation?s largest and fastest-growing minority group?Hispanic Americans (Associated Press, 2006). Many Black institutions are hiring Hispanic recruiters, distributing brochures featuring Hispanic students, and establishing special scholarships for Hispanics. Such efforts are reflective of the fact that ?the number of Hispanic students attending Historically Black Colleges increased more than 60 percent from 1994 to 2004, while the number of Black students grew by 35 percent, according to the U.S. Department of Education? (Associated Press, 2006, p. B4). Many educators believe that Black and Hispanic students are a natural fit on a college campus. Dr. Michael Lomax, president and CEO of the United Negro College Fund, notes that ?they are both underserved communities when it comes to higher education. We have got to educate them so that we can have a competitive work force in the 21 st century? (Associated Press, 2006, p. B4). The Hispanic population is growing so rapidly that ?in the 1990s, Hispanics surpassed Blacks as the nation?s largest minority. The number of Hispanics in the United States grew by nearly 60 percent that decade, while the number of Blacks only grew by about 15 percent? (Associated Press, 2006, p. B4). Hasan Jamil, assistant vice president for enrollment services at historically Black Texas Southern University, adds: ?We have the advantage as a HBCU to cater to the minority-small classroom, small family-type environment? (Associated Press, 2006, p. B4). 32 Achievement Motivation and College Satisfaction It has been proposed that there are many factors that promote or hinder the success of students in post-secondary educational institutions (Lamport, 1993). Among these factors, achievement motivation and satisfaction with the college experience have been linked to student attrition and performance (Hatcher, Kryter, Prus & Fitzgerald, 1992; Klein, 1990; Lamport, 1993). Specifically, Spanard (1990) indicated that persisting students have more motivation than nonpersisting students and nonpersisting students are less involved in college life and activities. Research has ?shown that between 40% to 50% of higher education students do not complete their degrees? (Hatcher, Kryter, Prus, & Fitzgerald, 1992). Specifically, it has been theoretically argued that student satisfaction is necessary for continued motivation (Klein, 1990). Furthermore, Bean and Bradley (1986) concluded that ?satisfaction had a greater influence on performance than performance had on satisfaction ?indicating that satisfaction with college can be a predictor of academic success (p. 403). Recent Court Rulings Courts across the country have produced conflicting rulings on diversity as a compelling interest in government and higher education. ?In Smith v. University of Washington Law School (2001), the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court?s ruling that Bakke is still good and stands for the proposition that educational diversity can be a compelling governmental interest that justifies race-sensitive admissions programs? (Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002, p. 3). To the contrary, in Johnson v. Board of Regents of the University of Georgia (2001), ?the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals declined to rule on the question of whether diversity is a compelling 33 governmental interest but struck down the University of Georgia?s admissions policy on the grounds that it was not ?narrowly tailored? to that interest? (Gurin et al., 2002, p. 3). Two cases involving the University of Michigan delivered two different court rulings on diversity as a compelling governmental interest. ?In Gratz v. Bollinger et al. (2000), the court ruled on summary judgment in favor of the University of Michigan, upholding its current undergraduate admissions policy and finding that diversity was a compelling governmental interest that justified the policy? (Gurin, et al., 2002, p. 3). Whereas, in Grutter v. Bollinger et al. (2002), ?the court held that the educational benefits of diversity are not a compelling state interest, and even if they were, the law school?s policy was not ?narrowly tailored? to the interest of diversity? (Gurin et al., 2002, p. 3). Upon appeal, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the lower court decision in Grutter, voting in favor of the university and setting the agenda for appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. In recent court proceedings concerning race based admission policies, ?diversity is the primary basis for arguing the constitutionality of using race as one of many factors in college admission? (Gurin, et al., 2002, p. 3). For example in 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court rendered a decision in both Bollinger cases. In the Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) case, the Court upheld the use of race-conscious admissions policies at public institutions of higher education to promote what it held to be a ?compelling interest? in racial diversity on campuses (Jost, 2003). ?The ruling-a major victory for supports of affirmative action- rejected a challenge by an unsuccessful white applicant, Barbara Grutter, to admissions policies at the University of Michigan Law School? (Jost, 2003, p. 1). The companion 34 case of Gratz v. Bollinger (2003), the Court ruled that the admissions policies at the University of Michigan?s main undergraduate college were unconstitutional (Jost, 2003). The University of Michigan?s 2003 U.S Supreme Court rulings of Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger ?only affect those colleges and universities that attract so many applicants that they need to pick and chose those they accept-perhaps no more than 200 of the country?s 4,000 schools? (Kronholz, Tomsho, & Greenberger, 2003, p. A8). The decision could affect scholarships, internships, and research assistant positions that are awarded partially based on race. While it allows colleges to consider race in making those awards, the court makes clear that diversity shouldn?t be defined solely in terms of race and ethnicity. That will mean universities will have to look more broadly at special talents and life circumstances, such as family income and education levels, in looking for a diverse student body. (Kronholz, Tomsho, & Greenberger, 2003, p. A8) Race, Class, and Skin Color Economic gaps between light-and dark-skinned African Americans in education, income, and SES are of the same magnitude as the White/Black gap (Hughes & Hertel, 1990; Keith & Herring, 1991). African Americans distinguish themselves and Whites, to be sure, but they also distinguish between and among themselves based on physical features such as socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and skin tone (Celious, 2001, p. 1). Cross?s earlier work describes stages of identity development in which individuals move form not realizing that race is central to centralizing race in their lives (Cross, 1971). Though revised to suggest that individuals may in fact vary in the centrality of race without causing problems to their mental health (Cross & Fhagen-Smith, 1996); this 35 theory does not deal with the ways class, gender, and physical attributes create systematic differences in the experience of being African American. According to Feagin (1991), middle-class Blacks report avoidance, poor service, verbal epithets, public threats, and various forms of harassment from Whites with whom they come in contact. ?This treatment is based on the homogeneous perspective that all Blacks are the same, leading to the assumption that one?s middle-class Black neighbors, coworkers, or co-commuters are actually members of the underclass? (Celious, 2001, p. 4). Neckerman et al. (1999) suggest that to avoid such incidents, middle-class Blacks adapt by ?wearing a mask? in racially integrated spaces highlighting their ability to use the speech and behavioral patterns valued by other (White) middle-class participants in the integrated space. ?This analysis implies that middle-class Blacks use different speech and behavioral patterns in intraracial/interclass spaces where ?African American? symbolic and interaction styles are highly valued. An alternative perspective is that middle-class Blacks ?wear a mask? of what they believe to be stereotypical (lower-class) Black patterns in interclass settings to validate inclusion in a presumptively homogenous group? (Celious, 2001, p. 4). In many ways, one?s ability to be successful is determined by how one performs (Celious, 2001). For example, ?it may be the ability to fit comfortably in (White) middle- class Blacks are not adapting to ?White middle-class norms? but merely living the way they grew up and by being middle-class, are better equipped to secure jobs, careers, academic success, and attainments? (Celious, 2001, p. 4). According to Keith and Herring (1991), Black women are the ones most debilitated by skin tone distinctions. They found that for women, darker skin was 36 positively correlated to fewer years of education, less prestigious occupations, and lower family incomes (Keith & Herring, 1991). ?In the literature, skin tone has been found to determine the type of SES, occupational experience, and sense of attractiveness one has? (Celious, 2001, p. 6). According to data collected from the National Survey of Black Americans, lighter skinned Blacks in general have more years of education, higher incomes, and higher SES than darker skinned African Americans (Keith & Herring, 1991). The magnitude of this disparity between light-and dark-skinned African Americans equals the size of the gap between Black and White America in respect to education, income, SES (Hughes & Hertel, 1990). As Keith and Herring (1991) found for women, darker skin was positively correlated to fewer years of education, less prestigious occupations, and lower family incomes. Krieger et al. (1998) found that working-class men, however, were 1.4 times more likely to be darker skinned than professional men. It is assumed that having lighter skin affords advantages in the workplace for all Americans, whether of African, European, or other background (Bell, 1996). Therefore, ?skin tone-based advantage is often assumed to be a historic legacy? (Celious, 2001, p. 6). Among African Americans, it is often assumed that Whites prefer lighter skinned African Americans. This belief may explain why lighter skinned African American college students reported higher occupational aspirations than their darker skinned counterparts (Hall, 1996). ?It suggests that African Americans aspire to what they perceive to be more attainable: higher occupational possibilities for lighter than darker skinned African Americans? (Celious, 2001, p. 6). 37 Skin tone has been linked to SES and workplace experiences (Celious, 2001). In measuring skin tone as a marker of beauty, the connection between skin tone and notions of attractiveness are quite apparent. Research suggests that perceived attractiveness bolsters self-worth (Dion, Pak & Dion, 1990; Hall, 1995; Umberson & Hughes, 1987). ?If individuals with lighter or darker skin are considered more attractive, then they are more likely to be treated better in all settings: intraracial and interracial? (Celious, 2001, p. 6). Those found attractive are held, cuddled, and kissed more as infants and considered more sociable, warm, interesting, outgoing, humorous, and socially adept as adults (Zanden & Wilfrid, 1997; Feingold, 1992). ?Therefore, if skin tone is linked to attractiveness, those with lighter skin tone will be treated more favorably in everyday interactions? (Celious, 2001, p. 6). In general, skin tone as a maker of beauty is gendered (Celious, 2001). For instance, to women darker skin is supposedly related to a more negative sense of self- worth (Neal & Wilson, 1989; Harvey, 1995). Alternately, in a study by Wade (1996), dark-skinned men rated themselves as being more attractive than lighter skinned men. ?In this sense, skin tone may be more valuable for light-skinned women and dark-skinned men. The consequences for lighter skinned men may be less debilitating than those for darker skinned women because men are able to exchange their wealth for marriage partners and men are judged less by their physical appearance than are women? (Celious, 2001, p. 7). Therefore, as Keith and Herring (1991) suggested, skin tone distinctions are most debilitating for Black women. It is suggested that successful Black men, regardless of their skin tone, exchange their wealth for a woman?s lighter skin (Drake & Clayton, 1945; Hall, 1995; Okazawa- 38 Rey, Robinson, & Ward, 1987). ?To be clear, skin tone has been found to affect all African Americans, dark and light. It is considered a more pertinent topic, however, for those who are considered ?very dark? and ?very light?? (Celious, 2001, p. 7). In most cases, interracial settings may offer African Americans with lighter skin better treatment from Whites more often than do intraracial settings. For example, most negative stereotypes are associated with darker skinned blacks (Celious, 2001). ?Therefore, light- skinned Blacks may be seen as more likeable and less threatening. Because of this, interracial settings are thought to offer more advantages to lighter skinned than to darker skinned African Americans as a general rule? (Celious, 2001, p. 8). In the period following emancipation, the vast majority of African Americans were confined to a very narrow range of poorly paid occupational classifications (Laudry, 1987). A sizable professional class did not appear within African American society until the period of Black northward migration, when residential segregation in cities solidified and there arose a need for professional services within Black communities (Pattillo- McCoy, 1999b); some members of this class merged with the older mulatto elite through marriage (Laudry, 1987). Eventually, the general tide of prosperity in the United States after World War II lifted even the boats of Black Americans, bringing an unprecedented expansion of the Black middle class (Laudry, 1987; Vannerman & Cannon, 1987). Between 1960 and 1970, Laudry (1987) argues, the Black middle class doubled in size. On this basis, Laudry (1987) refers to a ?new Black middle class,? which came of age after the restrictions of Jim Crow began to lift, and consequently had access to a wider range of 39 occupations, residential neighborhoods, and opportunities to purchase goods and services with their middle-class incomes than did the older middle and upper classes. Since emancipation, African Americans have struggled for freedom from the restrictions imposed by the wider society based on race (Cole & Omari, 2003). At the end of the 19 th century, many Black leaders, educated and from elite backgrounds, embarked on a political project for the improvement of the race based on the idea of ?uplift? (Gaines, 1996). ?Uplift ideology held that Black Americans would progress as a race when they adopted the culture and values of the White middle class. Thus, privileged Blacks worked to ?uplift? the Black working class, largely through encouraging education, vocational training, and other kinds of ?respectable? conduct? (Cole & Omari, 2003, p. 3). The ideology of uplift served to confound class with status in the minds of laypeople (Laudry, 1987), indeed, many who studied African American culture between World War II and the civil rights movement argued that members of the Black communities classified themselves and others as middle class based primarily on values and social behavior with respect to family and community (such as the pursuit of education and attendance at church and cultural events, i.e., ?respectability?) rather than material circumstances per se (Vanneman & Cannon, 1987). ?Proponents of uplift viewed civil rights as essentially middle class rights, and thus believed that Whites ought to see the Black bourgeoisie as worthy of full citizenship? (Cole & Omari, 2003, p. 3). Thus, ?uplift? is both a racial formation project, and a classed project (Omi & Winant, 1994). 40 Since the 1960s, Black enrollment has increased in the most selective secondary schools in the United States. Most of the research on this phenomenon focuses on the difficulties faced by Black students in these institutions (Cole & Omari, 2003). Cookson and Persell?s (1991) characterization is typical of the findings of these studies; they describe their representative national sample of African American students attending elite secondary boarding schools as ?outsiders within?caught between two cultures and, in this sense, doubly marginalized? (p. 220). The authors argue that the intense proximity between students of different races in the boarding school context served to ?accentuate racial differences that are compounded by class differences? (p. 220). Despite the fact that many of the students sampled were from families in which at least one percent either had a college degree or worked in a professional occupation, ?in response to anonymous surveys these students reported a double burden of having to acclimate to both White culture, and to upper middle-class culture? (Cole & Omari, 2003, p. 6). Cookson and Persell (1991) concluded that it is double stratification (both race and class) that keeps Black students from ever fully entering the upper middle-class world represented by the prep school. Datnow and Cooper (1996) found similar challenges faced by the Black students samples from the elite, predominantly White independent schools they interviewed. These researchers focused their inquiry on the way that students used their peer networks to help them cope with their outside status. Contrary to studies based on Black students in inner city schools, they found that the culture of Black students at these elite schools did not encourage an oppositional identity that disdainfully views academic success as ?acting White? (Ogbu, 1986). Instead, Black students, feeling marginalized from the 41 school, turned to each other as role models (Cole & Omari, 2003). They formed peer groups that created and maintained academic identities in which ?if you?re not smart, you?re not cool? (Datnow & Cooper, 1996, p. 64). Datnow and Cooper (1996) argued that these peer groups supported, also, a strong and positive racial identity, particularly through the establishment of culturally-based clubs. ?Thus, ?acting White? was not defined by one?s closeness with Whites, but in terms of how one treated other Blacks? (Cole & Omari, 2003, p. 6). Modern Ghanaian Perceptions of Skin Color In two studies conducted by Dr. Jocelyn Mackey in 2005, results show the affect of the social and cultural climate on self-esteem of Ghanaian students. ?Similar to the widely publicized Kenneth and Mamie Clark doll study in the 1940s, Mackey asked students in one public and one private school in Accra to relate qualities such as attractiveness, familiarity, wealth, nurturance, academic ability and social acceptance to the skin color of the dolls? (Rogers, 2006, p. 9). The first study participants were instructed to attach the qualities to one of five dolls who were placed on a continuum from very light to very dark skinned. The second study participants only had a choice between the darkest-skinned and the lightest-skinned dolls (Rogers, 2006). Overall, the lighter-skinned dolls were given more positive attributes, with one notable exception to the ?smartest? dolls. ?In the first study, the darkest-skinned dolls were a close second to the lightest. But in the second study, the darker-skinned dolls were considered the smartest. Nevertheless, the lighter dolls were more associated with going to college and getting the best grades? (Rogers, 2006, p. 9). 