TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN: UNDERSTANDING RESPONSIBILITY, PRIVILEGES, AND POSITIONS OF POWER Except where reference is made to the works of others, the works described in this dissertation is my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. This dissertation does not include proprietary or classified information. _________________________________ Claire M. Mowling Certificate of Approval: _________________________ _________________________ Sheri J. Brock Peter A. Hastie, Chair Assistant Professor Professor Health & Human Performance Health & Human Performance _________________________ _________________________ Mary E. Rudisill Alice M. Buchanan Professor Associate Professor Health & Human Performance Health & Human Performance _________________________ Stephen L. McFarland Dean Graduate School TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN: UNDERSTANDING RESPONSIBILITY, PRIVILEGES, AND POSITIONS OF POWER Claire M. Mowling A Dissertation Submitted to The Graduate Faculty of Auburn University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Auburn, Alabama August 8, 2005 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN: UNDERSTANDING RESPONSIBILITY, PRIVILEGES, AND POSITIONS OF POWER Claire M. Mowling Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this dissertation at its discretion, upon request of individuals or institutions and their expense. The author reserves all publication rights. ________________________ Signature of Author ________________________ Date iii VITA Claire M. Mowling, daughter of Michael and Rachel Mowling was born on February 13, 1975 in Bristol, England. Claire grew up in Buildwas, Shropshire and graduated from Bridgnorth Endowed School in 1993. She began Troy State University in 1994 and graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Sport and Fitness Management in 1998. Claire continued her college career at Troy State University and received a Master of Science degree in Foundations of Education in 1999. Upon graduation, Claire accepted an Instructor position in the Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation at Jacksonville State University, Alabama. After three years of teaching Claire returned to school to pursue a Doctor of Education degree in Physical Education ? Pedagogy at Auburn University. iv TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN: UNDERSTANDING RESPONSIBILITY, PRIVILEGES, AND POSITIONS OF POWER Claire M. Mowling Doctor of Education, August 8, 2005 (M.S. Troy State University, 1999) (B.S. Troy State University, 1998) 153 Typed Pages Directed by Peter A. Hastie ABSTRACT The purpose of this investigation was to examine the ?disconnect? between white middle class teachers and their African-American students. The overall focus is the conflicting cultural upbringing of teachers and their students and how this socialization and heritage leads them to incompatible ideas about responsibility, privilege, and positions of power. Study I examines twelve, fifth grade elementary students and their representations of personal and social responsibility through a series of drawings and accompanying narrations. Results showed that their cultural upbringing at home v conflicted with the schools rules about what it means to be responsible. This conflict aided in the children verbally and physically developing a disregard for white hegemony enforced in their current school rules. Study II examines 16 white middle class teacher candidates journey towards cultural awareness during a university course placing them in an environment culturally different from their own for the first time. Results showed that teacher candidates were able to develop a sense of caring for their students and identified knowing their children as individuals as an important part of teaching. However, during this time they were unable to recognize their privileges. Overall, results accentuate the ?disconnect? between white teachers and children of color regarding cultural issues. Such a gap may lead to a constant battle for the position of power within the classroom as students feel the teacher does not listen or understand their needs and the teacher struggles to maintain control of their classroom. Therefore, in order to close this widening divide Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs must focus more heavily on equipping teacher candidates with the necessary practical experience and curriculum content to successfully interact and teach children from a variety of cultural backgrounds. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout my pursuit of the doctorate I have been fortunate enough to have a wonderful support group. There have been many people who have constantly been there to praise my accomplishments, give me a little nudge of encouragement, or even a swift kick to get finished. First and foremost I would like to express my gratitude to Brandi for her belief in me from start to finish and her continual support and friendship. I would like to thank mum and dad for raising me to believe I could accomplish anything I set my mind to and for their continued support from across the pond of their daughter the professional student who finally has a real job. Dr. Sheri Brock, thank you for never giving me a straight answer, challenging me to find my own truths, and sending me home with a headache but mostly for always being there to support my crazy projects. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Peter Hastie for giving me the inspiration to succeed by way of example. Also, I appreciate the hard work and insightful comments of my committee members. Pam and Whitney thank you for keeping my brain fueled with Taco Casa and being there to take care of me, you are truly my American family. Dr. Margaret Pope I appreciate you constantly checking up on my progress and forever reminding me of the importance of getting finished. And finally I would like to thank Pumpkin, Picasso, Pnip, and Phoebe for adding their 2 cents worth (!@#$<%&+^*?) by randomly walking across or even laying down on my keyboard. vii Style manual or journal used Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5 th edition)_____________________________________________ Computer Software Used Microsoft Word_______________________________ _________________________________________________________________ viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES????????????????????????. x LIST OF FIGURES???????????????????????? xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION??????????????????. 1 II REVIEW OF LITERATURE?????????????? 4 III MINORITY STUDENTS? REPRESENTATIONS OF PERSONAL AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY????. 22 IV TEACHER CANDIDATES CULTURAL AWARENESS WHEN PLACED IN AN ENVIRONMENT CULTURALLY DIFFERENT FROM THEIR OWN???????????.. 80 V EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS ?????.?????? 116 REFERENCES?????????????????????????.. 119 APPENDICES?????????????????????????.. 127 Appendix A: General Interview Questions?????????????? 128 Appendix B: Critical Incident Slips????????????????? 138 Appendix C: Informed Consent ??????????????????. 139 ix TABLES Table 1: Social Group Representation in the Study????????? 28 Table 2: Participant Drawing Directions????????????? 33 Table 3: Master Coding Sheet????????????????? 38 x FIGURES Figure 1: 5 th Grade Friendship Groups?????????????? 27 Figure 2: Insult Progression Chart???????????????.. 30 Figure 3: Jayravious? drawing entitled ?Feelings for Others? (TPSR level 1) 40 Figure 4: Kentravious? positive and negative drawings (TPSR level 1)? 41 Figure 5: Kim?s drawing of Moesha and a confrontation with the teacher (TPSR level 0)???????????????????. 44 Figure 6: Laurel?s drawing entitled ?Ugly Girl? (TPSR level 1)???? 45 Figure 7: K.K?s drawing entitled ?Fighting because she stole her man? (TPSR level 3)???????????????????. 49 Figure 8: Kentravious? drawing entitled ?Irresponsible? (TPSR level 0).. 51 Figure 9: Marina?s drawing entitled ?Wanna Play? (TPSR level 4)??.. 52 1 CHAPTER I Introduction As the American population continues to grow the number of children from culturally diverse backgrounds is steadily increasing. It is estimated that in the next thirty years the percentage of minority students namely African-American, Hispanic, and Asian children will in fact exceed that of the European-American, the current majority. The present teaching population does not mirror that of the changing population. Currently, teachers are predominately white, middle class, women who enter into teaching equipped with only the background and experience to teach children from a similar cultural upbringing. At the same time teachers of color are rapidly declining and incentives to bring more minorities into teaching is failing. With this in mind it seems inevitable that in the coming years white teachers will be responsible for teaching largely children from different cultural backgrounds. In light of this an effort needs to be made now to prepare the white teaching population for success in diverse settings. It becomes necessary to consider ways to increase understanding and possible modification of current teaching techniques to meet the current cultural climate. Research has negatively documented the current white teacher?s ability to accommodate students of color and has stated that current teacher education programs are not doing enough if anything in rectifying this ever increasing cultural divide between teacher and student (Burden, Hodge, O?Bryant, & Harrison, 2004). It seems there is a ?disconnect? between cultures that adversely affects 2 both the teacher?s ability to teach and the students ability to learn. In actuality a battle for power in the educational environment may be ensuing. The children of color may be trying to fight for their cultural heritage, perspective, and relevance. At the same time the teacher struggles to instill white ideals on the children. Once a power struggle commences it seems that both parties involved lose because they end up beating their heads against a wall with no one willing to compromise their beliefs. The children may think the teacher does not care about them as individual people or that the teacher is not willing to listen. On the other hand, the teacher may be thinking the students are disruptive and a discipline problem. If this situation occurs the potential for learning in that climate must be considerably diminished. Burden, Hodge, O?Bryant, and Harrison (2004) discuss the steady decline of white teacher?s efficacy towards teaching African- American students. A possibility for these teachers not wanting to teach in diverse setting may be due to the constant struggle for power. There is no doubt that something has to be done to bring the two sides together, teacher and student working together in pursuit of a common goal, a positive learning environment. Before such a setting can be established both teacher and student must strive for a mutual level of respect and understanding for the others cultural perspective. The following two studies attempt to clarify the need for action in bridging the current disconnect between teacher and student. Firstly, African- American children provide representations through interviews and drawings concerning personal and social responsibility in physical education, school, at home, and in their community. African-American children are given the opportunity to discuss their feelings on responsibility and how they view the white ideals generally enforced on the students by the school. Although, such rules are clearly understood by the students they go 3 somewhat ignored, resented and even disrespected because they go against their cultural beliefs of what it means to be responsible. The voice of the African-American child is priceless as it provides the white teacher with an understanding of these children?s cultural norms. It not only forces western hegemony to admit to cultural differences but also shows the need to take their cultural perspectives into consideration when teaching African-American children. Secondly, teacher candidates provide their perspective on teaching in an African-American after-school setting. Levels of cultural awareness and cultural transformation are addressed when teacher candidates are observed teaching for the first time in an environment culturally different from their own. The two studies seek to bring to attention the obvious disconnect between white teachers and their African- American students. The results work synonymously to demonstrate the cultural divide and the difficulty for both parties to compromise or falter in the struggle for the ultimate position of power. In order for any possibility of fixing the disconnect it seems the Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs have to step up and aid in leading teacher candidates on a personal journey towards cultural transformation and ultimately cultural awareness. 