42 Achieving Diversity through Informal Interactions The definition of racial/ethnic diversity is important in institutional admission and satisfaction. Informal interactions with racially diverse peers may occur in a variety of campus environments, but the majority of them occur outside of the classroom. Such interactions may include informal discussion, daily interactions in residence halls, campus events, and social activities (Antonio, 1998; Chang, 1996). Therefore, ?the impact of racial/ethnic diversity on educational outcomes comes primarily from engagement with diverse peers in the informal campus environment and in college classrooms? (Gurin, et al., 2002, p. 3). Resilient Factors among African American College Students Research reveals that teachers often lower academic expectations of African Americans than they do for White American students (Fisher, 2004). In recent studies (Fisher, 2000, Fisher & Stafford, 1999) Black students? academic self-concept had the highest correlation with academic resilience (the ability maintain one?s academic pursuits in spite of obstacles) than other protective factors. Religion has been referenced as a strong factor among Black families (Ellison, 1993). More often than their White American counterparts, African American adolescents have identified religion as a protective factor (Peterson, 1997). ?Overall, Black youth indicate that spiritual/religious experiences increase their confidence, skills, and knowledge in ways that enhance their ability to recover from adversities? (Fisher, 2004, p. 20). Evidence reveals that when parents and teachers have high expectations as well as overtly express their support for African American students? goals and accomplishments, these students demonstrate more academic resilience than those without such support 43 (Mannon & Blackwell, 1992; O?Brien, 1990). A student is most likely to maintain his/her academic pursuits if their friends are also academically oriented and have high educational expectations (Fries-Britt, 2000). To build academic resilience for African American students on campus, they must have a supportive and comfortable environment for achievement. ?For instance, instructors who establish high student expectations and are sensitive to diverse learning styles can be instrumental in setting a tone to help African American students stay on their academic and career paths? (Fisher, 2004, p. 21). In order to enhance important relationships and their influence on resilience, matching peer mentors to African American students who have similar interests (i.e. academic disciplines, religions/spiritual affiliations) is significant (Fisher, 2004). ?When students are paired with mentors who are pursuing similar academic majors, mentors can help their mentees stay motivated and offer strategies of how to effectively develop and obtain academic and career goals. Peer mentors matched according to spiritual/religious beliefs aids in strengthening students? spiritual and religious connections while away from home? (Fisher, 2004, p. 21). Additionally, encouraging student-family connections as soon as students arrive on campus can be beneficial in preserving a consistent level of family support (Fisher, 2004). ?University organizations could sponsor programs to increase the involvement of parents or significant others from the student?s home community. Such programming should be conducted in a manner that will not overwhelm students or limit their independence and creativity? (Fisher, 2004, p. 21). Researchers have suggested that a strong sense of one?s racial/ethnic identity provides a stable base to develop biculturalism (Fries-Britt, 2000). Additionally, preliminary findings indicate that racial/ethnic identity can prevent the internalization of 44 negative racial messages, help cope with stress, and reduce participation in ?problem behaviors? (Miller, 1999). ?Recent research has identified ethnic pride and biculturalism (ability to successfully operate in more than one culture) as potential resilient factors for African American college students? (Fisher, 2004, p. 21). College Student Departure Rates The rate of college student departure from college and universities is alarming. Tinto (1993) stated that almost half of students entering two-year colleges and more than one-fourth of students entering four-year collegiate institutions leave at the end of their first year. ?Meanwhile, the departure rate of first-year students in highly selective colleges and universities was eight percent? (Bray, 1999, p. 1). Nationally, about 63% of high school graduates enroll in postsecondary education the fall after completing high school (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002). Theoretical Framework Overview In order to understand the satisfaction rate of African American students in higher education, a theoretical foundation must be established. The conceptual framework within this study is collectively informed by such models and theories as Tinto?s Model of Institutional Departure and Race Identity Theory. However, each theoretical concept examines satisfaction from a unique perspective. Tinto?s Model of Institutional Departure Vincent Tinto introduced the Model of Institutional Departure in 1987, which states that the student retention process is dependent upon the student?s institutional process. Therefore, ?students who are satisfied with the formal and informal academic 45 and social systems in a college or university tend to stay in school? (Lau, 2003, p.2). On the other hand, students who have negative experiences ?tend to become disillusioned with college, withdraw from their peers and faculty members, and ultimately, the institution? (Lau, 2003, p. 2). Several institutional factors such as institutional administrators, faculty, and students themselves have an impact on the student?s learning process, resulting in higher retention rates, and ultimately, the probability of a higher graduation rate (Lau, 2003). Students of color, particularly those attending predominantly White institutions, face the additional challenges of racism and discrimination. Crosson (1988) noted that ?negative racial climates can adversely affect prospects for minority degree achievement? (p. 366). By virtue of their smaller numbers, students of color at predominantly white universities ?are forced to make considerable cultural and social adjustments? (Mow & Nettles, 1990, p. 78). Nevertheless, they will find it more difficult to meet people with similar backgrounds and interests, and they will generally encounter social isolation in addition to problems related to cultural adjustment, racism, and academics (Allen, 1988). Most students who withdraw from college do so voluntarily. In part, their departures represent low levels of academic and social integration (Tinto, 1987). As Tinto noted, ?the more integrative their experiences at colleges, the more likely students will persist until degree completion. Less integration means a greater likelihood of withdrawal? (Malaney & Shively, 1995, p. 4). According to Tinto, two sources for the lack of integration include incongruence and isolation. Incongruence occurs when ?individuals perceive themselves as being substantially at odds with the institution ?[therefore promoting a] mismatch or lack of fit 46 between the needs, interests, and preferences of the individual and those of the institution? (Tinto, 1987, pp. 53-54). Incongruence produces unpleasant interactions which decrease students? satisfaction with their college experiences. Some key factors that promote incongruence within the college experience include: a student?s perception of not fitting into the institution, lack of adequate preparation, not being academically challenged, the perceived quality of campus life, lack of participation in appropriate extracurricular activities, being a nontraditional student, and being from a nonmajority culture or ethnic background (Malaney & Shively, 1995). As Tinto (1987) concluded, ?some degree of incongruence will be experienced by most students, but when it is too great and goes unchecked, departure from the institution is likely? (p. 57). In spite of the key factors that promote incongruence, black women are able to get more out of the white college experience than black men (Fleming, 1984). More senior women can point to someone on the faculty or staff that they admire. Although Black women suffer from many of the same problems as do Black males, Black women manage to gain something more from the academic experience at White institutions (Fleming, 1984). ?What females display that males do not is growing involvement with faculty members? (Fleming, 1984, pp. 74-75). Such interactions may indicate that if faculty role modeling takes place, academic interest can continue, so that intellectual energies are not withdrawn from academics. ?Thus, women seem able to direct tension from frustrated social lives into academics, as long as they find encouragement in this direction? (Fleming, 1984, p. 75). Contrary to incongruence, isolation is defined as ?the absence of sufficient interactions whereby integration may be achieved? (Tinto, 1987, p. 53). In other words, 47 students simply are not involved to any great extent with the campus community. Fewer interactions with other students and faculty members lead to a greater likelihood of voluntary departure (Tinto, 1987). Pattengale and Schriener (2000) said that the sophomore year may be a time in which students disengage from academic life, thus creating an adverse effect on their grades. Tinto (1993) also suggested that the important issues for first-year students may not be important issues for students at other stages in a college career. In his classic work, Leaving College, Tinto (1993) outlined a longitudinal model of institutional departure. The model suggests that individual student attributes interact with experiences within the university environment to foster integration into the social and academic context of the institution. This integration impacts students? academic goals, future plans, and commitment to the university (Graunke, 2005, p. 1). Therefore, some negative experiences within the university, such as poor interactions with faculty or lack of involvement in campus activities, may cause the student to lessen their commitment to the university and leave the institution (Graunke, 2005). Gardner (2000) found that sophomores were more likely than students in other classes to state that ?confirming their major selection or deciding on an appropriate career was their biggest personal problem? (p. 72). Often, the second year in college is often a point at which institutions tend to provide the least amount of support to the students (Graunke, 2005). According to Pattengale and Schreiner (2000), institutions feel as if they have succeeded in retaining students after the first year, and that attention may then be directed to the next incoming cohort. 48 Because most sophomores have also not had opportunities for campus leadership and do not receive much programming or attention from student affairs (Pattengale & Schreiner, 2000), they may be relatively isolated from meaningful contact with other faculty as well. ?Thus, sophomores may become increasingly distant from the university community and more engaged in individual activities. Sophomores were less likely than students in other classes to be actively involved with their own learning or to see faculty as actively engaged in their personal and academic development?(Graunke, 2005, p. 2). In addition, they spent less time than students at other levels engaged in academic activities and more time engaged in social activities (Gardner, 2000). Juillerat (2000), for example, found that sophomores at private colleges rated factors such as a sense of belonging and approachable faculty as more important than students at other class levels. ?Overall, the research suggests that sophomores may have needs that differ from students at other levels and those needs are being largely overlooked by institutions of higher education? (Graunke, 2005, p. 2). Tinto (1993) suggested that ?long-term retention efforts beyond the first year should focus on three major sources of student departure: academic difficulties, the inability of individuals to resolve their education and occupational goals, and their failure to become or remain incorporated in the intellectual and social life of the institution? (p. 176). Tinto also said that institutional commitment ?arises from and is demonstrated in the everyday interaction among students, faculty and staff in the formal and informal domains of institutional life? (p. 201). Tinto?s (1975) Theory of College Student Departure contends that students enter college with various individual characteristics that play a role in the college departure 49 process (Bray, 1999). ?These student entry characteristics include family background characteristics (e.g., parental educational level), individual attributes (e.g., ability, race, and gender), and precollege schooling experiences (e.g., students? high school record of academic achievement). Such student entry characteristics directly influence students? initial commitments to the institution and to the goal of college graduation as well as the departure decision? (Bray, 1999, p. 1). In turn, initial commitment to the institution and commitment to the goal of graduation affect the student?s degree of integration into the academic and social systems of the college or university (Bray, 1999). According to Tinto?s Model of College Student Departure, academic and social integration affect the formation of subsequent commitments to the institution and to the goal of college graduation (Bray, 1999). Specifically, the greater the student?s level of academic integration, the greater the level of subsequent commitment to the goal of college graduation. Moreover, the greater the student?s level of social integration, the greater the level of their subsequent commitment to the focal college or university (Tinto, 1975, p. 110). ?Both subsequent commitments are also shaped by the student?s initial level of commitments. The greater the levels of both subsequent institutional commitment and commitment to the goal of college graduation the greater the likelihood the individual will persist in college? (Bray, 1999, p. 2). Tinto?s (1993) Revised Model of College Departure identifies some factors that contribute to academic success and college completion. ?Tinto posited that an institution?s capacity to reach out and integrate students into college academic and social life is critical to student retention and drop-out prevention? (Hinderlie, 2002, p. 1). A substantive body of research supports Tinto?s premise, indicating that on-campus support, 50 including relationships with classmates and faculty, contribute to academic success, social satisfaction and college completion among Black undergraduates (Jay & D?Augelli, 1991; Tinto, 1975; 1993; Tracey & Sedlacek, 1985). The development of on-campus support networks can be difficult for Black students. In a review of 20 years of research of Black students on White campuses, Sedlacek (1999) noted that Black students typically had access to relatively few Black faculty for support or mentoring and often experienced difficulty forming relationships with White staff and faculty. ?Sedlacek reported additionally that Black students often valued affiliation with a supportive community that offered advice in navigating the systems and process of the White institution. Because of difficulty in finding a relevant and sufficiently large on-campus community, Black students, more often than Whites sought community and advice off campus? (Hinderlie, 2002, p. 1). Black college students have been found to value family ties (Hughes, 1987), but how those ties serve to facilitate or hinder college adjustment has received relatively little research attention. Strong relationships with precollege family and community members, for example, are believed to facilitate adjustment and college retention (Tinto, 1993). On the other hand, if students feel torn by family obligations or experience feelings of disloyalty as they explore the college culture, family closeness might also impede adjustment (Arnold, 1993; London, 1989, 1992). If students are the first in their families to attend college, parents may be uncomfortable with the university culture and may not be able to provide specific guidance regarding the college experience (Kenny & Perez, 1996). 51 Race Identity Theory The Cross, Parham, and Helms racial identity models all discuss what we would describe as an intersection between racial perceptions of others (racism) and racial perception of self (racial development) (Ch?vez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999, p. 42). William Cross?s (1971, 1978) Model of Black Identity Development will be described along with Helms?s (1990) Model of White Racial Identity Development Theory. For the reader, racial identity and racial identity development theory are defined by Janet Helms (1990) as: a sense of group or collective identity based on one?s perception that he or she shares a common racial heritage with a particular racial group ? racial identity development theory concerns the psychological implications of racial-group membership, that is belief systems that evolve in reaction to perceived differential racial-group membership. (p. 3) According to Cross?s (1971, 1978, 1991) Model of Black Racial Identity Development, there are five stages in the process, identified as Preencounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, Internalization, and Internalization-Commitment. ?In the first stage of Preencounter, the African American has absorbed many of the beliefs and values of the dominant White culture, including the notion that ?White is right? and ?Black is wrong??? (Tatum, 1992, p. 10). Although the internalization of negative Black stereotypes may be outside of the individual?s conscious awareness, he or she seeks to assimilate and be accepted by Whites and distances him/herself from other Black people (Tatum, 1992). The next phase, Encounter, is precipitated by an event or series of events that forces the person to acknowledge the impact of racism in one?s life (Tatum, 1992). 52 ?Faced with the reality that he or she cannot truly be White, the individual is forced to focus on his or her identity as a member of a group targeted by racism? (Tatum, 1992, p. 11). Within the following stage, Immersion/Emersion, he/she surrounds oneself with visible symbols of one?s racial identity and an active avoidance of symbols of Whiteness. As Parham (1989) describes, ?At this stage, everything of value in life must be Black or relevant to Blackness. This stage is also characterized by a tendency to denigrate White people, simultaneously glorifying Black people? (p. 190). When individuals enter the Immersion stage, they explore aspects of their racial background such as history and culture with the support of their peers from their same racial background (Tatum, 1992). Typically, White-focused anger dissipates during this phase because so much of the person?s energy is directed toward his or her own group-and self-exploration. The result of this exploration is an emerging security in a newly defined and affirmed sense of self. (Tatum, 1992, p. 11) The emergence from Immersion/Emersion marks the beginning of Internalization. Secure in one?s own sense of racial identity, there is less need to assert the ?Blacker than thou? attitude often characteristic of the Immersion stage (Parham, 1989). In general, ?pro-Black attitudes become more expansive, open, and less defensive? (Cross, 1971, p. 24). ?While still maintaining his or her connections with Black peers, the internalized individual is willing to establish meaningful relationships with Whites who acknowledge and are respectful of his or her self-definition. The individual is also ready to build coalitions with members of other oppressed groups? (Tatum 1992, p. 12). Within the Internalization-Commitment stage, the individual has found ways to translate their ?personal sense of Blackness into a plan of action or a general sense of commitment? to 53 the concerns of Blacks as a group, which is sustained over time (Cross, 1991, p. 220). Often a person may move from one stage to the next, only to revisit an earlier stage as the result of new encounter experiences, though the later experience of the stage may be different from the original experience (Parham, 1989). African Americans constitute 12.8% of the population in the United States. Most recently, racial identity theories have developed from the notion that African Americans go through stages when affirming their Blackness (Cross, 1995). Cross became one of the first researchers to ?introduce a transformation experience specifically for African Americans, where he outlined how African Americans will progress from a non-African American identity to an African-American identity? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 20). Subsequently, Cross?s theory was elaborated and expanded on by Janet Helms (1984). Helms? (1990) racial identity development model explores conceptualization across multiple identity statuses (Hargrow, 2001). ?The model stipulates that a person can have numerous combinations of characteristics of different statuses (Helms, 1990). In other words, ?the Helms model provides a framework and guidelines for addressing the influence on the counseling process when the racial identity of the counselor and the client are at different or matching status levels? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). In contrast, the Helms racial identity model (1984) only consists of four statuses for Black identity: Pre-Encounter, Encounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Integration. In the Pre-Encounter status, African-Americans tend to look at Black culture and/or people as inferior to the dominant White culture (Thompson & Carter, 1997). ?They primarily identify with White culture and use media supported accounts of facts such as higher 54 rates of Blacks on welfare and in prison as evidence that White culture is superior? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 2). Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of having an inferior culture may be manifested actively or passively (Helms, 1990). In the passive mode of cultural denigration, the individual attempts to ignore the impact of race in daily interactions with both Blacks and Whites. The person has a strong desire to assimilate and acculturate into White culture (Sue & Sue, 1999). ?Therefore, subtle and sometimes overt racial or discriminatory behavior or racist practices are downplayed? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 2). Individuals in the Pre-Encounter status who manifest an active mode tend to possess negative stereotypes about African Americans. They feel that the problems in the African American community are the fault of African Americans (Hargrow, 2001). ?It also involves embracing the attitudes and values of the dominant culture that are oppressive to one?s own minority culture? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). In the second status (Encounter), ?the client is confronted with a significant event or situation that shakes the Pre-Encounter belief system? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Accordingly, ?this causes dissonance and may move the person to question if they have ever been seen or treated as equal to Whites, even though they have made great or notable accomplishments (e.g. completing doctoral work, attaining upper management positions, having a successful business or political career)? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Nevertheless, ?the anxious and repressive nature of this state is alleviated to some degree when the individual begins to formulate a stronger and somewhat cohesive identity based on what he or she perceives as being Black? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Hence, this propels individuals in the encounter status into the third status-the immersion-emersion status. 55 According to the Immersion-Emersion status, the ?individual begins to formulate a racial identity that is characterized by idealizing African-American culture and denigrating White culture. These individuals immerse themselves in what may be stereotypical or superficial behavior that they believe constitutes a Black racial identity? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Within the Emersion portion of this status, the person begins to start gathering information about Black culture on a less reactive and more realistic level. This level of awareness begins to incorporate the positive and negative aspects of African-American culture (Thompson & Carter, 1997). The final status ?allows for the integration of a racial identity into the individual?s whole sense of being and perceiving the world. It is less reactive, and African Americans are able to incorporate positive aspects of White culture into their identity? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Hence, ?individuals in the latter phase of this status use complex cognitive strategies to deal with oppression and aversive racial stimuli? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Furthermore, ?they tend to have allies as well as belong to social groups and organizations that consist of both Black and White individuals committed to confronting racism? (Hargrow, 2001, p. 3). Consequentially, racial identity among African American college students may be fostered through involvement in campus activities. Collectively, Tinto?s Model of Institutional Departure and Race Identity Theory influence the level of satisfaction among African American students. When African American students experience positive aspects of these models and theories, they tend to have higher levels of satisfaction. On the other hand, negative experiences with such concepts may produce lower levels of satisfaction in college. 56 III. METHODS Study Participants Chapter III profiles four historically black and historically white institutions in the southeast region. Specifically, areas such as the institutions? mission, history, and college of education are highlighted within the chapter. Both types of institutions continue to make significant contributions toward the educational and social development of African American students in higher education. Liberal Arts College Setting Located in Alabama, Liberal Arts College is a private liberal arts institution. It has a proud history of producing teachers, preachers, community leaders, and politicians. A Brief History of Liberal Arts College A senior, liberal arts, church-related College with its roots in the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church and in the tradition of the College-motivates and directs its students to seek holistic development that leads to intellectual, ethical, spiritual and service?oriented lives. Guided by these core values, the College education involves students in rigorous study of the liberal arts as preparation for work and lifelong learning; in the acquisition of verbal, technological and cultural literary; and in critical community 57 participation-all as a prelude to responsible citizenship in the global society which they will help to shape. College Accreditation The College is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award bachelor?s degrees. The College is also a member of the United Negro College Fund (UNCF). Division of Education The Division of Education offers programs in Early Childhood Education (dual certification) and Secondary Education. Programs in Secondary Education are Biology Education, Chemistry Education, Language Arts Education, Mathematics Education and Social Science Education. The programs lead to the Bachelor of Science degree and to professional teaching certification. No other endorsements or concentrations are required. Prospective early childhood/elementary teachers and secondary education teachers are provided considerable involvement within the professional and major field curriculum. The Division of Education also offers the necessary professional courses for students wishing to qualify for an Alabama Class B Professional in Education for grades 6-12 Biology Education, Chemistry Education, Language Arts Education, Mathematics Education and Social Science Education. Students desiring State Certification in Secondary Education must complete specified major area requirements in other divisions at the College. 58 Objectives of the Division 1. To satisfy Alabama State Department requirements for Early Childhood/Elementary and Secondary Education Class B Teaching Certificates. 2. To assist students in developing attitudes, knowledge , and technical competencies required to teach Early Childhood/Elementary, Middle and High schools students. 3. To assist students in acquiring a sound professional background which will enable them to pursue graduate work in education and/or in education related areas. 4. To provide in-service training for early childhood/elementary and secondary teachers. College Housing The Housing program is designed to promote living-learning centers where emphasis is placed on enhancing the academic pursuits of the residents. Professionals, para-professionals, and students constitute the housing staff. Each staff person is selected on the basis of his/her ability to aid students as well as to manage the living units. The College maintains residence for approximately 488 students. This includes one dormitory for men, one for women, and one overflow. The residence halls are equipped with recreation rooms, televisions in the lobby areas, study areas, and refreshment machines located in the recreation area. All rooms are furnished and designed to house two students, and are equipped for individual telephone service. Laundry facilities are located either in the basement area or first floor of each dormitory. 59 Food Service On a required meal plan based on a four-year phase system, all students living in the dormitories are issued meal contracts. The Student Union Building The Student Center houses the faculty and staff dining room, the students? cafeteria, and a snack bar on the first floor. The Center is equipped with cable television, pool tables, ping-pong tables, video machines, and a variety of table-top games. The College Center?s objectives resolve around four basic ideas: 1. The Center is the community center of the College for all members of the College family, students, faculty, administrators, alumni, and guests. 2. As the living room of the College, the Center provides for the services, conveniences, and amenities that the members of the College family need in their daily lives on the campus and for getting to know and understand one another through informal associations outside the classroom. 3. The Student Center is a part of the educational program of the College. As the center of College community life, it serves as a laboratory of citizenship, training students in social responsibility and leadership. 4. The Center serves as a unifying force in the life of the College, cultivating enduring regard for and loyalty to the College. 60 Metropolitan University The metropolitan campus was established by an act of the Alabama Legislature in 1967. Located on a 500-acre campus, the University offers highly respected, accredited academic programs in a challenging but caring college environment. A Brief History In response to the responses of the businesses, governmental, military and agricultural professions in Alabama, the city?s Chamber of Commerce set out to provide an institution of higher learning to serve the needs of the growing community (Fair, 1981 & 1989). In hopes of benefiting present businesses and attracting new ones, the Chamber contacted the sister university?s Board of Trustees to discuss opening a branch in central Alabama. The Trustees agreed and pending agreement and an allocation of funds from the legislature, they decided to purchase a center in the downtown area of the city as a first step to opening the anticipated university (Fair, 1981 & 1989). The Governor finalized the efforts of the Chamber and the supporters of the new university by signing the College Bill in 1967. The bill authorized a bond issue into law and the University was established. After the purchase of the land in the summer of 1968, the University moved in. The University opened for fall quarter on September 16, 1969. But even as early as October of that year, The University had plans for a permanent, expanding campus (Fair, 1981 & 1989). Finally, in the fall of 1971, an official Metropolitan University campus opened on the present site. Throughout the 1970s, the University grew rapidly, almost one building per year (Fair, 1981 & 1989). 61 Today, offering academic majors and pre-professional programs in more than 90 areas of study within the Schools of Business, Education, Liberal Arts, Nursing, and Science, the University strives to serve the needs of the traditional and nontraditional student with a staff, faculty, and an administration sensitive to the needs of the community and its students (Fair, 1981 & 1989). Standards of Achievement The University?s schools have attained national program accreditations for business, education, nursing, legal studies, medical technology and public administration. ? 82% of the faculty hold a doctorate or terminal degree in their field. ? Library?s holdings include 318,000 books, 1,500 journal subscriptions, more than 70 databases, a growing collection of manuscripts and archival materials, and a Federal Documents Depository collection of more than 1 million publications. Accreditation A broad-based academic institution, Metropolitan University is organized into six schools: Liberal Arts, Sciences, Education, Nursing, Business, and Continuing Education. Metropolitan University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award the bachelor?s, master?s and specialist degrees as well as a joint doctoral degree program. The university was chosen by The Princeton Review, as a 2006 ?Best Southeastern College?. School of Education In the School of Education, students benefit from a combination of classroom and real-world experience that gives them an understanding of children from all segments of 62 society and the skills to teach at all levels of ability. In addition to teacher preparation, the school offers programs that equip students for administration counseling and other education-related positions in schools and human service agencies. Areas of Study Professional study in the School of Education is based on a conceptual framework that recognizes and prepares candidates as professional educators who are competent, committed, and reflective. The school is committed to providing challenging opportunities for a diverse learning community in a nurturing environment. The undergraduate degree programs offered are Art Education, Childhood Education, Physical Education, Secondary Education, Special Education, and Middle School Endorsements. Graduate degrees and programs are the Traditional Master of Education, Art Education, Counselor Education, Early Childhood Education, Educational Leadership, Elementary Education, Physical Education, Reading Education, Secondary Education, and Special Education. The Alternative Master of Education includes Art Education Childhood Education, Secondary Education, and Special Education. The Educational Specialist includes Counselor Education, Early Childhood Education, Educational Leadership, Elementary Education, Physical Education, and Special Education. The doctoral program in Administration and Supervision offers a Cooperative Doctoral Program in Administration and Supervision. Accreditation (School of Education) The School of Education is accredited by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education and all School of Education teacher education 63 programs are approved by the Alabama State Department of Education. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) is recognized by the U.S. Department of Education as the accrediting body for colleges and universities that prepare teachers and other professional personnel for work in elementary and secondary schools. Through its voluntary, peer review process, NCATE ensures that accredited institutions produce competent and qualified teachers and other professional school personnel. Programs in the School of Education are accredited by NCATE. Alabama State Department of Education sets standards and mandates an evaluation of teacher education programs to ensure that each program meets the standards. All of the programs in the School of Education are approved by the Alabama State Department of Education. Services The School of Education offers a variety of services. The Intramural Sport program is available for students, faculty, staff, and the community. The Human Performance Lab is a laboratory for use in academics and produces considerable research. The Reading Center is part of the Elementary Early Childhood program. The Wellness Program offers a variety of activities to promote wellness on campus. The Human Performance Laboratory is housed in the Physical Education Building. The Laboratory is used for both teaching and research. A variety of classes use the lab including Exercise Physiology, Kinesiology, Wellness, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Exercise Prescription. The laboratory is also used for research projects (body composition, fitness testing, athletic performance, eating disorders, etc.) conducted by faculty, staff, and students. 64 The College of Education receives high grades on approved programs on the State of Alabama Teacher Preparation Performance Profile. They have received a grant to establish a state-of-the-art instructional technology laboratory to prepare their candidates to use technology in the classroom. They also have additional technology labs for candidates to develop class projects and to add information to their assessment portfolios. Demographics The faculty of 36 members serves an enrollment of approximately 900 candidates (66% undergraduate, 34% graduate). Approximately 250 candidates graduate from the accredited program each year. Urban University History Urban University is a comprehensive, private, urban, coeducational institution of higher education with a predominantly African-American heritage. It offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees as well as certificate programs to students of diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Mission Statement As an institution grounded in the liberal arts, the University is committed to the development of productive and creative students who excel in their chosen careers and who become responsible citizens in their communities and the world. To achieve its mission, Urban University attracts and maintains a dedicated faculty that meets high professional standards in teaching, scholarship, research, and service. The University also provides an educational environment in which its students thrive, learn, and develop their potential for leadership and responsible citizenship, and the pursuit and creation of 65 knowledge. The University maintains a historic relationship with the United Methodist Church and emphasizes sound ethical and moral principles that promote personal integrity and understanding of others. Purpose Statement The purposes of Urban University are: 1. To maintain a repository of knowledge and an environment which fosters maximum intellectual, social, and cultural development of students, faculty, administrators, and staff. 