4 CHAPTER II Review of Literature African-American Children and Issues of Personal and Social Responsibility Student Entry Characteristics No matter in what context, a person always enters an environment with a set of preconceived notions of what is occurring. These already formulated attitudes and beliefs about a particular environment or activity are termed ?entry characteristics.? Therefore, in the case of personal and social responsibility, students may begin school life conflicted between what they already value and believe to be responsible and what the teacher views as responsible. It would appear that the perceptions of students regarding their responsibility entry characteristics have not been a consideration in Taking Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) research and the continued development of the model. Instead Hellison (2003) states that the birth of TPSR was ?A survival response to the attitudes, values, and behaviors of the underserved kids I was teaching in high school physical education (p.4).? The majority of entry characteristic research has focused on gender appropriateness and how in turn this affects responses to perceived levels of competence and self-efficacy. Solmon, Lee, Belcher, Harrison, and Wells, (2003) describe how prior experience determines a student?s self-efficacy whether it be vicarious or hands-on. Due to the nature of personal and social responsibility and the ultimate goal of transference into everyday life outside of the classroom it becomes imperative to 5 determine the student?s position on responsibility before you start trying to manipulate it to fit in the confines of today?s societal responsibility. Student Responsibility and Cultural Differences At the present time approximately 30% of the United States population is considered to be from minority groups. Numbers of racial-ethnic minorities are projected to continually increase with the year 2050 exceeding 50% of the U.S. population (Reed, 1998). In the field of education a cultural imbalance is becoming more noticeable between teachers and their students. The most recent data published by the National Education Association (NEA), public school teachers are typically white, females from presumably middle class upbringings. With such noticeable differences between the teachers and the student population it becomes imperative that the teachers become familiar with the cultural differences of their students. In our current western hegemony there is a stereotypical view of ?other? and because of such preconceived notions certain cultural groups are marginalized and denounced as being backward or somehow unworthy. Many times any interpretation that goes against a western hegemonistic view of what is considered normal goes unnoticed or is merely disregarded as being wrong. Cultural diversity among students is likely to provide a number of differing views regarding what is responsible. Therefore, it becomes important to determine students? entry characteristics pertaining to personal and social responsibility and use the information to seek ways to create an environment that embraces all cultures. Current research is focusing on the importance of seeking a culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) which stresses the importance of listening to all children. Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) make it clear that to ignore student norms is going to provoke immediate student 6 defiance. In the case of teaching personal and social responsibility, to teach responsibility solely from an Anglo-American view point in a culturally diverse setting has to be a disservice to the children. By establishing possible cultural differences regarding responsibility an appropriate approach can be taken to learning. Student Responsibility within the School Setting In the school setting it is the duty of the principal to determine what is deemed responsible behavior for the students, thereby turning responsibility into a set of rules to which the student must adhere or face consequences. Following the rules whether in agreement or not becomes the only way students can express responsibility. Merely, enforcing rules and regulations cannot be sufficient. By forcing ideas of responsibility the balance of responsibility may be shifted from an intrinsic moral action to one that is extrinsically motivated (Sizer, 1992). Students know the rules. They are ingrained into them starting the first day of kindergarten. However, it appears that students are not always in agreement with the rules and follow them to varying degrees. Testing the boundaries is common place in most children but is this act of defiance, a lack of respect for the rules, an attempt to behave irresponsibly, or simply a difference in opinion regarding the definition of responsibility? If today?s children have different beliefs and values associated with responsibility are those unvalued opinions, something that should be silenced or does it present a need for further investigation? Personal Responsibility It only makes sense that for an individual to become socially responsible in society they must first develop a strong sense of personal responsibility and a drive to improve themselves. Hellison (2003) uses TPSR to develop personal responsibility 7 through effort, participation, self-direction, and a general respect for oneself and ones actions. In the classroom personal responsibility is initially the main concentration before forms of social responsibility are implemented. With regard to physical education a student taking personal responsibility for his/ her actions might include full participation, continual effort, and self-direction (e.g. an individual choosing to participate in throwing drills he/ she do not enjoy because they realize it will improve skill level). A lack of personal responsibility would be cruising in neutral or having a defeatist attitude. Social Responsibility An individual that displays social responsibility thinks about how his/ her actions affect the rights and feelings of others. Social responsibility attempts to celebrate individuality and diversity by working to make students aware of differing opinions by stressing that just because an individual?s values and beliefs differ from their own they have the right to be treated with the same respect. To become socially responsible a person must first become personally responsible for their actions. Hellison?s levels of social responsibility are introduced after personal responsibility and deal with respecting others, helping others, leadership, sensitivity and responsiveness, and ultimately transference of responsible behaviors into the real world. Hellison (2003) notes that elementary school teachers have found it more difficult to implement and see results with the latter levels of TPSR focusing on social responsibility. In the physical education setting social responsibility would be considered working together to reach a common goal, sharing equipment and space, and helping others to become successful. The ultimate goal and measure of success of TPSR is to produce personally and socially 8 responsible individuals outside of the confines of the classroom and school rules and encourage individuals to act responsibly because they believe it is morally right to do so. Accountability With a sense of personal and social responsibility comes an increased level of accountability. With regard to education, the drive behind accountability may initially come from the teacher enforcing the rules. This principle goes against the mission of TPSR and turns responsibility into a set of rules mandated by an extrinsic source. However, in order for TPSR to become a success the accountability must transfer back to the individual. The difficulty described by Hellison (2003) in meeting the goal of transference seems to indicate that maybe an inner sense of accountability is not being met. However, students must understand that whether in class, work, or general society there will always be rules and part of a student?s level of responsibility is to abide by the rules and be accountable for his/ her choices. The question here is do students want to be held accountable for their actions and the actions of others, and to what degree? Personal & Social Responsibility Curriculum Model Design Regardless of differing entry characteristics concerning personal and social responsibility physical education has the opportunity to reach students through teaching TPSR. Some teachers may feel overwhelmed when dealing with potentially at-risk children especially in physical education environments that are plagued by large class numbers and minimal available instruction time. However, adopting the mission of personal and social responsibility has allowed physical educators to positively influence children?s lives (Compagnone, 1995; Cutforth & Puckett, 1999; DeBusk & Hellison, 1989). The model focuses on taking personal responsibility for your actions, making 9 good choices, and promoting social empathy. Hellison (1996) expresses that physical education in today?s climate requires the teacher to focus attention on the student?s inner needs as well as the outside. Teaching personal and social responsibility as priority places the personal needs of the student ahead of physical activity. According to Hellison (1996) there are several aspects of personal and social responsibility that are essential to the success of the model. These factors include: (1) teacher-student relationship, (2) integration, (3) empowering students, and (4) transfer. (1) Teacher-student relationship - The relationship between the teacher and students is crucial. Students must trust the teacher and feel that the teacher cares about them as an individual. Teachers must realize certain things about all students such as they are all unique individuals, they all have strengths, and they all have an opinion that deserves to be heard (e.g. teachers should take time to learn the names of all their students and seek information about their lives outside of physical education). (2) Integration - It is important to integrate the goals of personal and social responsibility into the physical activity content. If goals are imbedded in the content they will produce meaning from practical application (e.g. if focusing on respect during a tennis unit, the teacher might stress the importance of respecting the decision of another student when calling the ball in or out). (3) Empowering Students ? Gradually, the teacher should move from a position of power to one of facilitator. Successful empowerment involves giving the students the power to make decisions that impact their environment. Through practice they will learn to make good decisions regarding personal and social morals (e.g. 10 giving team leaders the power to make decisions about who touches the basketball). Hopefully, students will be empowered to make a quality decision that it is important for the whole team to be involved regardless of skill level. There should also be a period of self-reflection at the end of class about the choices they made. (4) Transfer ? The inclusion of personal and social responsibility in physical education fails if students are not able to transfer behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs into real life situations. Hellison (1996) stresses transfer is ?crucial if responsibility is to become an integral part of kids? lives.? (p. 243) Implementation of personal and social responsibility is contingent on five program goals. Each goal can be seen as a level as there is progression, meaning it is easier to be successful at a higher level if you have accomplished the demands of the previous level. Primary goals for the beginning stages of responsibility are (1) respect for the rights and feelings of others and (2) effort. Students must strive to exhibit self-control, respect the rights of others to be included, and be involved in peaceful conflict resolution to achieve goal one. For example, students who are apt to lose self-control may benefit from the choice to put themselves in time out to reflect on their feelings and come back in when they are ready. To be successful in goal two, students must be self-motivated, be on task, and try new things. For example, have students chose between an aerobic and anaerobic activity station where they feel they will work the hardest. The next two goals are considered advanced stages of responsibility and include (3) self-direction and (4) helping others and leadership. To be successful students are presented with the opportunity to put goals one and two into practice and expand on their responsibility 11 expectations. Self-direction requires students to work on their own, set goals for themselves, and resist peer pressure to get off-task. For example, allow students to select what they feel is necessary for them to improve their stick handling in floor hockey. While, helping others and leadership promotes social-moral issues and the ability to be caring and empathic towards others and display an inner strength. An example of helping others may be to have students do peer assessments of one another?s golf swing giving feedback. Hellison (2003) suggests that the final goal (5) outside the gym is often forgotten by teachers but may be the most important in accomplishing permanent displays of responsibility at school, home, and work. The idea is to become a role model and display personal and social responsibility outside of the physical education environment where it is not required and expected by the teacher. For example, if a student is confronted with conflict in the hallway between classes they exhibit such behavior that works towards democratic conflict resolution as opposed to throwing punches. The goals can be modified to suit the environment and in order to produce the best results. However, it should be remembered that in a circumstance such as personal and social responsibility less is more. Thereby, focusing on a great effort from the students in a few important areas so as not to overwhelm them or change the effectiveness of the overall result. Each class should follow a specific format. A routine is necessary to ensure personal and social responsibility is taking place within the physical education content. Familiarity with procedures will help students understand teaching expectations (James, 2001). TPSR uses counseling time (commenting on a happy or sad face), awareness talk 12 (explaining and reminding students that today?s lesson is focusing on effort), the lesson (complete your assignment and then help others who might be struggling), group meeting (give students the opportunity to express their feelings about the lesson), reflection time (self-evaluation), and counseling time (follow up on student successes and failures for the day). Along with a consistent class format students are required to rate their own performance for the day. Students should decide what level they want to reach for the day and then reflect at the end of the lesson to see if they were able to accomplish their goal, what they did to be successful or what they need to work harder on next time. Hellison (1985) describes the scores as follows: Level 0: Irresponsibility - Makes excuses for their behavior and blames others. Level 1: Respect for the Rights and Feelings of Others - Able to control their own behavior and allow others to learn even if they do not want to participate. Level 2: Participation and Effort - Shows respect and is willing to participate in all activities. Level 3: Self-Direction - Shows respect and participation and is able to work without supervision. Level 4: Helping and Caring for Others ? Shows respect, participation, works without supervision and is able to show concern and help others. Level 5: Outside the gym ? Shows transference into everyday life and becomes a role model for their peers (Hellison, 2003). Research in TPSR To date, empirical evidence of the success of Hellison?s TPSR has been somewhat limited; maybe due to the difficulty of measuring student attitudes and beliefs 13 that are an integral part of the responsibility model. The focus has been on correct implementation procedures as well as perceived outcomes (Hellison, 1995). The use of the model seems to be becoming more increasingly widespread. However, there has been limited research done on those who adopt the model in their physical education classes (Buchanan, 2001). Buchanan (2001) examined the implementation of the model by staff at an instructional sports camp. Results showed that staff opinions varied in how they interpreted and in turn implemented the model. Some of the staff were able to empower the students by giving them control of their learning while others were unable to let go of their authoritarian control. Mainly, TPSR was perceived by the staff as being a tool to ensure discipline. The levels were presented by the staff as rules rather than a method of promoting relationships and caring. Campagnone (1995) followed four boy?s on-task behaviors throughout TSPR. At the beginning the students were described as constantly committing small irresponsible acts. Changes in self-responsibility were also measured. Results showed that the behavioral changes were minimal. Students did however start to use the language associated with TPSR such as ?self-control.? They were able to tell each other that they were out of control or that they needed to exhibit more self-control but could not exhibit such behaviors themselves. Cothran (2001) examines how physical educators felt about adopting TPSR in their classroom. Different phases of implementation were identified: initiation, relevance, readiness, implementation, and continuation. Initiation was considered as the time spent by the teachers to decide on which model to implement based on their current setting. 14 Relevance dealt with why the teacher believed there should be change in their current program. The two teachers felt like they were not reaching their students and wanted something that would affect their heart and not just their head. Readiness showed that both teachers felt that they were ready to make a necessary change in their curriculum. Implementation is when the new program commences. Cothran (2001) describes implementation as being a phase that could take several years to fully implement. During this phase difficulties occur and adaptations need to be made. During this time the teachers found it difficult to envision how the model worked in a real life situation. Teachers described problems with lack of activity in the beginning and lots of down time. Issues with the students having difficulty with the change also arose. The continuation phase is contingent on the teachers and student success with TPSR. Practitioner based articles have dealt with awareness of the effectiveness of the model. Hellison (1993) outlined an inner-city program that used sport clubs to promote social and personal responsibility through activities such as basketball and martial arts. The clubs are after-school activities that seek to keep Chicago?s youth off the streets in a safe environment. Students learn about the importance of self-control, cooperation, and respect for others. Hellison (1993) reports that there was clear evidence to suggest that the goals of the program were working as they related to activities during the coaching club but more work needed to be done to see evidence of transference from the club to the outside world. Lickona (1991) suggests that transference may take years to recognize and labels the effects of TPSR as ?sleeper effects.? Parker, Kallusky, and Hellison (1999) discuss ten strategies to teach responsibility. The strategies are described as being ?relatively low-risk for teachers and 15 high-impact for students? (p. 26). The aim is to put what they have learned as far as responsibility into action. Sometimes strategies adopted by the teacher are expected and never taught to the students. For example, one strategy deals with instant activities that are written on a white board. When students enter the class they are expected to read the board and commence activity until further instruction from the teacher. In order to achieve successful implementation of this strategy they will need to make students aware of the protocol and read it through with them until each student grasps the concept and it becomes an automatic part of the class. Other strategies include: allowing students to get water when they need it, allowing students to adjust set tasks to meet their individual needs, and inserting peer teaching into instruction. Parker & Hellison (2001) demonstrate how personal and social responsibility can be helpful in meeting standard five of the NASPE standards. A physically educated person demonstrates responsible personal and social behavior in physical activity settings (NASPE, 1995). Physical activity has the potential to incorporate standard five if responsibility is integrated into the content. Limitations of TPSR Research and Model Design Research on TPSR has focused on the successful adoption of the model into the physical education curriculum and on teachers? opinions of its merits and successes. General consensus among teachers appears to be along the lines of how do I get these students to behave, believe what I believe, and do what I say. This is contradictory to Hellison?s continually documented notion of character building and producing responsible human beings. Although articles such as Hellison (1993) and Campagnone (1995) have focused on the responses of students, these have been done after the program 16 has been implemented and have not shown the process, progress or development of the child throughout TPSR, nor how long it takes for students to truly understand the meaning of personal and social responsibility. An understanding of why the students have certain attitudes and beliefs has not been established, instead a level of blame has been used as a reason for the importance of the model such as poverty, upbringing, community, culture, gangs, drugs, and so forth. Although the research is very promising and TPSR is highly regarded as a model that produces positive results, are we in fact trying to make all students fit together in a mold of TPSR? Also, the transference into everyday life is difficult and no studies have attempted to look into this transference. Could this be because it is just seen by the students as another set of rules imposed on them by adults? Teacher Candidates Perspective on Teaching African-American Children Demographics of Teacher Candidates The United States of America represents itself to the rest of the world as a ?melting pot? and a country where anybody regardless of cultural background can live freely. However, the reality seems to be a struggle for cultural balance. Currently approximately 30% of the U.S. population is considered to be from minority groups this number will continue to increase with the projected racial-ethnic minority population for 2050 being 50% of the U.S. population (Reed, 1998). In the field of education a cultural imbalance is noticeable between teachers and their students. Student demographics continue to rapidly change with an ever increasing numbers of African American, Latino, and Asian children entering school. Whereas, teacher demographics do not represent the current student population and this discrepancy is estimated to get worse (Thernstrom & 17 Thernstrom, 2004). The teacher candidates involved in this study mirrored that of the most recent data published by the National Education Association (NEA), public school teachers are typically white, females from presumably middle class upbringings. Ninety percent of public school teachers were white during the 2000-2001. Moreover, the number of black teachers is consistently declining. Seventy nine percent of teachers were reported as female. The obvious race and cultural gap between students and teachers provides the basis for serious concern among some researchers. Thernstrom and Thernstrom (2004) discuss how a federally funded regional education lab claimed that white teachers ?bring little intercultural experiences from their largely suburban and small town backgrounds? to a culturally diverse population of students. Scoon (2001) in an Education Week article calls the shortage of minority teachers ?crippling.? The call to recruit more minority representation among teachers appears to be failing making it difficult for students to experience role models from differing cultures. Instead of looking at the cultural inadequacies of the white teacher population it seems that efforts should be made to prioritize the cultural transformation of current teacher candidates. An increased effort needs to be made to surround future teachers with a rich cultural experience thereby, assisting them on a culturally transformative journey. Transformative Process Greenman and Dieckmann (2004) in adopting critical thinking and reflection outline the importance of ?transformative moments.? It is necessary to comprehend that transformation will not always be like turning a light on; hence suddenly everything makes sense, but instead may come in the form of small flickers of light with realization becoming part of a long journey. These realizations may be small and may occur at any 18 point along the road. Shor and Freire (1987) describes that transformation is likely to occur in both small and large increments and can be ?a moment of transition from passivity or naivet? to some animation and critical awareness? (p.34). It is suggested to not go looking for or expect big changes because it may negatively influence the possibility of a transforming moment or action. Greenman and Dieckmann (2004) calls for the need to include in teacher education ?authentic, effective critical perspectives? to encourage a ?personal transformation? as well as a transformation of social justice. Teacher candidates should be provided with many opportunities to encourage transformation but at the same time it should be a personal journey and transformation should be a guided process and not a forced one. Criticality Denzin and Lincoln (2003) describe criticality as seeking to ?produce, pragmatic knowledge that is cultural and structural, judged by its degree of historical situatedness and its ability to produce praxis, or action? (p.249). Critical experiences throughout the teacher education process embedded within praxis may be considered a necessary element of the transformation of teacher candidates. Friere?s (1992) definition of praxis focuses on transforming an individual?s practice world based upon a process of action and reflection. Praxis then is a combination of action and reflection. Recently researchers have entertained that critical perspectives will enhance future teacher?s abilities to recognize their privileges and seek equity and social justice. As many that agree with the need for criticality, disagree with its motivations, thereby, keeping critical experiences to a minimum in most teacher education programs. Kincheloe and McLaren (2003) describe critical theory as eliciting ?highly charged emotions? from both sides indicating that in 19 present society ?critical theory still matters? and that whether we are for it or against it we are unable to be ?without it? (p.433). In respect to cultural transformative processes of teacher candidates it becomes necessary to include the ideologies of critical race theory along with cultural studies. Critical race theory ?seeks to decloak the seemingly race-neutral, and color blind ways?? within education (Parker, Deyhle, Villeras, & Nebeker, 1998, p.5). While cultural studies ?functions within the dynamics of competing definitions of culture? (Kincheloe & McLaren, 2003, p.458). Thus, encouraging teacher candidates to recognize that our current society is not color blind and neither should it be. It is imperative that future teachers recognize and even become uncomfortable with racial and cultural differences so they begin to understand the beauty of differences among individuals and seek to implement culturally relevant pedagogies. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, and Curran (2004) explain that cultural differences between novice teacher?s and their student?s can cause difficulties unless the teacher has some multicultural competence. Initial difficulties may arise because of cultural hegemony. Gay (2000) expresses ?while most teachers are not blatant racists, many probably are cultural hegemonists. They expect all students to behave according to a cultural standard of normality? (p.46). Teacher candidates should seek to accumulate knowledge regarding a culturally relevant pedagogy. With an increased understanding future teachers may come to understand more clearly their praxis when instructing students from different cultural backgrounds. The foundation of a culturally relevant pedagogy is categorized by Ladson-Billings (1995) as providing academic success, social 20 competence, and critical consciousness. When implementing a culturally responsive environment it becomes necessary to recognize ?that we are all cultural beings, with our own beliefs, biases, and assumptions about human behavior? (Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003, p.269). Furthermore, in order to be culturally responsive a teacher must acquire ?cultural content knowledge? and outline the importance of learning about the child?s family background, previous experiences, cultural norms for interpersonal relationships, parent?s expectations for discipline, and the ways the culture treats time and space. Mishne (2000) stresses that at the same time such information should not be used to stereotype or to imply that the teacher has a clear understanding of the child?s cultural background. The underlying success of culturally relevant pedagogy is recognized by Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, and Curran (2004) as a ?frame of mind? and not just a series of strategies that teacher?s can impose on students. Culturally responsive teachers are personally able to acknowledge their biases and values and in turn are able to critically reflect on how these directly affect their expectations when teaching. Before this transformation among teacher candidates can occur they must first escape what Banks (1994) terms ?cultural encapsulation? which is their inability to even acknowledge or be aware of their own cultural identity. Darder (1997) discusses a culturally relevant pedagogy where students can learn to make problematic their views of life; search for different ways to think about themselves; challenge their self-imposed as well as institutionally defined limitations; affirm their cultural and individual strengths; and embrace the possibilities for a better world (p.342). 21 Purpose of Study I This paper seeks to challenge a typically western hegemony by giving voice to the vastly increasing populations of African American and Hispanic children in America?s schools. The purpose is to provide physical educators with an insight into the current attitudes and beliefs of today?s children regarding personal and social responsibility as it pertains to Hellison?s Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model. Purpose of Study II The purpose of the study was to attempt to answer the following relevant questions (a) were teacher candidates able to realize their privileges? (b) Did teacher candidates become uncomfortable in an environment culturally different from their own? (c) Were teacher candidates compelled to seek culturally relevant pedagogy? 22 CHAPTER III Minority Students? Representations of Personal and Social Responsibility Abstract This study examines twelve, fifth grade elementary school students? attitudes and beliefs concerning personal and social responsibility in physical education. Factors used to identify students? attitudes and beliefs were initially divided into the six levels of Hellison?s Taking Personal and Social Responsibility Model, namely: irresponsibility, respect for the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self direction, helping and caring for others, and transfer into real life situations (Hellison, 2003). Through a variety of data collection techniques such as drawings, narrations, interviews, and observations, a representation of the students? attitudes and beliefs regarding personal and social responsibility was identified. Results from the study showed the emergence of the following themes: (1) responsibility is generally perceived as the absence of negative actions, (2) responsibility is taking punishment enforced by the teachers, (3) responsibility is determined by the family and not the school, (4) responsibility is based on a one on one interaction with another person, and (5) responsibility appears to have little value in the context of physical education. Generalized themes included (6) responsibility and gender differences and (7) responsibility and race differences. Further research needs to be conducted to determine how children?s entry characteristics can be used to strengthen behavioral change models such as TPSR. 23 Introduction A class of fifth grade African-American children is concentrating on cooperative skills in physical education. The teacher blows the whistle and the students rotate to find a new partner. She hears the new partners greet one another. Two boys behind her have the following conversation, ?What up nigga?? to which the reply is ?Not much bitch.? The teacher spins around and glares at the students stating firmly, ?Don?t use that kind of language in my classroom.? An Anglo physical education teacher is assisting a group of African-American 5 th grade children with basic dribbling techniques. A boy says ?Watch this teach? and begins to dribble the ball in and out of his legs. The teacher replies ?That?s cool.? The student comes up to the teacher and leans his arm on her shoulder. Let me tell you something he says, ?It ain?t cool no more, it?s tight, and if it be really cool then its pimp, you got it?? An African-American fifth grader during physical education approaches the teacher and says, ?I ain?t doing this, it?s so gay.? To which the teacher replies ?What do you mean it?s so gay?? The student rolls her eyes and says ?You know it just be so stupid.? The scenarios above are part of children?s general conversation in one predominately African American southeastern United States elementary school. For an Anglo teacher entering a setting so culturally different from her own at first may be an eye opener. In a society that functions based on a Euro-American western hegemony 24 (Adam & Tiffin, 1991) and characterizes certain cultures as inferior, the environment may initially be looked down upon. The current western hegemony seems to view the above language as going against moral responsibility in much of today?s society and is termed as using bad or offensive language. Within the school setting such language is not tolerated and comes with consequences. However, stopping to inquire as to the children?s meanings and understanding of such words probably is ignored. Spradley (1979) states ?Language is more than a means of communication about reality: it is a tool for constructing reality (p. 17).? Therefore, it is possible that African American children?s use of language creates and expresses a different form of reality. The children may not perceive the use of such language as an act of irresponsibility. Language is just one of the many instances where teachers and their students seem to clash regarding what is responsible behavior. Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online describes responsibility as ?The quality or state of being responsible as a moral, legal, or mental accountability.? It is possible that as with many things in life the interpretation of this definition and the meaning of what it is to be responsible differ depending on sociological influences of an individual such as gender, race, culture, religion, age, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, and so forth. When concerned with what is considered responsible there is a need to investigate the interpretations of ?other? and look outside the western hegemony to avoid any unjust stereotypes along with the idea of force feeding Anglo-American ideals. Purpose of the Study This paper seeks to challenge a typically western hegemony by giving voice to the vastly increasing populations of African American and Hispanic children in America?s 25 schools. The purpose is to provide physical educators with insight into the current attitudes and beliefs of today?s children regarding personal and social responsibility as it pertains to Hellison?s Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model (2003). Methodology Participants & Setting The setting for this study was a rural elementary school (K-6) located in the Southeastern United States (pseudonym Line Town Elementary School). The school enrolls approximately 320 students and is listed as a Title I program denoting predominately a low socioeconomic community. The percentage of students receiving free or reduced lunch was 99%. The school was predominately African American (96%) with the rest of the population consisting of Hispanic (2%) and Caucasian (2%) children. The researcher had extensive experience in the setting prior to the study. A period of two years was spent at Line Town Elementary. During this time the researcher spent two days per week in physical education as a requirement for her graduate assistantship through the University. The researcher was considered of Anglo decent and Line Town Elementary was her first true experience of being in an educational setting so culturally and economically different from her own. Although, a certain amount of culture shock ensued in the beginning, over the course of the two years an excellent rapport had developed between the researcher and the physical education teacher as well as with all the children. Throughout this time period observations of the environment showed a new African American teacher returning to the school she attended in her first and second years of teaching struggling to cover content due to classroom management issues. The curriculum resembled a multi-activity program and included 3-4 week units on ultimate 26 Frisbee, soccer, jump rope, basketball, physical fitness, and badminton with a free day on Friday. The facilities and equipment were limited with lessons mostly being conducted outside on a large grassy area unless bad weather forced classes into a small multipurpose room. Equipment was minimal and well worn with approximately one piece of equipment to every 4-6 students. Children from the fifth grade physical education class were chosen to participate in this study. The entire fifth grade of 47 boys and girls took part in physical education daily for 40 minutes. The gender and ethnic demographics of the class included 24 girls and 23 boys. Of these children, 42 were African Americans and 5 were Hispanic. Despite the physical education teachers attempts to mix up groups and partnerships there were very definite groups with differing dynamics. The fifth grade was obviously divided into certain friendship groups and very few children were successful at crossing boundaries to another group. With the help of the children and confirmation from the teacher a set of group dynamics was determined by the researcher. This was achieved by asking the students to make lists of the friendship groups in the class. The titles for the groups were also chosen by the children and they confirmed that these were used on a regular basis when talking about a particular fifth grade group. The groups were named as follows: so- called soldiers, dumb folks, geeks and freaks, pink T?s, lonely folks, shy folks, bitches, Hispanics, sisters, and 6 th graders. There were no discrepancies between lists. The groups strictly divided along both gender and racial lines although certain boys and girls groups could be observed socializing together. Figure 1 identifies the groups within the fifth grade and the characteristics of each group. 