2. To engage in the exploration of innovative ideas through research and teaching, new programs and educational experiments, both within and across disciplinary lines. 3. To provide, through experimentation, research, social and cultural analysis, new solutions to the physical and social problems of humankind. 4. To provide excellent education for those students who have proven they are high achievers and for those students who have the capacity for achieving excellence despite previous adverse circumstances. 5. To provide an increasingly diverse population with competent teachers and role models at all levels of education. 6. To promote artistic and creative expressions and to emphasize their importance in shaping intellect, values, and culture. 7. To provide members of the larger community with opportunities for continuing education which are consistent with the overall mission of the University. 66 University Institutional Goals 1. To enhance and maintain an environment which fosters intellectual, social, and cultural curiosity and creativity, and the continuing development of morally sound value systems among students, faculty, administrators, and staff. 2. To develop accelerated undergraduate and graduate degree programs, other new programs, and educational experiments using innovative ideas through research and teaching, both within and across disciplines, and in keeping with the mission of the University. 3. To increase the number of African-American faculty members who obtain doctoral degrees in the critical areas of natural and mathematical sciences, humanities, and social sciences. 4. To implement a comprehensive approach for continuous academic program review and assessment to improve quality and determine resource requirements and new directions through a system of external visiting committees. 5. To enhance the role of research with an improved research infrastructure and an evaluation system that recognizes the importance of research and teaching to the mission of the University. 6. To implement an integrated and centralized program for faculty and staff to address personal and professional development. 67 7. To continue to institute modern management techniques, taking into account the new information systems, the improvement of human work environments, and the energy-efficient utilization of space. 8. To build and maintain a vigorous institutional advancement and fundraising capacity to provide the financial resources necessary to meet the University?s goals. 9. To continue to develop and implement a comprehensive student life program that will include both the undergraduate and graduate levels. 10. To develop and implement more comprehensive public service programs, including opportunities for students to participate in local, national, and international internships and work experience. 11. To implement a systematic plan for attracting a student body of increasing quality and size and an expanded academic support system to improve student retention. 12. To enhance and provide services to meet the education, cultural, and social service needs of the community by maintaining ongoing linkages with other local, regional, national, and international institutions. 13. To enhance the institution?s commitment to provide education and technical assistance to other nations through programs, and to the furtherance of a university community that will be sensitive to the nature and depth of global interdependence. 68 14. To provide a state-of-the-art telecommunication infrastructure using multimedia technology to facilitate excellence in teaching, research, and service. Philosophy (School of Education) The faculty believes that every learner has a right to an education that prepares him or her for full participation in our society. The School of Education believes that urban education provides a unique context for integrating and mobilizing the cultural community resources that urban learners bring to the school setting. Furthermore, the School of Education believes that change agentry is critical to the efficacy of urban education. Mission Statement (School of Education) The mission of the School of Education is the preparation of graduates who are competent, autonomous professionals with knowledge of and sensitivity to the needs of African-American learners as well as other groups to whom educational equity has been denied. The development of scholars, change agents, leaders, and mentors who are committed to this concept is pivotal to achieving the School?s mission. As a major component of this mission, the School conducts research in order to generate and disseminate knowledge on issues of educational equity for learners in general and African-American learners in particular. The School serves the larger community by providing educational resources, technical assistance, professional expertise and special experiences with an emphasis on service to African-Americans, members of other historically excluded groups and developing nations. 69 Vision (School of Education) The School of Education intends by the end of this century to be a leading national institution for the preparation of teachers, administrators, and school service personnel for urban schools and beyond. It also intends to be a premier institution for the study of issues related to the education of African-Americans and other historically excluded groups. Goals and Objectives (School of Education) 1. To ensure that all programs meet standards of professional excellence at all levels in accordance with the tenets of the Conceptual Framework and national accrediting organizations. 2. To serve as a change agent and proponent of change agentry to improve the human condition with a focus on the advancement of educational services; to develop emerging theories to support change agentry principles and processes; to further scholarship and leadership in the local, regional, national and international communities. 3. To develop qualified and effective teachers, school counselors, educational leaders, media specialists and school social workers competent in a systematic approach to change agentry that fosters knowledge of urban education and critical thinking. 4. To institutionalize technology in research, program implementation, and program development where technology is computer-systems driven and theory-process developed, demonstrating best practices in education. 70 5. To create and pursue an active research agenda with particular emphasis on African-Americans and other cultural minorities. 6. To attract, retain and support qualified candidates, faculty and staff; to create effective partnerships with community organizations, schools, agencies and communities; and to ensure utilization of the concept of service learning as an integral component of development. School of Education Special Programs Cohort field-based training for school districts. This program is designed to serve the special needs of a particular school system. Each cohort consists of employees of a particular district. These programs are field-based because much of the content of the courses is based on projects and research designed to meet the needs and challenges faced by the school district. Professional development school program. The intent is to improve teaching performance in both the public schools and the School of Education and to provide more practical learning opportunities for students in the School of Education. Undergraduate teacher preparation programs. The objectives of the Curriculum Department?s undergraduate programs are both professional and functional. The professional objectives are to provide (1) pre-service education for prospective teachers and 92) background in the principles of education for students preparing for general and social service areas of education. The functional objectives are to create interest in the social and civic functions of education, to conduct research in the field of education, and to study educational problems of the nation, region, and state as a basis for formulating a 71 teacher education program which places emphasis on educational problems affecting minorities. The Department offers programs leading to the Bachelor of Arts in Early Childhood Education and in Middle Grades Education. Students may also take courses required for certification in the secondary teaching fields of English, history, social studies, mathematics, and broad field science, and also for certification in the P-12 grades in art and music. Through the Health and Physical Education program, students may pursue an academic minor or the Bachelor of Arts in Physical Education. Graduate programs. The Department of Curriculum offers graduate programs leading to the Master of Arts degree and the Specialist in Education degree in early childhood, middle grades, reading, and secondary education. The Master?s Program prepares individuals to teach. Leadership in a specific area is the goal of the Program. Individuals may qualify for positions of program developers, coordinators, and evaluators. River City University Setting The University is located in Georgia, 100 miles southwest of Atlanta. University History The idea for a junior college was first proposed by the Chamber of Commerce in 1949. In 1958 when the law provided for the establishment of junior colleges in Georgia, the College opened in a renovated mill with 15 faculty members and nearly 300 students. In 1963, the College moved to its present location on 132 acres of former dairy farm land. The Regents approved the College?s application to become a four-year 72 institution in 1965. The first four-year class graduated in 1970. Master and specialist degrees were soon added to the curriculum. In 1996, the state granted the College University status. River City University now offers more than 70 programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels. University Mission Statement River City University will serve the educational needs of a diverse region by providing a mixture of liberal arts and professional programs leading to associate, baccalaureate and graduate degrees. Additionally, the University will serve transfer and transient students as well as those seeking certification and licensure. The University will maintain a strong core of general education as the foundation of all its academic programs. Through the University College, the University will provide a student-centered developmental program for those students who are unprepared for the rigors of college work. The University will serve the educational, cultural, and economic needs of its region by providing credit and non-credit outreach programs. In all these endeavors, the university will strive to meet the needs of previously underserved populations in its service area. University Vision Statement River City University is committed to the following: ? educating students to think critically, work creatively, communicate effectively, and become technologically literate; ? functioning as a visible, responsible and responsive student-centered institution dedicated to academic excellence; 73 ? fostering the cultural, ethnic, racial and gender diversities of students, faculty and staff by responding to the needs of a changing student population; ? promoting areas with distinctive strengths for which reputations for excellence can be recognized; ? providing a supportive environment that encourages faculty and staff to continue their intellectual and professional growth; ? meeting educational, research, and service needs of the region through collaboration with academic and technical institution, local school systems, businesses and government agencies, and cultural organizations. University Accreditation As a member of the University System of Georgia, the University is accredited through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. The Mission Statement (College of Education) The mission of the College of Education is congruent with and complements that of the University. The College of Education has adopted the guiding principle, Creating Opportunities for Excellence, to support its mission?to achieve excellence by guiding individuals as they develop the proficiency, expertise, and leadership consistent with their professional roles as teachers, counselors, and leaders. By creating opportunities for excellence, the College of Education prepares highly qualified teachers, counselors and leaders who promote high levels of learning for all P-12 students by demonstrating excellence in teaching, scholarship, and professionalism. Teachers, counselors, and leaders continually acquire, integrate, refine, and model these qualities as they develop proficiency, expertise, and leadership. Ultimately, the professional educator believes in 74 the transforming role of education in human lives and strives to improve the learning of all students. The College of Education (COE) also prepares highly qualified professionals in exercise science and community counseling. COE faculty guide individuals in this developmental process. Goals (College of Education) The 2004-2005 goals for the College of Education are thus organized under three broad headings that emphasize excellence in Teaching, Scholarship, and Professionalism. Imbedded within the goals and reflected in our planning initiatives is a strong commitment to diversity and to the effective use of technology. Teaching Goal 1: To offer high quality, relevant, standards-driven programs and services featuring research-based instructional strategies, evidence of best practices models, collaborative problem-solving experiences, ethical decision- making, appropriate evaluation systems, continuous improvement processes, and utilization of technology to enhance student learning. Goal 2: To prepare graduates with the knowledge, performance skills, and dispositions to increase P-12 student achievement and foster high levels of learning in all students in a highly diverse society. Scholarship Goal 3: To recruit, employ, and retain highly qualified, student-centered faculty and staff, provide them ongoing professional development opportunities, and evaluate them on standards of excellence in teaching, applied research, service or clerical/administrative skills accordingly. 75 Professionalism Goal 4: To promote professionalism and collegiality by adhering to the adopted College of Education Principles Undergirding Decision-Making and personal and professional codes of ethics. Goal 5: To promote service to one?s profession through volunteering opportunities or through membership, participation, and/or leadership on committee, professional organizations, and agencies at the college, local, state, regional, national, or international level. Special Initiatives (College of Education) The Co-Reform P-16 Council, a collaborative venture involving various regional educational partners was established at the University to improve P-12 student achievement. A permanent representative structure (Educator Preparation Program Council) emerged and guides the continuous improvement of teacher education, educational leadership, and school counseling programs. The Educator Preparation Program Council (EPPC) is an advisory council which reports directly to the President of the University on the condition and status of educator preparation. Its membership includes partners from the academic community at the University, the Partner School Network, and the greater city community. The EPPC is chaired by the Vice President for Academic Affairs. Reference Study Student Housing Feasibility Study Parkway University experienced a decline in enrollment in an era when Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) have become an increasingly 76 popular choice among African American students. In order to reverse this trend, the University has ?implemented marketing and recruiting initiatives that have been the catalyst for a 50% enrollment increase from Fall 2003 to Fall 2004? (Brailsford & Dunlavey, 2005, p. 1). Additionally, the University has set an enrollment goal of 5,000 students by Fall 2010. Brailsford and Dunlavey, a facility planning and program management firm, completed a Student Housing Feasibility Study in Spring 2005 for the University. The study intended ?to determine the qualitative and quantitative nature of student demand for on-campus housing facilities and develop a strategy for addressing facility needs that respond to demand? (Brailsford & Dunlavey, 2005, p. 1). This study was based on the following analyses and exercises: ? Interviews with key University administrators were conducted to determine the strategic value housing brings to the University, and to assess the level of University commitment to housing. ? A series of focus groups and intercept interviews with students and faculty/staff, including on-campus residents and commuters were conducted to assess, qualitatively, existing housing issues and desired attributes of new housing. These sessions were instrumental in the development of the student survey. ? A detailed electronic survey of 351 University students identified housing selection criteria and was used to project total demand for on-campus housing by student classification and unit type. 77 According to the results of the housing survey study, Brailsford and Dunlavey recommended that Parkway University provide a housing option that is marketable to upcoming sophomores. In addition, the University?s 2010 enrollment (approximately 5,000 students) should ?provide adequate demand to fill traditional beds without the need to require that sophomores live in traditional halls, thus becoming more demand responsive and more attractive to potential students? (Brailsford & Dunlavey, 2005, p. 2). The firm also recommended that a living-learning center (i.e. classrooms, computer labs, group study rooms, and faculty advisor/academic support offices) be constructed in a second phase or concurrent development (Brailsford & Dunlavey, 2005). The findings also concluded that Parkway University should consider addressing deficiencies in support facilities including: a comprehensive student recreation facility, a more student focused union, a late-night food option, and an on-campus convenience store. Brailsford and Dunlavey concluded that the above facilities add to the amenity of living on-campus and may reduce the number of students that choose to live outside the city. The above-mentioned facilities will also increase Parkway University?s competitive position in relation to its surrounding peers (Brailsford & Dunlavey, 2005). 78 Quantitative Survey Results Table 1 Quantitative Survey Response Return Rate Number of surveys mailed to four schools 112 Number of surveys provided to each school 28 Total number of survey responses from four schools 34 ________________________________________________________________________ Liberal Arts College (HBCU I) Class A.A. Qualified Students on Site A.A. Student Survey Responses on Site 1 5 5 2 6 3 Survey Response Ratio 8 out of 11 ________________________________________________________________________ Metropolitan University (HWCU I) Class A.A. Qualified Students on Site A.A. Student Survey Responses on Site 1 4 4 2 6 2 Additional Survey Response-1 additional A.A. student response on site Survey Response Ratio 7 out of 11 ________________________________________________________________________ River City University (HWCU II) Class A.A. Qualified Students on Site A.A. Student Survey Responses on Site 1 5 0 2 3 2 Mailed in Survey Responses ? 