27 6th Graders 2 Girls ?They got held back.? So-called Soldiers 7 Boys ?Gang, hard, thugs, look at them wrong & they wanna fight.? Sisters 6 Girls ?Like to talk about people. Won?t back down from a fight,? Shy Folks Jessica ?quiet? Bitches 5 Girls ?Stuck up. Wanna fight all the time.? Lonely Folks Roeasha ?trouble? Pink T?s (Gay Group) 2 boys, 2 girls ?Dress like girls. Girls go with boys for looks.? Geeks & Freaks 8 Boys ?Science & chess club kinda folks.? Dumb Folks 5 Boys ?Stupid. Get in fights and always lose. Strange & definitely weird.? Hispanics 2 girls & 3 boys ?Own community they cuss us in Spanish.? Interact Fight Figure 1. Fifth grade friendship groups. 28 The participants in this study were 12 students selected from the fifth grade by the researcher. Upon IRB approval purposeful sampling was used to identify participants based on their social group. The selection process involved placing all the students who returned informed consent letters into their social group. After the potential pool of students was recognized, random sampling was used to identify the participants for the study. This method of sampling attempted to allow each individual in the class a voice without silencing particular groups. Figure 2 shows how the groups were represented in the study (each child was asked to choose his/ her own pseudonym): Social Group Identifier Selected Student So called Soldiers Snoop & Jayravious Sisters Jakeyla & Laurel 6 th Graders Shavia Bitches Kim Pink T?s Romeo Lonely Folks K.K Geeks and Freaks Kentavious Hispanics Marina, Guillamiana, and Pablo Dumb Folks Not represented Table 1. Social group representation in the study. Prior Observations of Students During the two years in the setting general observations of the children?s patterns of behavior were continually documented through the use of field notes by the researcher. The children showed a desire to be active but were easily distracted if not constantly 29 engaged in moderate/vigorous activity. Many children did not appear to respect authority and often answered back to the teacher. Children were very vocal about their dislike for others and verbal disagreements usually occurred on a daily basis. Physical fights among boys, girls, and both boys and girls arose approximately once per week. Fights between boys were often related to physical education and the competitive nature of the class. The girls tended to fight over issues unrelated to physical education. There was a definite insult progression that was categorized by the researcher and confirmed by both the physical education teacher and all three of the fifth grade teachers. Figure 3 represents the series of confrontational steps the children follow. One fifth grade boy shares on audiotape the steps of insult progression after he has been written up for fighting, It weren?t me I were just protecting myself. It happened like this, we were playing Ultimate Frisbee, it ain?t my fault he can?t catch. So I told him, ?You be losing the game for us man.? It be like the tenth time he drop it. He come up and told me, ?Shut up it ain?t my fault your momma?s a crack ho.? He dis? my momma man, you don?t be doing that. So I be telling him, ?Take it back? and stare him down, but he don?t be backing down so I push him and he say, ?Come on then, nigga? so we start to fighting until the teacher come and break it up. He hit me first. You can?t be doing that man, he be out of order. Comments about other students appeared to be generally derogatory and focused on lack of skill level before moving to personal attacks on the student and the student?s family until eventually punches were thrown. The boys in the class seemed to fit the profile outlined by Sbarra & Pianta (2001) who found that African-American boys were at an increased risk of behavioral problems associated with fighting, not paying attention, cutting class, and disrupting others. Prior to the commencement of this study the researcher believed the present environment in this physical education class did not resemble one where children were concerned with personal and social responsibility as outlined by western hegemony. Incident Personal Family Stare Push Dare Fight Intervention 30 Figure 2. Insult progression chart. Data Collection A series of six drawings and narrations were used in an attempt to identify student values and beliefs concerning personal and social responsibility in physical education. Bussert-Webb (2001) found that students were able to express more of their values through art. Bussert-Webb?s findings corroborated Albers (1997) earlier study that discovered students? beliefs, stereotypes, and contexts were imbedded in their art work. As is customary when using children?s drawings as data sources, student narrations immediately followed completion of the drawings along with a series of semi-structured interviews. Narrations are necessary to avoid any subjectivity from the researcher concerning the child?s interpretation of what they have drawn (Di Leo, 1983; Malchiodi, 1998; Mowling, Brock, & Hastie, in press). Semi-structured interview questions allow ??he can?t catch.? ?You be losing the game for us man.? ?Your momma?s a crack ho.? ??stare him down.? ??so I push him.? ?Come on then nigga.? ??so we start fighting.? ??until the teacher come break it up.? 31 the researcher to follow up on all aspects that appear in the drawing as well as those that the child may discuss but that do not appear in the drawing (Mowling, Brock, & Hastie, in press). This method eliminates possible disparities between the student and the researcher. Formal interviews were also used to discuss personal and social responsibility issues in greater detail. All sources of data collection were based on Hellison?s six levels of TPSR: irresponsibility, respect the rights and feelings of others, participation and effort, self-direction, caring and helping others, and transference outside the confines of the gym. Drawings The participants were asked to draw on six separate occasions over the course of a ten-week period. Di Leo (1983) notes that when using children?s drawings as data sources, the children should be provided with a range of options regarding the production of their drawings to allow the most comfortable environment. As a result, the drawing sessions took place in a classroom environment with desks and chairs for a period of 40 minutes approximately once a week. The children were also given the choice of sitting at a desk or lying on the floor with the only rule being that they had to be far enough away from each other to avoid any copying of ideas. Each child was provided with paper, a pencil, a pen, and colored crayons. There was no time limit on the drawing and the children were encouraged to draw whatever they wanted about the subject, and were told that there were no right or wrong answers, as advocated by Goodwin and Watkinson (2000). If students had trouble portraying a value or belief through drawing they were asked to put descriptive words around their picture to help them. On average students took 10 minutes to complete their drawings. 32 There were a total of six drawing sessions altogether. Eight of the participants were involved in all six of the drawing episodes while the remaining four were asked to draw on a couple of separate occasions. The four rotating artists were to prevent any type of practice effect that might occur throughout the course of the ten week period. Also to avoid practice effect the regular eight participants completed the drawings in random order. The following instructions were given to the participants by the researcher for every drawing episode, ?I want you to draw me two pictures today. I am going to give each of you a piece of paper with what I would like you to draw about. You can draw anything that comes in to your minds. If you don?t understand what you should draw please come and see me. When you are finished please come and tell me about what you have chosen to draw.? The pieces of paper were handed out by the researcher and each artist was responsible for completing all six drawing episodes. Figure 4 shows the written directions given to the students. These came in the form of a slip of paper with only what they were responsible for drawing that given day. Figure 4 also includes TPSR levels and characteristics. These were not given to the students but help to show how the children?s questions were developed. 33 TPSR Levels and Characteristics Written Directions Given to Participants 0: Irresponsibility Excuses, blame others, and deny responsibility Draw 2 pictures 1. Draw a picture about responsible behavior in PE. 2. Draw a picture about being irresponsible in PE. 1: Respect Others Addresses: name calling, making fun, intimidation, bullying, hogging equipment, temper control etc. Draw 2 pictures 1. Draw a picture about respect in PE. 2. Draw a picture about having NO respect in PE. 2. Participation and Effort Self-motivation, exploration and effort, persistence, cruising in neutral, competent bystander, improving oneself etc. Draw 2 pictures 1. Draw a picture about trying really hard in PE. 2. Draw a picture about NOT trying in PE. 3. Self-Direction On task independence, goal setting progression, and courage to resist peers. Draw 2 pictures 1. Draw a picture about self-direction in PE. Self-direction is when a person can work hard by themselves. 2. Draw a picture about a person who has NO self-direction in PE. 4. Helping and Caring Compassion and caring for others, being sensitive and responsive to the needs of others, and having an inner strength. Draw 2 pictures 1. Draw a picture about helping and caring for others in PE. 2. Draw a picture about NOT helping and caring for others in PE. 5. Outside the Gym Role models with regard to personal and social responsibility in real life situations. Draw 2 pictures 1. Draw a picture about being responsible outside of PE. 2. Draw a picture about what would happen if a person was irresponsible outside of PE. Table 2. Participant drawing directions. 