2 A.A. responded to surveys by mail 79 Survey Response Ratio 4 out of 8 ________________________________________________________________________ Urban University (HBCU II) Class A.A. Qualified Students on Site A.A. Student Survey Responses on Site 1 15 15 Survey Response Ratio 15 out of 15 ________________________________________________________________________ A.A. =African American Students HBCU = Historically Black Colleges and Universities HWCU = Historically White Colleges and Universities Reference Statistics Teacher Education Data According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2006, there are 6.2 million teachers in the United States. Seventy-one percent of teachers are women. The proportion of teachers who are non-Hispanic black is 8.4 %. Another 5.5 % are Hispanic, 2.9 % are non- Hispanic Asian, and 0.5 % are non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska native. In the United States, 3.1 million teachers teach in elementary and middle schools (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). ?These teachers, of whom 79 percent are women, comprise about half of all teachers? (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006, p. 2). The average annual salary paid to public elementary and secondary school teachers in California represents at $54,300 the highest of any state in the nation. Teachers in South Dakota received the lowest pay at $31,300. The national average salary of public elementary and secondary school teachers was $44,700 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). 80 Data Collection During the summer of 2006, the researcher coded the satisfaction surveys according to number scale (001, 002, 003, etc.) and paper color and boxed the surveys to distribute to the various institutions. The surveys, informed consent forms, and information letters were evenly distributed to the various schools (Total = 112). The surveys were then mailed and delivered to the various Schools of Education. Each school received 28 surveys. Through the dean and various professors in education, the researcher made an appointment to conduct the survey distribution in the various classes. The researcher collected survey data and conducted interviews in June, July, and September 2006 by distributing surveys after two class sessions at four institutions and by interviewing students after they completed the surveys. The students who were interviewed agreed to participate by writing their contact information on the informed consent form. Students were instructed not to write their names or any other identifying information on the surveys so that data would be anonymous. Interview participants received synonyms (Sue I, Bob 1, Sue II, Bob II, etc.) during the interview in order for their identity to remain confidential. 81 IV. RESULTS Qualitative Results The researcher interviewed twelve voluntary survey respondents during the summer and spring semesters of 2006. Interviews were compiled from junior and senior African American education majors from two relatively small Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and two relatively small Historically White Colleges and Universities (HWCUs). The researcher asked respondents to reflect on three questions: 1) What factors have played a role in increasing your satisfaction at your school? 2) What factors have played a role in decreasing your satisfaction at your school? and 3) Name some personal qualities you developed as a student at your school. The first question interview respondents answered was the following: What factors have played a role in increasing your satisfaction? The interviewer discovered several similarities among students attending both types of institutions. The most common factor that increased satisfaction among Historically Black College and University and Historically White College and University respondents was the notion that most of the respondents were very satisfied with their respective colleges of education. One respondent from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) noted that their department consisted of smaller classes and that they learned more teacher- oriented skills. Another student at Urban University (a Historically Black University) 82 added that the quality of professors and the availability of departmental scholarships in their college of education increased their satisfaction. For instance, the student from Urban University (a Historically Black University) stated: ?The factors that have increased my satisfaction are the quality of professors that I have in the College of Education, scholarships that are given.? In an additional response from Urban University, another student noted that the personal attention provided by professors in their education department played a large role in increasing her satisfaction. The last student who commented on this aspect added that the smallness and family-oriented environment of their education department increased her satisfaction with the school. This particular student at Urban University (a Historically Black University) noted: The first factor that has definitely played a role in increasing my satisfaction at my school would have to be the staff in the education department. I think that my particular department is sort of unique because it is so small. It is kind of family oriented and all the professors really take a genuine interest in each of the students in their career paths. They try to really do their best to assist the students. One student from River City University (a Historically White University) stated that she was very satisfied with her college of education, but expressed a desire to have more African American professors in her college of education. She added that an increase in the number of African American professors in her department would make African American students feel more comfortable in the classroom setting. This particular student at River City University (a Historically White University) emphasized: 83 I wish they had more Black professors on the campus. You can count them on your hand. I think it would make some of us feel more comfortable in class. Because it is a lot of things professors talk about. It seems like they are talking right at you rather than to you. The respondents at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and at Historically White Colleges and Universities had a positive outlook on their professors in education because they seemed to care a great deal about their future goals and provided effective advisement. In addition, family support at home played a role in increasing students? satisfaction. A student at Urban University (a Historically Black University) noted: ?My professors? involvement in my scholastic achievement and my family support from back at home have influenced my satisfaction at school.? One student at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) added that his satisfaction with his department increased once he replaced his first academic advisor with a new academic advisor who made sure he was on track to graduate. This particular student at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) reflected: ?The old advisor really did not care.? Another factor that increased satisfaction was found in extracurricular activities provided by the campus. Both students from Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities were satisfied with the extracurricular activities on campus. Organizations and groups such as sororities, fraternities, marching bands, community service clubs, and peer mentoring activities added to their positive satisfaction rate at their respective schools. A respondent at Urban University (a Historically Black University) noted: 84 The factors that have played a role in increasing my satisfaction are different organizations and groups that students have the opportunity to be a part of, to make a change on campus and outside of the campus as well as in the community; for example grief organizations, peer educators that go out and talk to the students about their health and wellness. Just community service groups where they go out and do service with elementary schools in the community. One respondent from a Historically White University (Metropolitan University) and another respondent from a Historically Black University (Urban University) noted that health and wellness seminars by peer educators greatly increased their satisfaction with their respective university. Two respondents at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) noted that the location of the institution and the convenience of its course schedule (i.e. night, weekend, and on-line classes) increased their overall satisfaction. One particular student at Metropolitan University noted: ?The school is not located too far from my house residence and the class scheduling is ok.? The second question interview respondents answered was the following: What factors have played a role in decreasing your satisfaction at your school? Even though students at the Historically Black Colleges and Universities and at the Historically White Colleges and Universities were greatly satisfied with their respective colleges of education, some students were dissatisfied with their class instruction outside their majors. One respondent at Urban University (a Historically Black University) stated that she felt that she was getting her ?money?s worth? in her core courses, but in classes outside her major, she did not believe that her ?money was well spent.? This respondent 85 believed that her major courses gave her the knowledge and skills needed in order to become an effective teacher. On the other hand, this respondent felt that the courses she attended that were unrelated to her major would not help her in her future professional endeavors. Although the respondents at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) had a positive outlook on the location and course schedule, one of the respondents was not satisfied with the maintenance of the public restrooms and upkeep of the university grounds. This particular student at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) added that there was no beautification to the scenery of the university. She stated: ?I?m not too pleased with the upkeep of the grounds; no beautification to scenery; the public bathrooms need remodeling.? Another respondent from Metropolitan University stated that he was not satisfied with the university fitness room because it was in very bad condition. This particular respondent stated: ?The fitness room was in very bad shape. I was very, very dissatisfied with that.? The factor that decreased satisfaction the most among students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities was discovered in their respective institutional offices of financial aid services. African American respondents from Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities stated that their respective offices of financial aid showed a lack of professionalism, ineffective student service, and overall unhelpfulness. One respondent at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) emphasized: ?The financial aid office is kind of rude, they are not helpful at all.? Another respondent at Urban University (a Historically Black University) noted: ?A lot of factors have to do 86 with financial aid and student accounts. A lot of times it is just a hassle to get simple stuff done and it is very frustrating at times.? The last aspect concerning academic and social satisfaction that African American students responded to related to the following statement: Name some personal qualities you developed as a student at your school. The respondents named some personal qualities that were developed as a student at their respective institution. African American respondents from Historically Black Colleges and Universities stated that since they have attended college, they have become independent, more patient, more self- confident, more outgoing, very self-sufficient, and more responsible. A respondent at Urban University (a Historically Black University) noted: ?One personal quality is independence: I have become more independent since I have been here. I have learned to be more patient.? Another respondent at Urban University (a Historically Black University) added: I have become more self-sufficient. I do a lot more things on my own, becoming an adult in a sense. I?ve also become more self-confident and I can do things that I never thought I would be able to do, but I?ve done them already, so now I?m confident in myself. Other respondents from Historically Black Colleges and Universities stated that they have developed greater cultural awareness and a sense of self. In addition, they feel that they have more ethnic pride since attending a Historically Black College or University. The African American respondents attending Historically White Colleges and Universities also named some personal qualities developed as a student at their respective institution. African American respondents from Historically White Colleges and 87 Universities stated that since they have attended college, they are more determined, more responsible, more outgoing, and have improved their overall health condition. One student at River City University (a Historically White University) noted: ?When I first came here, I was really, really shy although I was older. Once I joined a sorority, they brought me out. I have more friends, I hang out with the young students. I hang out more.? Descriptive Interview Responses The twelve African American voluntary survey respondents at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities stated some of the following additional verbal responses during interview sessions with the researcher. Other related interview responses were summarized in the qualitative results section. 1) What factors have played a role in increasing your satisfaction at your school? ?? smaller classes, more teacher-oriented skills, further use of skills learned in high school, difference in how you are taught from a white university.? ?? the use of the internet is widely available on campus, the new advisor I have who helped me get on track for graduating.? ?? the quality of the education program increased satisfaction. You learn a whole lot. Learning more things than my sister in her master?s program. It is very worthwhile. The number of Blacks has increased a lot. The amount of Black students has increased a lot from five years ago.? 88 ?? smaller classes, more teacher-oriented skills, further use of skills learned in high school.? ?? the personal attention that my professors have given me has played a role in increasing my satisfaction as well as being able to be a member of different organizations and being a part of different activities.? 2) What factors have played a role in decreasing your satisfaction at your school? ?? a lot of students are not interested in finding out ways that they can help make the school or community a better place. They don?t take advantage of the groups and organizations and things they can be a part of to try to take the initiative to help the school make a change in the areas they feel are not strong in.? ?? finances ? not having enough finances to make it through school ? not enough money put out for the students to make it through school.? ?? the way that the financial aid office staff talks to you. They just talk to you any kind of way. It?s like they are giving you the money. They should have some type of class to improve their skills of how they talk to people. Customer service classes.? ?? the financial aid as a whole: trying to get it, trying to get through the lines, talking to someone and trying to get help in that area.? ?? the cost of tuition. I would not have a problem with it if I was getting my money?s worth in some of my classes. But as far as my department is concerned, I feel that my money is being well spent. But in my other core classes, I do not feel that it is.? 89 3) Name some personal qualities you developed as a student at your school. ?? going back to school has made me more determined because I am married and have four children. They have enhanced my qualities of being determined because they have night classes, weekend classes, and on-line classes.? ?? to be more dedicated to continue with my education ? improve my overall health condition from taking a wellness class this semester. It makes students aware of their current health conditions and helps them better prepare and strengthen their health condition.? ?? I have become more outspoken, more of a leader. Not holding back, but saying what I need to say when I need to say it.? ?? I have become very self-sufficient, more outgoing, more a people person; time management; stress management as well as just getting along with others. And knowing how to get help when help is needed; knowing how to take advantage of different groups on campus that will help me out in different areas where I might be weak in so I can improve in those areas ? taking advantage of all that I can on the campus and community so I can help myself and the school be a better place.? ?? I think that I have gained a better sense of culture going to a HBCU. I feel that I have gained a greater cultural sense and more pride. Definitely, that the career path that I am taking is something that I really want to do and just a better sense of self as well.? 90 Quantitative Research Questions The quantitative research questions were the following: 1) To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall campus experience at a Historically Black College/University? 2) To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall campus experience at a Historically White College/University? 3) To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall personal development at a Historically Black College/University? 4) To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall personal development at a Historically White College/University? 5) To what extent do African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities differ in their overall campus experience in comparison to their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities? 