34 Bussert-Webb (2001) notes that students tend to create art from what they understand about their environment. Therefore, each of the drawings could stand alone as a representation of single events but all the drawings together could help paint an overall picture of the current values and beliefs regarding personal and social responsibility of the students while in the physical education environment. Mowling, Brock, and Hastie (in press) showed how a series of drawings could document changes in student?s priorities over the course of one sport education soccer season. Drawing Narrations Immediately following each of the drawing sessions students were asked to describe what they had drawn and why they had chosen to portray certain things in their drawings. The student?s generally completed drawings in groups of between 3-4 students. That way there was ample time to complete the narrations during the time allotted. Narration length varied usually lasting between 3-5 minutes per student with follow-up questions another 2-3 minutes. Narrations were completed based on who finished first or who wanted to go next. All narrations were recorded using an audiotape and later transcribed. Drawings were scanned into a word document on the computer and narrations were placed directly beside them. It is important to ask students? about what they have chosen to draw because an interpretation from the researcher may be completely different from that of the student. Also, students tend to talk about occurrences from their artwork that are not portrayed on paper (Mowling, Brock, & Hastie, in press). The students were encouraged to speak freely about their drawing and were not prompted throughout their explanation. However, upon completion of their narration students were asked to clarify certain ideas or aspects of their drawings. Semi- 35 structured interview questions regarding the drawings were also used to determine factors about the drawings that were not necessarily portrayed in the picture but gave the students an opportunity to explain more about their characters for example, ?Tell me why Scottie is not sharing his equipment with Brianna?? or ?Explain why Jalen thinks it is okay to punch Michael?? Interviews A total of three individual interviews along with two group interviews were conducted throughout the data collection process. Individual interviews lasted approximately 10 minutes and students were asked specific questions regarding personal and social responsibility followed up by probing. An example might be ?Explain what effort in PE means to you?? With a follow up of ?Can you give me a specific example of a person using lots of effort in physical education?? Group interviews were very informal and groups of 2-3 children were asked to talk freely among themselves about topics of TPSR that were initiated by the researcher. The researcher generally presented the group with a word such as ?Honesty? and the students discussed what it meant to them and their group. The interview groups were based on the social groups (see figure 2) avoiding possible intimidation from certain individuals. The students were asked who they would feel comfortable being in a group with and who they did not want in their group. Group interviews lasted 20-30 minutes. All data were recorded and transcribed. Interviews were to determine values and beliefs regarding personal and social responsibility that may have been difficult to portray in traditional type drawings. The questions were devised to determine student attitudes towards themselves regarding personal and social responsibility, their peers, and the teacher. 36 Data Analysis In order to determine what values and beliefs students prioritized regarding personal and social responsibility in physical education a series of steps were implemented during the process of data analysis as follows: 1. All drawings were assigned a number to avoid student identification and scanned into Microsoft word. 2. All drawing narrations were transcribed and placed next to the corresponding drawing. Thereby allowing the drawings to be coded as intended by the students with no misinterpretations or subjectivity from the researcher (Mowling, Brock, & Hastie, in press). 3. A blank coding sheet was adopted with the following headings: code #, theme, and examples of characteristics within theme (MacPhail & Kinchin, 2004). Predetermined codes were avoided in an attempt to avoid subjectivity and the possibility of trying to fit the drawings into Hellison?s five levels of taking personal and social responsibility. 4. All drawings were coded using a separate coding sheet. The coding was implemented by looking at each drawing and narration simultaneously and developing criteria that was present in either the drawing or the narration. It is not uncommon for children to extend beyond what is visible and talk about aspects of the drawing that are clearly not visible (Di Leo, 1983; Malchiodi, 2003). For example when talking about her drawing of two girls arguing K.K was not able to show that they felt sad inside but in her narration she said, ?They be mad on the outside because they have to be strong but on the inside they are upset, they really 37 be friends though.? The drawing and narration of each drawing was dissected and everything identified by the children was coded. 5. Upon completion of all initial coding sheets two master coding sheets (positive & negative drawings) of 38 items were established and all the drawings and narrations were coded again against the master coding sheets. After all drawings had been coded to prevent anomalies descriptive statistics were added to each separate code (see figure 5). 6. All individual and group interviews were transcribed and common themes were identified. 7. The data were then triangulated using drawings, narrations, and interviews, and possible themes were identified. Fine, Weiss, Weesen, and Wong (2003) describe triangulation as ?Adding one layer of data to another to build a confirmatory edifice (p.187).? This was done by overlapping data from the different areas that displayed common themes. This allowed for the strengthening of data and produced a deeper understanding of the children?s values and beliefs concerning personal and social responsibility. 38 Code Thematic Content Area Examples of Characteristics ENP Environment Playground Evidence of playground, swings, slides etc ENO Environment Outside Evidence of being outside, grass, trees ENN Environment None No evidence of any environment or surroundings PIN People In Artist is present in the picture POUT People Out The artist does not appear in the picture PK People Knows Artist knows the people in the picture PNK People Doesn't Know Artist does not know the people in the picture P2 People 2 Two people are present in the picture PN People None No people are present in the picture PG People Girls Only girls are present in the picture PB People Boys Only boys are present in the picture PTP People Teacher Positive Teacher is present in the picture being positive e.g. helping someone PTN People Teacher Negative Teacher is present in the picture being negative e.g. reprimanding a student PTNN People Teacher None A teacher is not present in the picture PB People Black People in the picture represent the African American race PNR People No Race Cannot identify race of people in picture EH Emotions Happy Evidence of smiling, laughing ES Emotions Sad Evidence of frowns, crying, hurt, or pain EM Emotions Mad Evidence of angry faces or language used CP Captions Positive Captions express offering help, encouragement, kindness or friendliness CN Captions negative Captions express negative words, cussing, inappropriate CD Captions Directions Captions express people following directions CN Captions None No captions present GP Gestures Positive Offering a helping hand, sharing GN Gestures negative Pointing, fist shaking, hands on hips, punching, kicking GN Gestures None No evidence of any gestures using body language IV Interaction verbal People in the picture are talking IP Interaction physical People in the picture are making physical contact IPV Interaction Positive People are having a positive conversation, working together INP Interaction Negative/ Personal People are in a personal argument e.g. arguing over a boyfriend INB Interaction Negative/ Behavioral People are in a conversation about inappropriate behavior INM Interaction Negative/ Material People are in an argument over an object e.g. equipment, teams, winning IN Interaction None People are not interacting with one another EQPE Equipment PE Evidence of PE equipment EQN Equipment None No evidence of any equipment TPS Titles Picture Same Title of picture is the same given by researcher TPD Title Picture Different Title of picture is made up by the artist TN Title None Picture has no title Table 3. Master coding sheet. 39 Results The following results are not intended to be generalized to describe a population. Instead these findings are meant to give voice to African-American and Hispanic children in one rural elementary school in the southeastern United States. The children?s response to personal and social responsibility in physical education seldom reflected the characteristics associated with the levels of Hellison?s TPSR Model. Once the data was coded and collapsed there was rarely any way of re-identifying the levels from the children?s drawings and narrations. This evidence suggests that the children?s entry characteristics differ from not only TPSR but also from today?s western hegemony of what is considered acceptable behavior. The major purpose of this study was to allow African American and Hispanic children a voice regarding their values and beliefs about responsibility at a time when the minority population in the United States is rapidly increasing and set to overtake the current majority (Anglo-American) within the next 20- 30 years. As the number of minority teachers continues to decline it becomes even more pertinent that teachers listen to the needs of all their students. Presented are the results from the drawings and interview data. The data analysis from this study showed the emergence of the following themes. Focus on Negative Actions Most children chose to draw the negative picture first and spent much more time making sure it was realistic such as showing a person throwing a punch or looking mad with their hands on their hips. Sometimes the children chose not to draw the positive picture at all. When asked why they drew the negative first they expressed that it was easier to draw. Shavia said, ?The bad stuff is what happen mostly around here especially in PE they all be talking and carrying on and not listening to Ms. Eastley or Ms. James, she always be giving checks for talking but nobody listen and then nothing, we have to sit and do nothin? the whole time. So, yeah it be easier to draw what happen.? Responsibility Generally Comes with Negative Undertones Typical drawings focusing on positive incidences of personal and social responsibility in physical education were limited to sharing, playing with friends, and telling the teacher if someone was hurt. However, the positive drawings were likely to have negative undertones. Negative drawings focused on verbal or physical confrontations. Figure 6 shows a positive drawing of two boys playing together on the playground. Jayravious explains that he chose to draw two of his friends Tommy and Darnell, ?He said so you want to play and the other guy he say sure and they go down to the playground.? Jayravious continues to say that if they did not get along ?They?d get to fighting? but ?it wouldn?t be for real it would be more to see who can get who down? because they are friends. Figure 3. Jayravious? drawing entitled ?Feelings for Others? (TPSR level 1). 40 Kentravious?s positive drawing shows two boys sharing a football which he explains ?This is what you should be doing, sharing.? But his next sentence moves directly to his next picture about what happened later, ?Because they weren?t sharing. He had the football and he threw it and hit him in the face and they started fighting.? Kentravious? drawings for TPSR level 1 are presented in figure 7 below. Figure 4. Kentravious? positive and negative drawings (TPSR level 1). The majority of the positive drawings have negative undertones, which seems to imply that the positive is merely a back drop for irresponsible behavior that the student?s perceive as inevitable. Snoop?s drawing about feelings followed this pattern of negative undertones to seemingly positive drawings. Snoop decided to draw a positive picture about responsibility and feelings for others entitling it ?Feelings? but his explanation turned negative as he talks about playing with a ?kinda retarded? kid he says, ?Because if I wouldn?t have done that everybody would have started picking on him and stuff and we hadn?t done nobody wrong.? He continues to say that it would be okay to retaliate if they started something, ?I wouldn?t unless they did me wrong first.? Snoop then goes on to 41 42 talk about fighting and his need to stand up for himself if a confrontation such as the one in his drawing occurs. Responsibility is the Lack of Negative Actions When student?s were asked to describe what responsibility meant to them the answers generally followed the pattern of practicing avoidance of negative behaviors that would get them in trouble with teachers or parents. Shavia explained that responsibility was when you ?Follow what they say (teachers) and don?t talk back even when you be right.? Jakeyla said, ?You know listen to your momma when she tell you stuff and don?t not do what she say like clean your room if she tell you and don?t get an attitude about it.? Kim