6) To what extent do African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities differ in their overall personal development in comparison their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities? Quantitative Data Results When the researcher was contacting various institutions to receive permission to distribute the satisfaction surveys, the researcher encountered a large number of administrators who were resistant and unwilling to allow their African American student population to provide feedback from the surveys because of the nature and topic of the study. The researcher contends that many administrators believed that their African 91 American student population would not provide positive feedback in the surveys, which might highlight ineffective initiatives by their institution to provide quality services to their African American student population. Therefore, the number of school participation in the study was limited which, in turn, limited the number students who participated in the survey distribution and interview portions of the study. Although the original intent of the quantitative portion of the study was to analysis the data through a statistical procedure such as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), the limited number of survey data did not allow such a procedure to occur. The quantitative section of the study is a pilot study because of the limited number of survey responses. The mean is used as a measure of reporting the level of satisfaction related to campus experience and personal development. Each survey respondent indicated his/her satisfaction rating according the following scale: Very Satisfied = VS, Satisfied = S, Neutral = N, Dissatisfied = D, and Very Dissatisfied = VD. The highest to lowest survey rating was based on the following numerical value scale: Very Satisfied = 5, Satisfied = 4, Neutral = 3, Dissatisfied = 2, Very Dissatisfied = 1. The survey developed for the study consisted of seventy-two questions and thirteen scales. The thirteen scales were the following: Student Citizenship Behavior, Staff Attitude and Behavior, Administration Attitude and Behavior, Residential Life Experiences, Facilities, Satisfaction with Faculty, Classes and Courses, Instructional Support, Diversity, Clubs and Activities on Campus, Physical Environment, Fitness and Health, and Career Placement. The scales that were related to campus experience were the following: Staff Attitude and Behavior, Administration Attitude and Behavior, 92 Facilities, Satisfaction with Faculty, Classes and Courses, Instructional Support, and Physical Environment. The scales that were related to personal development were the following: Student Citizenship Behavior, Residence Life Experiences, Diversity, Clubs and Activities on Campus, Fitness and Health, and Career Placement. In response to the data relating to Research Question 1, the ratings for the seven items comprising the campus experience domain were analyzed and the means and standard deviations shown in Table 2. The subscales receiving the highest ratings were Satisfaction with Faculty followed closely by Classes and Courses. The subscales receiving the lowest ratings were Staff Attitude and Behavior and Facilities. Interestingly, the Staff Attitude and Behavior revealed the highest degree of diversity in the ratings, possibly indicating that the respondents varied widely on this dimension. Table 2 Historically Black Colleges and Universities Variables of Campus Experience Means Standard Deviation Staff Attitude and Behavior 3.21 .93 Administration Attitude and Behavior 3.48 .86 Facilities 3.38 .59 Satisfaction with Faculty 4.11 .66 Classes and Courses 3.98 .79 Instructional Support 3.42 .72 Physical Environment 3.49 .57 93 The survey respondents at Historically Black Colleges and Universities provided data to the researcher to address the following quantitative question of the study: To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall campus experience at a Historically Black College/University? African American students at HBCUs were more satisfied with their faculty than any other aspect of their campus experience, whereas they were least satisfied with the campus experience variable of staff attitude and behavior. If a mean of three is defined as ?neutral,? then it would be justified to say that HBCU respondents were more satisfied than dissatisfied with all of the aspects of their campus experience. Qualitative Data Results In the qualitative section of the study, when African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities were interviewed, they provided similar responses. The respondents who were interviewed also stated that they were most satisfied with their faculty, in particular the faculty in their respective colleges of education. Additionally, African American students interviewed at Historically Black Colleges and Universities also stated that they were least satisfied with staff attitude and behavior, in particular at their respective offices of financial aid. Research Question 2 is directed at assessing the level of satisfaction of African Americans attending Historically White Colleges and Universities regarding their campus experience. Table 3 contains the analysis of the responses of those respondents attending Historically White Colleges and Universities. The subscales receiving the highest ratings were Instructional Support followed by Physical Environment. The subscales receiving 94 the lowest ratings were Staff Attitude and Behavior and Administration Attitude and Behavior. Interestingly, the Staff Attitude and Behavior revealed the highest degree of diversity in the ratings, possibly indicating that the respondents varied widely on this dimension. Table 3 Historically White Colleges and Universities Variables of Campus Experience Means Standard Deviation Staff Attitude and Behavior 3.20 .86 Administration Attitude and Behavior 3.36 .64 Facilities 3.87 .61 Satisfaction with Faculty 3.82 .51 Classes and Courses 3.87 .56 Instructional Support 4.20 .44 Physical Environment 3.94 .66 African American respondents at Historically White Colleges and Universities also provided data to the researcher enabling him to address the following quantitative question of the study: To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall campus experience at a Historically White College/University? According to their responses, those attending Historically White Colleges and Universities were most satisfied with the instructional support provided at their institution. Similar to African 95 American respondents surveyed at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, African American students at Historically White Colleges and Universities were least satisfied with the campus experience variable of staff attitude and behavior. If a mean of three is defined as ?neutral,? then it would be justified to say that HWCU respondents were more satisfied than dissatisfied with all of the aspects of their campus experience. Within the qualitative section of the study, the African Americans at Historically White Colleges and Universities that were interviewed were least satisfied with staff attitude and behavior, in particular the staff attitude and behavior in the financial aid offices at their institution. In response to the data relating to Research Question 3, the ratings for the six items comprising the personal development domain were analyzed and the mean and standard deviations shown in Table 4. The subscales receiving the highest rating were Student Citizenship Behavior followed by Clubs and Activities on Campus. The subscales receiving the lowest ratings were Residence Life Experiences and Fitness and Health. The Career Placement subscale revealed the highest degree of diversity in the ratings, possibly indicating that the respondents varied widely on this dimension. 96 Table 4 Historically Black Colleges and Universities Variables of Personal Development Means Standard Deviation Student Citizenship Behavior 3.64 .69 Residence Life Experiences 3.03 .50 Diversity 3.22 .41 Clubs and Activities on Campus 3.38 .86 Fitness and Health 3.15 .85 Career Placement 3.36 .89 African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities who were surveyed assisted the researcher in addressing the following quantitative question: To what extent are African American students satisfied with their overall personal development at a Historically Black College/University? African American students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities were most satisfied with the personal development variable of student citizenship behavior. On the other hand, African American students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities were least satisfied with the personal development variable of residence life experiences. If a mean of three is defined as ?neutral,? then it would be justified to say that HBCU respondents were more satisfied than dissatisfied with all of the aspects of their personal development. 97 Research Question 4 is directed at assessing the level of satisfaction of African Americans attending Historically White Colleges and Universities regarding their personal development. Table 5 contains the analysis of the responses of those respondents attending Historically White Colleges and Universities. The subscales receiving the highest ratings was Student Citizenship Behavior followed by Diversity. The subscales receiving the lowest ratings were Career Placement and Residence Life Experiences. The Fitness and Health revealed the highest degree of diversity in the ratings, possibly indicating that the respondents varied widely on this dimension. Table 5 Historically White Colleges and Universities Variables of Personal Development Means Standard Deviation Student Citizenship Behavior 3.68 .58 Residence Life Experiences 3.35 .64 Diversity 3.49 .52 Clubs and Activities on Campus 3.38 .69 Fitness and Health 3.36 .90 Career Placement 3.26 .36 Survey respondents who were African American and attending Historically White Colleges and Universities assisted the researcher with answering the following quantitative question: To what extent are African American students satisfied with their 98 overall personal development at a Historically White College/University? The African American survey respondents attending Historically White Colleges and Universities were most satisfied with the personal development variable of student citizenship behavior, whereas they were least satisfied with the personal development variable related to career placement. If a mean of three is defined as ?neutral,? then it would be justified to say that HWCU respondents were more satisfied than dissatisfied with all of the aspects of their personal development. Research Question 5 is directed at comparing the level of satisfaction of African Americans attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities regarding their campus experience. Table 6 contains the analysis of the responses of those respondents in rank order attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities. The subscales receiving the highest rating among African Americans at Historically Black Colleges and Universities were Satisfaction with Faculty followed by Classes and Courses. On the other hand, the subscales receiving the highest rating among African Americans at Historically White Colleges and Universities were Instructional Support followed by Physical Environment. 99 Table 6 Comparison of Variables for Campus Experience (Rank Order of the Highest to Lowest Satisfaction Variables at HBCUs and HWCUs) Variables at HBCUs Means Variables at HWCUs Means Satisfaction with Faculty 4.11 Instructional Support 4.20 Classes and Courses 3.98 Physical Environment 3.94 Physical Environment 3.49 Facilities 3.87 Administration Attitude and Behavior 3.48 Classes and Courses 3.87 Instructional Support 3.42 Satisfaction with Faculty 3.82 Facilities 3.38 Administration Attitude and Behavior 3.36 Staff Attitude and Behavior 3.21 Staff Attitude and Behavior 3.20 The subscales receiving the lowest ratings among African Americans at Historically Black Colleges and Universities were Staff Attitude and Behavior and Facilities. Similarly, the subscale receiving the lowest rating among African Americans at Historically White Colleges and Universities was Staff Attitude and Behavior and Administration Attitude and Behavior. The following quantitative question was addressed in the study: To what extent do African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities differ in their overall campus experience in comparison to their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities? The lack of sufficient subjects prevented the researcher from using a statistical analysis such as MANOVA. Rather, the researcher discussed and 100 compared the overall campus experience of African American students at both types of institutions by rank order in Table 6. According to Table 6, there was a difference in the highest level of satisfaction regarding campus experience among African American students at HBCUs and HWCUs. African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities were more satisfied with their faculty than any other aspect of their campus experience, while at Historically White Universities and Colleges they were most satisfied with the campus experience variable of institutional support. On the other hand, there was not a difference in the lowest level of satisfaction regarding campus experience. African American students at both types of institutions were more dissatisfied with the campus experience variable of staff attitude and behavior than any other aspect of their campus experience. Research Question 6 is directed at comparing in rank order the level of satisfaction of African Americans attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities concerning personal development. Table 7 contains the analysis of the responses of those students attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities. 101 Table 7 Comparison of Variables for Personal Development (Rank Order of the Highest to Lowest Satisfaction Variables at HBCUs and HWCUs) Variables at HBCUs Means Variables at HWCUs Means Student Citizenship Behavior 3.64 Student Citizenship Behavior 3.68 Clubs and Activities on Campus 3.38 Diversity 3.49 Career Placement 3.36 Clubs and Activities on Campus 3.38 Diversity 3.22 Fitness and Health 3.36 Fitness and Health 3.15 Residence Life Experiences 3.35 Residence Life Experiences 3.03 Career Placement 3.26 The subscales receiving the highest ratings among African Americans at Historically Black Colleges and Universities were Student Citizenship Behavior followed by Clubs and Activities on Campus. Similarly, the subscales receiving the highest ratings among African Americans at Historically White Colleges and Universities were Student Citizenship Behavior followed by Diversity. On the other hand, the subscales receiving the lowest ratings among African Americans at Historically Black Colleges and Universities were Residence Life Experiences and Fitness and Health, whereas the subscales receiving the lowest ratings among African Americans at Historically White Colleges and Universities were Career Placement and Residence Life Experiences. 102 Within the study, the researcher addressed the following question: To what extent do African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities differ in their overall personal development in comparison to their counterparts at Historically White Colleges and Universities? Table 7 addresses the comparison of the overall personal development of African Americans at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities. As shown in Table 7, there was not a difference in the highest level of satisfaction concerning the personal development of African American students at HBCUs and HWCUs. Interestingly, African American students at both types of institutions ranked student citizenship behavior higher than any other aspect of their personal development. In comparison, there was a difference in the lowest level of satisfaction among African American students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Historically White Colleges and Universities. According to Table 7, the lowest level of satisfaction concerning personal development among African Americans at HBCUs was found in their residence life experiences, whereas career placement at HWCUs ranked as the lowest level of satisfaction concerning personal development among African Americans. Multiple Comparison Tests An alternative to using a MANOVA approach to analyze differences between the two groups over multiple scales is Holm?s Sequential Rejection Bonferroni Test (Kirk, 1995). The procedure is to conduct a series of ordinary two group tests of mean differences such as a t-test. However, the p-value associated with these tests cannot be 103 interpreted at face value without incurring an unacceptable accumulated risk of Type I error. Holm?s procedure corrects for this by using a sequence of critical values against which to judge the obtained statistics. This keeps the overall Type I error rate at the nominal level of .05 while testing for significant differences on each dependent variable. Table 8 Overall Campus Experience Variables Table (Independent Samples Test) Levene?s Test for Equality of Variance F Sig. Satisfaction with Faculty 1.316 .261 Classes and Courses 1.757 .194 Physical Environment .359 .553 Administration Attitude and Behavior 2.365 .134 Instructional Support 1.659 .207 Facilities .017 .898 Staff Attitude and Behavior .649 .427 One assumption of the t-test is homogeneity of variance. Table 8 shows that Levene?s Test for homogeneity of variance is not significant for any of the dependent variables and therefore the assumption is met in the data. Turning to the t values and using ? = .05, there appears to be significant differences on two of the seven scales 104 comprising the overall campus experience. However, we cannot use the nominal p values, we must use the p values obtained through the Holm?s procedure. Table 9 Comparisons Table of Campus Experience Variables (Independent Samples Test) t-test for Equality of Means t df Nominal p Holmes p * Decision HBCU/HWCU (means) Instructional Support -3.154 31 .004 .007 Sig. 3.4203/4.2000 Facilities -2.219 31 .034 .008 NS 3.3864/3.8788 Physical Environment -2.020 31 .052 .01 NS 3.4909/3.9455 Satisfaction with Faculty 1.222 29 .231 .012 NS 4.111/3.8283 Administration Attitude .411 31 .684 .016 NS 3.4848/3.3636 & Behavior Classes & Courses .399 32 .693 .025 NS 3.9855/3.8788 Staff Attitude & Behavior .022 32 .983 .05 NS 3.2120/3.2045 * Holmes p is the p value which the comparison must exceed in order to be considered significant and still hold the overall p value to be less than .05 In view of the results shown, the two groups of students differ only with regard to their levels of satisfaction with Instructional Support. Since the HWCU group mean is higher, it indicates that they were more satisfied than were their counterparts in HBCUs. 