explained that the girl in her picture had to be sure not to get on the teacher?s bad side and therefore to be responsible ?She needed to do right.? Doing right meant not exhibiting the following behaviors, ?Talking when she be talking, talking in the hallway, playing in the hallway, hitting people.? Responsibility was not portrayed in the drawings or discussed as performing positive behaviors. The students were aware of what certain positive behaviors should look like in physical education such as sharing equipment or playing with others but were unable to place their emphasis on discussing the positive behaviors in the drawing. However, the student?s attention would quickly shift to a negative behavior (e.g. what happened next) that could not be visibly seen in the drawing. Responsibility is Taking Punishment Enforced by the Teachers Typical drawings presented situations for which the students were all in agreement would get them in trouble with the teacher if they were caught. Kim chose to draw a positive situation where a friend of hers ??had acted up in the hallway. She was playing and dancing in the hallway? and the teacher was insisting ?She has to flip her 43 color when she gets back to the class.? Flipping a color is the schools behavior management technique that involves a stop light (green, yellow, red). Every time a student behaves inappropriately they have to flip to the next color. If they are on red at the end of the day they have to face the consequences of their actions through punishment. This picture was perceived as positive by Kim because Moesha had replied, ?Yes ma?am? to the teacher?s request. Moesha chose to break the rules so she had to take the punishment. Figure 8 shows Kim?s negative picture focusing on what usually happens when Moesha gets in trouble. The drawing shows how she is usually involved in a confrontation. In this picture Kim explains, ?This is Moesha and this is the other teacher Ms. Macintosh, the teacher had told her, looked at her like you know what you are supposed to do and Moesha had said you are a [bitch] I don?t want to say it but you know.? She continues to say that she doesn?t think that paddling helps because, ?Moesha gets paddled a lot and she come back to the class still with an attitude. She say it Ms. Macintosh fault, you made me go. Ms. Macintosh say don?t take your anger out on me it?s not my fault you?re the one who didn?t do what I said.? Figure 5. Kim?s drawing of Moesha and a confrontation with teacher (TPSR level 0). The children expressed that being responsible was following the rules even if they did not agree with them. When asked if they were the principal would they have the same rules, the overwhelming majority said that they would make up their own rules. When asked what those rules might be the following response was given by Snoop, ?If the student is sent to the office I would send them back coz it?s not right. The teacher should be able to handle it. I try to make the kids nice so they don?t have to be sent to me. Sometimes I get sent to the office and I don?t be doing the stuff Ms. James say I do. Like the other day when Ms. King was gone and she came back and people were blaming stuff on me and I didn?t do nothing.? He explains that he gets sent to the office a lot for things he didn?t do and thinks if he was the principal things would be different. He doesn?t like getting blamed a lot for things he does not do and says it?s ?Coz, sometime I be arguing with other people if they do me wrong first.? Jayravious wants to make a rule about 44 respect that says, ?Do what they ask you the first time they ask you, the teachers, and don?t call people names.? He continues to admit that he calls people names ?But only if they start it? and usually it is only with friends, ?Chumps, punks, and stuff like pimps usually it just be me and my friends and we be playing.? Many of the girl?s drawings focused on strong verbal encounters with each other. These drawings included speech bubbles that largely contained abusive negative language towards others. Figure 9 shows a tame version of verbal sparring between the girls. Figure 6. Laurel?s drawing entitled ?Ugly Girl? (TPSR level 1). Shavia, Jakeyla, and Laurel all members of the ?Sisters? (refer to social groups, figure 2) discussed the language in Laurel?s drawing above (figure 9). They explained that although sometimes cursing was used that the message was okay because it was true. 45 46 ?Oh yeah, it okay when it be the truth? says Laurel ?She is an ugly monkey, I mean look at her? [Points to another girl in the class]. Shavia takes over by saying, ?It okay to say she has bad hair if she don?t take care of it and comes to school looking like that? Jakeyla chirps in with ?Especially since we have to look at it everyday.? When asked about why truth was okay even if it hurt others feelings Shavia said, ?My grandmomma always say tell the truth because it is always best? and Laurel agrees, ?Yeah, yeah my momma tell me that it [truth] be important because people need to know if they look bad.? Jakeyla says, ?It?s like we be helping them, like last year when Ms. Hausen wore this ugly pink skirt, she look bad, I mean it were ugly? the others nod in agreement and start laughing, ?We had to tell her she shouldn?t be wearing that it wasn?t good for her body, oh it looked bad, real bad you should?ve seen it, way too short and tight and ugly? says Laurel and ?Pink? says Jakeyla. Kim reinforces the importance of truth even if it is hurtful when she talks about respect saying that ?Respect mean when you say what you mean but not be rude with it.? Even though the girls were very adamant about speaking the sometimes hurtful truth the boys did not mention truth as an act of responsibility. Instead the boys when talking about respect as an act of responsibility they expressed that respect for themselves and others would be to not physically throw a punch unless forced to defend themselves and their honor. Jayravious when talking about respecting himself says, ?Yes, if someone hits me I try not to hit them back or start fighting, but if someone pushes me I am going to push them back and if they hit me I?m probably gonna have to hit them back.? He continues to say, ?You have to. People will go around and mess with you all the time saying I?m gonna mess with him he can?t fight.? 47 Responsibility is Determined by the Family and not the School When discussing issues of responsibility the children tended to say what they thought but would follow their answers with specific examples that had either happened to them or someone they knew. Usually these issues of responsibility would extend outside the realm of the school and would focus on their home environment. The children very much associated responsibility with what their parents or other family members had told them. Jayravious says when talking about his parents, ?They say don?t hit them first but if someone hit you hit them right back and what they do to you just the same.? Snoop says, ?My momma tell me not to kill no one or do nothing like that, not to go to jail.? Snoop continues to say once he gets in a fight that he has been told that he must see it through to the end so as not to be perceived by others as weak, ?Nobody can stop me I just keep going at it. I just keep on going until they run. I ain?t running. I ain?t afraid of no one.? When asked what would happen if he showed someone he was scared of them he said, ?I ain?t afraid of no one or you maybe be dead, later.? Kevin says about his picture that the guy had to punch him back ?To protect yourself later. If you ran away or cry then they say you tell all the time and you?re scared.? He continues by saying that ?They would give him trouble after class or school and stuff? if he told the teacher. Although the fifth grade is very much divided into certain groups the children do not feel that they can trust anyone even their so called friends. When asked what she sees most at school K.K. replies, ?I think at Line Town Elementary fifth grade it is the cussing and the fighting. Rumors get spread around about what other people do but they don?t really do it. They fight by themselves and everybody watches but nobody is behind them, not really?they are kinda in groups but they fight by themselves. When asked if she is in 48 a group K.K. continues, ?Groups are bad and if one person do something very bad they can go blame it on you and just because they be your best friend don?t mean anything, they blame it on you so they don?t get in trouble. If something goes down your best friends don?t protect you here.? Kim also talks about the lack of support she feels from her fellow classmates and how people who say they are you?re friends can turn on you saying mean words such as ?Dumb, crazy, they say that I?m a fast girl, and I be trying to fit in like them. They say I be wanting to be like them like a member of their group. I have to prove myself. I wanted to fit in with everyone.? She continues to say that her mom made her realize that it was responsible to be herself, ?My momma said don?t do that act yourself and people will like you for yourself. I came back and I act like myself and some people were my friend.? When asked if she is happier now that she is acting like herself she said, ?Yeah, I guess so but it be hard when people say ugly stuff about you and don?t know if it be true or not. Most of it not be true but sometime you think it might be.? Responsibility is Based on a One on One Interaction with Another Person All drawings both positive and negative depicted two people involved in either a verbal or physical interaction. The two people involved were either unknown, others in the 5 th grade, or a teacher and a student. The artist was rarely present in the picture showing no personal identification with the subject matter either positively or negatively. Only two people were physically drawn on the paper or were even mentioned in the narrations showing a strong affiliation with one on one confrontations implying that responsibility is not considered by these children as affecting others on a broader scale. The more dominant person was drawn larger and in the foreground of the drawing. This person was usually the one who starts the confrontation and is blamed for starting an altercation that may follow. This can be seen in figure 10 where K.K. describes a confrontation between two of the older girls in the grade. The girl on the left (Normisha) confronts and threatens the girl on the right (Markenia) for stealing her boyfriend. K.K. says, ?The girl on the left she start it because one girl had told her friend and then she told Normisha. She is very mad because she thinks her best friend went with her man.? When asked how Markenia was feeling K.K. said, ?She feel like she?s not responsible and she doesn?t know what she (Normisha) is talking about.? Figure 7. K.K.?s drawing entitled ?Fighting because she stole her man? (TPSR level 3). 