105 The last research question compares the personal development variables of African American students at HBCUs and HWCUs in order to determine if a significant difference exists among students at their institution. The six variables of personal development concerning the two types of institutions have been analyzed in the following tables. Table 10 Overall Personal Development Variables Table (Independent Samples Test) Levene?s Test for Equality of Variance F Sig. Student Citizenship Behavior .433 .515 Clubs and Activities on Campus 1.815 .188 Career Placement 4.416 .044 Diversity .745 .395 Fitness and Health .429 .517 Residence Life Experiences .983 .330 As previously stated, an assumption of the t-test is homogeneity of variance. Table 10 shows that Levene?s Test for homogeneity of variance applied to the variables in the Personal Development domain is not significant for any of the dependent variables and therefore the assumption is met in the data. 106 Table 11 Comparisons Table of Personal Development Variables (Independent Samples Test) t-Test for Equality of Means t df Nominal P Holmes P Decision HBCU/HWCU (means) Diversity -1.582 32 .124 .008 NS 3.2298/3.4935 Residence Life Experience -1.451 27 .158 .01 NS 3.0351/3.3500 Fitness & Health -.664 32 .511 .012 NS 3.1522/3.3636 Career Placement .345 29 .733 .016 NS 3.3619/3.2600 Student Citizenship Behavior -.152 32 .880 .025 NS 3.6449/3.6818 Clubs and Activities on Campus .000 31 1.000 .05 NS 3.3854/3.3864 In regards to quantitative research question 6, Table 11 shows that there is no significant difference between HBCUs and HWCUs on the personal development variables. Table 11 shows the personal development variables ranked in the order of their nominal p values. Written Survey Response Results The students who responded to the written data entry areas highlighted aspects of student satisfaction that were very similar to many of the responses provided in the interview sessions. For example, the feedback provided in the written survey responses regarding improvement in areas such as facilities and instructional support were 107 consistent with the quantitative data provided in the surveys. The information provided by the respondents further highlights the satisfaction measurements of overall campus life and personal development. Student Citizenship Behavior Within the Student Citizenship Behavior component, one student from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) commented that the student dress code should be enforced. For example, another student from Urban University (a Historically Black University) suggested that to improve the way students dress and act begins by proper modeling behavior and dress by peers. For instance, a student at Urban University (a Historically Black University) stated, ?It would be nice if the students (females) respect themselves more, with the clothes they wear. Also the males should have more respect with the words on their clothes?. Another student from Liberal Arts College stated that student behavior may be improved through mandatory classes or workshops on self- respect and etiquette. Staff Attitude and Behavior A student from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) believed that the staff should have ?an open door policy for students?. Similar to responses discovered in the interview sessions, one respondent from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) commented that some of the staff in financial aid services are very rude. Another student suggested that students should have access to supervisors and administrators and provide access to suggestion boxes in order to inform administrators about the behavior of staff. One student from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) agreed and wrote: ?Commenting and letting higher authority know 108 about staff behavior seems to work?. In addition, another student responded that the staff could assist in encouraging ?proper dress of the students?. Administrative Attitude and Behavior Most students indicated that they have very little interaction with the administrative staff. One student from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) stated that administrators need to be ?more student-oriented?. Another student from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) added by stating that administrators need to ?be more hands-on with students?. Residential Life Experiences One respondent from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) stated that the on-campus cafeteria food should be more diverse. For example, a student from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) wrote: ?I would provide different food with better cooks.? Another respondent from Urban University (a Historically Black University) stated that more funding should be provided to improve the furnishing of on-campus housing. Facilities Most respondents stated that their respective institutions, whether Historically Black Colleges and Universities or Historically White Colleges and Universities, needed to greatly improve the facilities. One respondent from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) explained that their college needs to increase parking in order to accommodate students and improve computer services (i.e. computer laboratories with printers, consistent internet access, etc.). Overall, respondents from both types of institutions (Historically Black Colleges/Universities and Historically White 109 Colleges/Universities) agreed that public facilities such as exterior campus grounds and public restrooms need to be updated. For instance, one student at Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) wrote: ?College grounds could look a whole lot better. Bathrooms need remodeling?. Satisfaction with Faculty A respondent at Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) stated that faculty should encourage students to act ?more intelligent?. For instance, the respondent from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) wrote: ?If faculty had the time, they could basically train college students to motivate and encourage them to be more intelligent and bring the individuals morale up to standards.? Another student from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) added that faculty office hours should be more flexible. One student from Metropolitan University concluded that ?difficult subjects such as math or science? should not be taught by ?foreign teachers? because of the language barrier felt by some students. Classes and Courses One respondent stated that because of the small teacher/student ratio, the classes were more enjoyable, leading to greater satisfaction. At Historically Black Colleges/ Universities and Historically White Colleges/Universities, respondents expressed a great interest in increasing the availability of classes taught during the regular school term and summer sessions. For example, a student from River City University (a Historically White University) stated: ?I wish that classes in my major were offered every semester?. Additionally, students requested that class schedules should accommodate the majority of students during the day, night, and weekend class schedules. For instance, one respondent 110 at River City University (a Historically White University) stated: ?Many of the classes don?t accommodate those of us who are teachers. Many of the classes are taught during school hours (8 am-3 pm).? One student from Urban University added that courses taught by professors need more hands-on learning activities to integrate classroom and real life experiences (.e. on-site field trips, creative classroom active activities, etc.). Instructional Support Students at both types of institutions (Historically Black Colleges/Universities and Historically White Colleges/Universities) expressed an interest in having tutor hours posted more visibly on campus, more qualified tutors, and an increase in technical support staff. For example, a respondent from Urban University (a Historically Black University) stated: ?No improvements needed, just have more technical support staff available.? Diversity Only one respondent wrote comments in this section. A respondent from Liberal Arts College (a Historically Black College) stated that the faculty and staff should survey the needs and interests of students and ?attempt to meet their needs.? Clubs and Activities on Campus A respondent from Metropolitan University (a Historically Black University) stated that equal access to print and electronic advertisements provided for majority white fraternities and sororities needs to be the same for their majority black counterpart fraternities and sororities. For instance, the respondent from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) stated: ?I would give more advertising of black fraternities and sororities or make it equal to those of the white fraternities and sororities.? Another 111 student from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) added that, in general, greater visibility is needed for activities on campus by posting signs throughout the campus. Physical Environment The response provided in this section was similar to other responses in the section concerning facilities on campus. Only one respondent wrote comments in this section. A respondent from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) stated that the physical environment on campus needs to be improved. Fitness and Health Respondents from both types of institutions (Historically Black Colleges/ Universities and Historically White Colleges/Universities) expressed an interest in improving the fitness and health services at their respective institutions. Respondents from both types of institutions stated that the hours of their respective health facilities need to be more flexible and the facilities (i.e. exercise equipment) should be improved. One respondent from Metropolitan University (a Historically White University) stated: ?I would enlarge the weight room and make the hours of gym more flexible.? Career Placement No responses were provided regarding career placement services. 112 V. IMPLICATIONS, FUTURE RESEARCH, AND CONCLUSIONS Implications The data results from the study revealed several initiatives that may advance and increase the satisfaction rate of African American students in the college setting. Therefore, the researcher recommends the following items that may increase the satisfaction rate of African American students in the College of Education and/or the entire institutional setting. Faculty/Student Mentoring Programs In 1989, San Diego State University implemented the Faculty/Student Mentoring Program to raise the retention and success rates for first-year and community college transfer students of African American, Latino, and American Indian backgrounds. The Faculty/Student Mentoring Program is a peer mentoring program in which students serve as mentors for underrepresented students (Brotherton, 2001). The faculty provide access to facilities, equipment, and additional resources. The student mentors are supervised by eight faculty members. These students meet weekly with their mentees in order to help them complete 21 competencies that focus on computer awareness, university resources, university requirements, and academic/personal success (Brotherton, 2001). Student mentees who participate in the Faculty/Student Mentoring Program tend to have higher 113 retention rates than non-participating students, accompanied by a high level of satisfaction with the program (Brotherton, 2001). Another similar mentoring program at Villa Julie College serves students generally ranked in the bottom 20 percent of their high school class. The Partnerships And Student Success (PASS) mentoring program incorporates volunteer efforts by faculty, staff, and administrators in order to provide academic and student support on a weekly basis (Brotherton, 2001). The central theme of the program is its one-on-one mentoring, which occurs during students? first semester. Students are matched with mentors based on the students? majors. The students meet with mentors to review academic success skills such as test-taking strategies. The volunteer professors then provide periodic reports in order to monitor students? academic progress (Brotherton, 2001). Teacher Education Mentoring Relationships Although mentoring has a long history, it recently began to develop as a venue to provide research of best practices for student-teacher preparation programs. Mentoring programs have become one of the best strategies to recruit and retain at-risk college students of color who are in teacher education programs. The increase in numbers of an ethnically diverse teaching population has many benefits. Teachers of color are likely to provide positive role models to students of color and empower them to succeed in school (Ayalon, 2004). In order to increase the number of teachers of color, it is imperative that the number of students of color enrolled in teacher preparation programs increases. Villegas and Clewell (1998) list three non-traditional sources of potential candidates- paraprofessionals, junior college students, and middle and high school students. 114 Recruitment programs at the high school level consist of teacher cadet programs that include future educators clubs, introductory education college-credit courses, mentoring, and summer programs that offer students rigorous learning experiences accompanied by academic support (Ayalon, 2004). By the late 1980s, a more focused approach appeared in order to expand the pool of teacher candidates of color by targeting more non-traditional students. For instance, in 1988, the Ford Foundation supported an eight-state consortium focused on recruiting minority paraprofessionals to teaching. The program provided money for tuition, books, and support services (Dandy, 1998). In 1989, the DeWitt Wallace-Readers? Digest Fund launched a more comprehensive support program. The initiative targeted four selected populations: returning Peace Corps volunteers, middle school students, paraprofessionals, and traditional undergraduate students (Ayalon, 2004). Dandy (1998) found that having both the university and the schools assign liaisons to work closely together to find creative solutions to barriers within their institutions was one of the overriding factors contributing to the success of a program for the recruitment of African American paraprofessionals. Peer Mentoring Initiatives Over two decades ago, peer mentoring gained popularity within the academy. ?Because peer mentoring appears to be a viable approach to providing role models and leadership for underrepresented groups with higher education, it has been adopted in university settings as a means to assist entering freshman students as they transition into the university environment? (Good, 2000, p. 1). Brawer (1996) supported the use of peer mentoring in order to develop social support networks among new students. Henrickson 115 (1995) asserted that peer mentors provided the support systems necessary to improve campus climates. Santovec (1992) concurred and stated that programs which incorporate ?upper-division minority students involved in peer support and counseling-show positive results? (p. 5). Good (2000) discovered that peer mentors benefit from peer mentoring relationships by becoming better communicators, achieving a sense of identity, and gain a sense of self-satisfaction by becoming leaders and role models for other minority students. Cultural Initiatives and Programs All students who enter institutions of higher education must be prepared to function in a diverse and interdependent society. They must understand, appreciate, and value contributions of different people from divergent backgrounds. To that end, college students should be encouraged to study other cultures, to learn about the perspectives of others who live outside their experience (Committee on Policy for Racial Justice, 1993). The further development of cultural initiatives and programs relative to the African American experience may be linked to the overall campus environment by incorporating diversity information and cultural studies into the curriculum, organizing social and professional gatherings for minority students that transcend across departmental and school boundaries, and developing and implementing diversity training programs for administration, faculty, staff, and students (Elam, 2005). Centers for Minority Success and Engagement Cultural centers on college campuses assist in the retention of students of color, ensure a diversity of ideas, and sustain the integrity of the academic experience. Historically, multicultural and diversity centers on college campuses emerged from the 116 establishment of Black cultural centers in the early 1900s when small numbers of Blacks were selected to attend White institutions (Hefner, 2002). During the 1960s and 1970s, the number of Black cultural centers increased due to the Civil Rights and Black Nationalists Movements. By the 1980s, ?as the enrollment of other groups of color increased and multiculturalism began to take form, administrators at predominantly White institutions began to examine ways of addressing the concerns of Latino and Asian students, who, following the example of Black cultural centers, had begun demanding their own such facilities? (Hefner, 2002, p. 3). In effect, some universities expanded the mission of existing Black cultural centers or even created multicultural centers. Other universities such as Rutgers University and Indiana University created separate centers for these emerging ethnic groups on campus (Hefner, 2002). According to the Association of Black Culture centers, about 400 Black and multicultural centers exist on college campuses (Hefner, 2002). Recent reports indicate that Black, Latino, and Asian college students are enrolling in college in relatively higher numbers than their White counterparts, thus increasing the need for minority success and engagement centers such as Black cultural centers (Hefner, 2002). Physical Plant and Preventive Maintenance on College Campuses When disrepair on a campus is visible, they negatively impact campus growth. Some institutions do not take the necessary steps to continue the physical upkeep of buildings and grounds on college campuses. Such actions may create a deferred maintenance backlog, the quantification of accumulated maintenance projects left unaddressed (Simmons, 2005). Preventive maintenance initiatives-the continued physical upkeep and enhancement of buildings and grounds on campus-prevent deferred 117 maintenance backlogs (Simmons, 2005). The accumulation of past maintenance projects on college campuses can be reduced by developing a sound facilities assessment and deferred maintenance plan and budget (Simmons, 2005). In order to obtain Board of Trustees support and funding for deferred maintenance projects, maintenance and facilities administrators must first know what is entailed within their particular deferred maintenance backlog to determine investment priorities (Simmons, 2005). The main objective of maintenance and physical plant executives should be to identify the unknowns about needed investments, garner support for expenditures, and improve overall management of physical facilities (Simmons, 2005). Minority Faculty Recruitment Hamilton (2003) reports that people of color constitute 28 percent of the United States population. By 2050, the majority of people in this country will be people of color. Therefore, it is imperative that academic institutions recruit professors of color who represent this emerging population. The National Organization for Research and Computing (NORC) notes that minority students comprise 16 percent of the doctorates granted nationwide in 2000 (Shenoy, 2002). At least a third of all minority doctorates graduate from high-quality institutions such as Harvard University and the University of Michigan (Shenoy, 2002). Higher education leaders such as Dr. Lee C. Bollinger, president of Columbia University, contends that building a diverse university community is crucial to the successful recruitment, hiring, and retention of faculty of color (Kayes, 2005). According to a study by the James Irvine Foundation, higher education institutions have been fairly successful at hiring minority faculty in recent years, but they 118 have lagged behind in retaining faculty of color (Mendoza, 2007). According to an April 2006 study entitled, ?The Revolving Door for Underrepresented Minority Faculty in Higher Education?, the turnover of minority faculty has contributed to the persistent lack of diversity (Mendoza, 2007). Consequentially, approximately three out of every five minority faculty who were hired were replacing other minorities who had left the institution (Mendoza, 2007). Some researchers contend that higher education institutions can retain minority faculty by offering them support based on some of the unique challenges they face (Mendoza, 2007). For example, the lack of personal and professional community engagement at many institutions may leave some minority faculty unfulfilled. Often times, minority faculty conduct research relevant to their own racial or ethnic groups in an environment where their specific research is not valued (Mendoza, 2007). But regardless of race, most faculty desire to teach at institutions where they receive research support and support for innovation in teaching (Mendoza, 2007). Despite the number of reports on the importance of employing a racially and ethnically diverse faculty on college and university campuses, state and national data shows that there has been a limited change in the proportion of underrepresented minority faculty (Moreno, Smith, Clayton-Pedersen, Parker, & Teraguchi, 2006). For example, between 1993 and 2003, the percentage of underrepresented minority faculty at four-year institutions increased by only 2 percent nationally, from approximately 6 percent to 8 percent (Moreno, et al., 2006). Faculty play a critical role in the educational, research, and service functions of the institution (Moreno, et al., 2006). In order to truly achieve excellence, campus leaders 119 must recruit and retain intellectual power and innovation of a racially and ethnically diverse professoriate. Moreover, faculty diversity advances the academy?s continuing educational, academic, and societal legitimacy (Moreno, et al., 2006). Therefore, if higher education institutions do not succeed in diversifying the group of faculty currently entering the academy, an entire generation?s worth of opportunity will be lost (Moreno, et al., 2006). Areas for Future Research In order to gain further insight on the satisfaction rate of African American students in the academy, future quantitative research must have a larger survey population. Therefore, similar studies on African American student satisfaction must have an increased survey population in order to give researchers more data to analysis and make comparisons among African American students at historically Black and predominantly White institutions. Nonetheless, the researcher discovered several areas that may be studied further regarding minorities in education. These areas of further study also explore how people of color may benefit from recruitment and retention initiatives at institutions throughout the country. These potential research topics include the following: White Student Enrollment at Historically Black Colleges and Universities According to the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education (NAFEO), Whites are the majority at four of the 106 Historically Black Colleges and Universities in the United States (Jet, 2000). For example, Blacks represent only 9 percent of the student body at Bluefield State College in West Virginia, 12 percent at West Virginia State College, 29 percent at Lincoln University in Missouri, and 27.5 120 percent at Shelton State Community College in Alabama (Jet, 2000). The effect of desegregation of educational systems, aggressive recruitment of non-Blacks by financially stricken universities, the significantly lower cost of education at Historically Black Colleges and Universities than at predominantly White competitors, and the expansion of many Black schools? graduate and professional degree programs all explain the shift in population (Jet, 2000). Some education experts argue that the increase in diversity of Black colleges is a key sign that such colleges are successfully competing with other institutions, while other education experts contend that the heritage and mission of Black schools may be jeopardized if fewer Blacks attend. Native American Persistence at Majority White and Tribal Institutions The postsecondary dropout rates are higher for Native Americans than for any other minority group (Reddy, 1993). Accordingly, Native Americans have lower educational attainment than other ethnic minorities (U.S. Department of Education, 1998). The high rates of Native American non-persistence in college and their lower representation in the general college student population are puzzling, especially considering that they earn SAT and ACT scores comparable to other ethnic minority groups and have equivalent high school graduation rates (Reddy, 1993; U.S. Department of Education, 1998). Lin, LaCounte, and Eder (1988) suggested that Native American college students feel isolated due to their perceptions that the ?White campus is hostile towards them? (p. 13). Benjamin, Chambers, and Reiterman (1993) also concluded that lack of academic persistence was due to colleges? failure to accommodate Native American culture. Other studies (Lamborn, Solberg, Torres, Gusavac, Hamman, & Pogoriler, 1997; Lin, 1990; 121 Ward, 1998) have suggested that a clearer sense of ethnic identification may lead to better academic performance. Willeto (1999) also found that family influences such as parental education, students? identification with their mothers, and family adherence to traditional cultural practices contributed to academic commitment and achievement. Brown and Kurpius? (1997) data indicated that Native Americans will have greater persistence in college if they have more positive interactions with faculty members. Brown and Kurpius (1997) further suggested that finding mentors and creating support groups would be of great benefit. Lower levels of financial support from both family and institutional sources, delayed enrollment, part-time attendance, financial independence, working full-time, being a single parent, and being a GED recipient have all been identified as personal variables that impact persistence (U.S. Department of Education, 1998). The 33 tribal colleges and universities within the United States that are located on or near reservations were established to serve the needs of their own Native American communities; preserving, enhancing, and promoting the language and culture of their tribe while integrating their tribe-specific worldview (Shirley, 2004). The majority of tribal colleges offer two-year associate?s degrees, while a few offer graduate degrees, specifically in the field of education and leadership (Shirley, 2004). Tribal colleges and universities have more female presidents than any other type of institution (Shirley, 2004). Many American Indian students attend their tribal college because of the close proximity from home and the emotional support received at their college (Shirley, 2004). 122 Black Student Identity at Selective Colleges and Universities Many scholars argue that the demographics of students today are more diverse than at any other time in the history of higher education (Lott, 2005). Within a multicultural learning environment, students? identities in college are an ever-changing facet of their social being. Often, a student?s identity is often imposed as a result of social construct. To some extent, a person?s identity may change based on how that person confirms to certain social expectations (Gibbons, 2005). Tracey and Sedlacek (1984, 1985, 1987) argue that identification with an institution is a more important correlation of retention for Blacks than for other students. In addition to the usual school pressures, Black students have to handle cultural biases and learn how to bridge their Black culture with the prevailing one at the White university (Sedlacek, 1999). Several studies in education have researched Black identity and academic achievement. In a study by Rowley (1997), the researcher anticipated a positive relationship between racial centrality and personal self-esteem. The study showed that African Americans who viewed race as a central aspect of their self-concept was not directly related to their self-esteem. However, the study did not show that private regard was positively related to self-esteem (Rowley 1997). Private regard may be defined as the extent to which an individual feels good about being of a certain race (Rowley, 1997). In another study by Oyesserman (2000), it was concluded that minority students get better grades if they connect their racial identity with academics. The study also indicated that an African American who felt good about school because it reflected well on the Black community did well, even if he or she viewed society as somewhat racist. 123 Additionally, it concluded that these students do better than those who did not develop their racial identity (Oyesserman, 2000). Through the studies of Rowley (1997) and Oyesserman (2000), the single most important factor for determining success is if these students think well of African Americans (high private regard). According to a recent study by Dr. James T. Minor entitled, ?Contemporary HBCUs?, today?s Black students have an array of college options and they increasingly attend traditionally White universities (Asquith, 2007). Minor adds that Black students at predominantly White universities exist in a world of daily micro-aggression in which they are constantly fighting for their right to be on campus. He refers to the experience as racial battle fatigue (Asquith, 2007). Minor contends that the lack of reaffirming cultural symbols on traditionally White college campuses increases the occurrence of racial battle fatigue among Black students (Asquith, 2007). Ogbu (1986) believes that Blacks have developed an oppositional (or counter) cultural identity due to the internalization of discrimination in America. For example, young Black Americans exhibit this oppositional culture in music (rap, hip-hop), through clothes (baggy, lose fitting), and speech (slang, Ebonics) (Ogbu, 1986). The concept of oppositional culture is more relevant in educational achievement. For instance, Ogbu (1986) contends that the concept of acting White was invented as a coping strategy. Ogbu (1986) argues that the burden of acting White occurred before the end of the Civil War. During this period, Blacks were not asked to incorporate the same behavior and speech patterns as Whites, but after emancipation Blacks were required to behave and talk the way Whites behaved and spoke. In the 1960s, oppositional cultural identity was evident 124 through the Black Power Movement. As its ideology increased, so did race pride (Ogbu, 1986). Consequentially, Ogbu (1986) believes that Blacks are still trying to enter the domain of White culture. In modern times, the notion of acting White can be psychologically stressful for Blacks, especially when some Blacks are accused of acting too white or even being disloyal to the Black community (Ogbu, 1986). For instance, one of the ways in which Black students are often labeled as acting White is through speaking. The ability to speak proper English has, at times, been labeled as talking White (Ogbu, 1986). Conclusions The goal of any institutional structure is to create throughout the academic community a service-oriented climate that clearly and explicitly addresses the concerns and needs of the student body (University of Kentucky Student Satisfaction Study, 1995). In order to resolve academic and social issues at historically Black and predominantly White institutions, the entire university community must collectively work together in order to make a visible difference within the campus community. Nonetheless, the implementation of suggestions and development of future research concerning college students of color will further assist administrators, faculty, and staff in meeting the needs of students of color. The results presented within the study provide quality student feedback on improving student satisfaction and engagement. Moreover, the recommendations in the study will assist various institutional leaders in meeting the transforming circumstances 125 of their minority student body. 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Journal of American Indian Education, 38(2), 1-24. Zanden, V., & Wilfrid, J. (1997). Social psychology (4 th ed.). New York: Random House. 151 APPENDICES 152 APPENDIX A HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENT SATISFACTION SURVEY 2006 153 154 HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENT SATISFACTION SURVEY 2006 Developed by Obiora N. Anekwe For the Fulfillment of the Research Dissertation At Auburn University I. Background Information INSTRUCTIONS: Please circle, check or write in your response for the following. A. Age: _______ B. Classification: Junior Senior C. How long have you attended your school? ______________ D. Gender: Male Female E. Race/Ethnicity: African American Other: _________________ F. School: College of Education Teaching Level: Elementary/Early Childhood____ Middle School/Jr. High____ High School____ Major field(s): _________________________________ G. GPA: _____ H. Are you a member of a Greek fraternity or sorority? Yes No If yes, is this Greek fraternity or sorority majority African American? Yes No I. Do you play a scholarship sport for the college? Yes No If yes, please indicate the sport(s) you play: Basketball____ Baseball____ Football____ Other____ J. Please list any other extracurricular activities: __________________________ 155 II. Demographics A. Provide your home city/state: ___________________________________ B. Do you live on or off campus? (Please circle one): on campus off campus C. Which do you prefer? (Please circle one): on campus off campus Measures of Satisfaction For each question, please indicate how satisfied you have been in this academic year using the following scale: Very Satisfied=VS; Satisfied=S; Neutral=N; Dissatisfied=D; and Very Dissatisfied=VD. Please answer all questions to the best of your ability. I. Satisfaction with Attitude and Behavior A. Student Citizenship Behavior Satisfaction 1. Quality of student body VS S N D VD 2. Student climate VS S N D VD 3. Student attitudes VS S N D VD 4. Campus pride of students VS S N D VD 5. Student concern for campus rules and regulations VS S N D VD 6. Development of personal qualities VS S N D VD Please state how you would improve the student body behavior on campus: ________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 156 B. Staff Attitude and Behavior Satisfaction 7. Quality of staff service (financial aid, housing, etc.) VS S N D VD 8. Quality of staff service beyond minimum requirements VS S N D VD 9. Attitude when service is provided VS S N D VD 10. Personal qualities of staff VS S N D VD 11. Leadership qualities of staff VS S N D VD 12. Level of respect for students VS S N D VD 13. Positive climate when service is provided VS S N D VD 14. Concern for student well-being VS S N D VD Please state how you would improve the staff behavior on campus: _______________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ C. Administration Attitude and Behavior Satisfaction 15. Leadership qualities of administrators (president, vice presidents, provost, etc.) VS S N D VD 16. Access to administrative officers VS S N D VD 17. Ability to relate to student issues and needs VS S N D VD 157 Please state how you would improve the administration?s attitude and behavior: II. Satisfaction with On-Campus Living and Physical Facilities A. Residential Life Experiences Satisfaction 18. Quality of services provided by residence life ( programs, counseling, etc.) VS S N D VD 19. Quality of room furnishings VS S N D VD 20. Cleanliness of common bathrooms VS S N D VD 21. Quality of maintenance care in the residence halls VS S N D VD 22. Quality of food provided in the dining hall VS S N D VD 23. Amount of food served in the dining hall VS S N D VD Please state how you would improve the on-campus living experience: B. Facilities Satisfaction 24. Maintenance of physical facilities in classrooms VS S N D VD 158 25. Maintenance of physical facilities in public spaces (bathrooms, hallways, etc.) VS S N D VD 26. Maintenance of landscape on campus VS S N D VD 27. Accessibility for disabled students VS S N D VD 28. Maintenance of recreational sports facilities for students VS S N D VD 29. Quality and maintenance of computer laboratories VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve the facilities on campus: __________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ III. Satisfaction with Academic Services A. Satisfaction with Faculty Satisfaction 30. Quality of instruction by faculty VS S N D VD 31. Availability of faculty during office hours VS S N D VD 32. Faculty commitment to helping students learn VS S N D VD 33. Faculty commitment to including students in research VS S N D VD 34. Faculty commitment to participation in university community involvement (convocations, service learning projects, etc) VS S N D VD 159 35. Information faculty give about course requirements (grading, attendance policy, disability and other accommodations, etc.) VS S N D VD 36. Ability to speak English clearly VS S N D VD 37. Overall, how satisfied are you with the faculty? VS S N D VD 38. Faculty availability for individual assistance and instruction VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve the quality of service by faculty: ____________ _______________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ B. Classes and Courses Satisfaction 39. Class size and layout of desks/tables VS S N D VD 40. Relevance of class to career goals and objectives VS S N D VD 41. Availability of classes in your major field of study VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve classes and courses on campus: 160 C. Instructional Support Satisfaction 42. Library hours VS S N D VD 43. Availability of textbooks through bookstore VS S N D VD 44. Availability of computer laboratories for student use VS S N D VD 45. Availability of internet access (for on-line text) VS S N D VD 46. Use of technology in classroom VS S N D VD 47. Quality of tutoring services VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve instructional support on campus: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ IV. Satisfaction with Social and Physical Environment A. Diversity Satisfaction 48. Diversity of ethnic groups VS S N D VD 49. Ratio of male to female students VS S N D VD 50. Number of students with disabilities VS S N D VD 51. Diversity of students from different economic status groups VS S N D VD 161 52. Number of students participating in different Greek organizations VS S N D VD 53. Number of older, returning students VS S N D VD 54. Diversity in on-campus programs relating to student interests VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve diversity on campus: ___________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ B. Clubs and Activities on Campus Satisfaction 55. Availability of campus activities related to student interests VS S N D VD 56. Availability of clubs related to student interests VS S N D VD 57. Opportunities for involvement in student government VS S N D VD 58. Quality of university sponsored entertainment VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve clubs and activities on campus: _____________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 162 C. Physical Environment Satisfaction 59. The outdoor physical campus environment VS S N D VD 60. The inside campus building environment VS S N D VD (cleanliness, trash cans emptied, etc.) 61. Preventive maintenance of the buildings on campus (up-keep, paint, plumbing, etc.) VS S N D VD 62. Promptness of repairs on campus VS S N D VD 63. Access to buildings for the physically disabled VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve the environmental/physical environment on campus: _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ V. Satisfaction with Health and Fitness Activities A. Fitness and Health Satisfaction 64. Quality of fitness activities on campus VS S N D VD 65. Quality of fitness facilities on campus VS S N D VD 66. Services provided for health awareness (workouts, fitness classes, etc.) VS S N D VD 67. Availability of fitness and exercise equipment VS S N D VD 163 Please indicate how you would improve health and fitness activities on campus: ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ VI. Satisfaction with Career Placement Opportunities A. Career Placement Satisfaction 68. Quality of job placement services VS S N D VD 69. Quality of internship placement services VS S N D VD 70. Quality of co-op program services VS S N D VD 71. Quality of job training (workshops, etc.) VS S N D VD 72. Availability of workstudy and/or assistantship opportunities VS S N D VD Please indicate how you would improve career placement opportunities on campus: ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Modified: 5/16/06 164 APPENDIX B AUBURN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) APPROVAL LETTER 165 166 APPENDIX C INFORMED CONSENT LETTER 167 168