49 50 Responsibility Has Little Value in the Context of Physical Education Although the directions clearly stated that the children should think about physical education when drawing, few pictures showed any reference to physical education at all. Hence, there was no evidence of equipment or a typical physical education environment. This lack of representation suggests that the interaction was the children?s primary concern. When talking about responsibility in physical education again there was seldom any reference to their environment. Jayravious says that if he did not have self-control in physical education ?I?d blow up every time.? He also suggests that effort in physical education is not getting in a fight, ?Yesterday we were gonna get in a fight because we didn?t want someone to play but we went and shook his hand and let him play.? Responsibility and Gender Differences All the drawings were gender specific to the artist. If the artist was a boy then the people in the drawings were boys and vice versa for the girls. The girls chose to draw verbal interactions between two girls these situations were represented by speech bubbles for both characters. Although obviously two dimensional, many of the drawings had the feeling of animation and involvement with the girls showing attitude by having their hands on their hips, waving fingers, mouths open, dialogue boxes, and heads tilted. Kim said about her picture, ?Moesha has her hands on her hips because she like getting an attitude.? Figure 11 shows how the boys drawings tended to be very physical, again very animated with boys throwing punches or an object such as a football at someone?s head. Their positive pictures were much more likely to have reference to playing in and outside of physical education. The boys were inclined to drawn significantly smaller people than the girls. Figure 8. Kentravious? drawing entitled ?Irresponsible? (TPSR level 0). Also, many of the drawings did not clearly show that the individual was black although they were described as black in the narrations. Responsibility and Hispanics The three Hispanics in the study, Marina, Guillamiana, and Pablo appeared to have somewhat different views from their African American counterparts regarding responsibility. These differences may be accentuated by the fact that they mentioned that they feel like they are on the outside and do not fit in with the rest of their classmates. This feeling of ?other? may be represented in Marina?s drawing (figure 12) entitled ?Wanna play?? where she shows herself asking Tachisha an African American girl in the class if she wants to play, ?I don?t really want to play with her but it?s the right thing to do.? 51 Figure 9. Marina?s drawing entitled ?Wanna Play? (TPSR level 4) Marina said, ?We all like playing together [the five Hispanics in the 5 th grade], we don?t play really with the rest of the class, sometimes Pablo plays with Danarious but that?s it but we like it.? In the words of Jakeyla, ?They?re their own community.? This sense of other is reinforced by other comments from children in the class. Kevin when talking about sharing in his picture says that most people in the class share sometimes, ?Most people share but not like Ricardo they don?t play with them because they are not that color?they just don?t like them because they are the wrong color.? Kevin was then asked if there was any other reason why people don?t share with the Hispanics in the class, he says, ?No just color. They are the same but not on the outside.? The African Americans in the class do not like the fact that the five Hispanics in the 5 th grade are all in the same class and all talk Spanish to one another in front of them. Jakelya says, ?They ain?t supposed to. They be talking about us. We know because Jamal he know Spanish and he say they be cussing and talking about us.? When Marina, Guillamiana, and Pablo were 52 53 asked about their thoughts on speaking Spanish in school all three said that they were not supposed to because the teacher said so but that they did anyway. They had mixed opinions on how they felt about speaking Spanish during school, both Pablo and Guillamiana felt they should only speak English. Guillamiana said, ?We should try to speak English so we can get better.? Marina however said, ?We need to speak Spanish because sometimes we don?t understand the English words and it can help us.? When asked if they talked about people in Spanish they all started laughing and talking in Spanish to one another. When asked to translate Marina said ?Okay, we can trust her? but Guillamiana jumped on her and covered her mouth. After promising not to tell anyone they expressed that sometimes they might call someone ?loco? or ?crazy? but mostly they liked that no one really knew what they were talking about. Marina said, ?I know they want to know but they don?t? and everyone laughs. With regard to responsibility they talked about the benefits of speaking two languages and how it would help them get a good job, how they needed to work hard in school so they could go to college, and how it was important to be respectful of authority figures. Methodological Findings Somewhat recently, educational research has realized the importance of the child?s voice. A great amount of time has been spent attempting to extract reliable information from school aged children in an effort to discover how they view an environment adults create for them. How to successfully interview children and obtain optimal results is high priority among researchers. It is necessary to develop ways that make children feel comfortable to tell the truth as they see it through their child eyes. The need to hear the true voices of the children is paramount when attempting to collect valid 54 data. The voice of today?s children is an ideal way to enhance what we already know about pedagogy and meet the needs of the 21 st century child. Finding ways to hear children can be difficult. Suggestions for successful interviewing of children include getting to know the child before the interview, assuring the child that there are no right or wrong answers, and tailoring questions to the child?s linguistic level of development (Kortesluoma, Hentinen, & Nikkonen, 2003). Such methods and techniques have proved worthwhile when interviewing school aged children. However, there is the issue of cultural differences among children. American society tends to force everyone into a mold of the white middle class citizen. The same is true of these interviewing techniques, where predominately white researchers are interviewing white students. Little research has been conducted to assist white researchers in the process of successfully interviewing black students. In fact, some research discusses the inability of white researchers to successfully interview black subjects. It is presented that the cultural divide is too great, thereby not allowing for a comfortable relationship between the researcher and the person being interviewed. Evidence suggests that blacks are less likely to be truthful and have a reluctance to speak their mind around whites they perceive as being in an authoritative role. Often blacks feel like white researchers cannot possibly understand where they are coming from (Krysan & Couper, 2003). Therefore it is also possible that black children are less likely to open up to white researchers. Results of this study showed that some of the above mentioned problems may have been alleviated by (1) becoming immersed in the setting and (2) using drawings as the major source of data collection. 55 Immersed in the Setting Gaining complete student trust was a necessary factor prior to the commencement of data collection. When I first entered the setting two years ago the students initially showed a reluctance to let me into their world. There was no way I could have successfully collected the data after only being in the setting a few months. However, over the course of two years I developed a strong sense of caring and rapport with the students. Unfortunately, many researchers do not have this luxury with regard to time and opportunity. During the two years the students went from a ?you stay in your world and I?ll stay in mine? mentality to ?let me tell you about me and my world and show you how to fit in.? I made it a point to listen intently when they wanted to share their interests and life aspirations along with information about school and home. I treated everything they said as the most important thing I had ever heard and was sure to remember it for next time we talked because they certainly would not forget they told me. With allowing the students to come to me in their own time and open up to me on their own terms they no longer saw me as a threat to their environment and completely accepted me into their setting. For this reason I feel coming from an obviously different racial and ethnic background proved to be of no consequence when it came to data collection. These results show that it is not feasible to expect to collect quality data without immersing yourself in the culture and gaining the complete trust of the students no matter how long it takes. I think it proved paramount that an extended period of time was spent in the setting to make this study worthwhile especially if the researcher is gaining entry into a cultural environment different from their own. 56 Drawings The use of drawings as a possible solution to closing this cultural divide between obvious racial disparities is interesting. Drawings may be an alternative method for data collection that bridges the cultural divide, primarily by allowing researcher and participant to feel comfortable with one another. We already know from several studies that the use of drawings allows students to feel more comfortable, more at ease, and more likely to express themselves than more conventional methods of data collection (Goodwin & Watkinson, 2000; MacPhail & Kinchin, 2004; Mowling, Brock, & Hastie, in press; Solmon & Carter, 1995). In this particular study results showed several reasons why the use of drawings may be a major contributor when interviewing children from a different cultural or ethnic background than the researchers. The use of drawings allowed the fifth grade students to not only feel more comfortable but through drawings allowed them to experience, (1) common ground and a level playing field, (2) a non-threatening environment, (3) complete control, (4) safety, and (5) freedom of expression. (1) Common ground and a level playing field Results showed that students felt like they were on a level playing field with regard to the production of their drawings. Ashley said, ?I been drawing whatever I want. I didn?t draw pictures or nothing. I decided to write down all things I?m thinking in different colors and stuff like that and you didn?t care because you just want us to draw something for you.? Drawing and art is universal. It has the power to display commonalities among people because it does not matter if you are young or old, black or white, rich or poor, drawing has the power to affect everyone. It is a level playing field 57 because students are not intimidated they feel qualified to express themselves through art. The students felt free to draw their picture and not worry about anything else but creating artwork. Generally children enjoy the act of drawing and the students in this study were no exception. All the students articulated that they liked to draw even those who expressed they were no good said it made them feel good. Romeo said, ?Drawing is fun and better than regular schoolwork.? and Snoop said ?I ain?t no good but I like it.? The students did not see drawing as schoolwork therefore the students felt comfortable doing their own thing. Kim said, ?Drawing ain?t like class work, we get to draw what we want, it be fun.? Such results seem to suggest that students feel comfortable expressing themselves through art and that they feel as qualified as the researcher in terms of themselves and their drawing. (2) A non-threatening environment Results showed that the fifth grade students were comfortable with the drawing environment. Essentially they were able to create their own drawing environment and therefore did not feel threatened by the researcher. All 12 of the fifth grade students in the study took whatever paper, pencils, and colors they wanted and disappeared to a desk of their choice or even the floor in some cases. They spread out their equipment and began to draw without regard for any one else in the room. There was occasional conversation such as ?K.K. you got a red, I need a real bright one.? but there was no interest in what their peers were drawing until they were all finished and then it was ?what?d you draw??, ?Who?d that??, ?They be saying what, ooooh?? The researcher did not walk around and look over the shoulders of the students but the students repeatedly came to the researcher to show their progress and ultimately their final drawings. The student did not ask 58 questions about what they should draw or express that they did not understand the instructions they just took the information given and immediately put pen to paper, little initial thought went into the pictures it was as if it just flowed straight out of them. Constant interfering from the researcher and looking over shoulders may have made the students uncomfortable or have made them second guess themselves and their artwork. Such results suggest that students were able to complete their drawings in a completely non-threatening environment. They felt comfortable to do their own thing and a minimal presence from the researcher reaffirmed their security. (3) Complete control Students felt free to draw whatever they wanted and did not feel like the researcher was telling them what to do or suggesting they do certain things. Even though students were given a direction for each of their drawings they were able to take the control, choose what they wanted to draw, choose the medium they wanted to use, choose how long it took them to draw, and choose what position they wanted to draw, along with the environment they wanted to draw in. Kevin expressed that ?I liked the drawing part best?I could choose whatever I wanted.? Empowering the students through their drawing may make them feel comfortable expressing themselves truthfully around adults. (4) Feeling of Safety Results showed that drawing helped the students feel safe. Ashley said about her first drawing ?What you think about my drawing, you like it, right? Let me tell you about it.? Later on when I asked her some questions about responsibility from an interview guide she said, ?Why you be wanting to know this stuff anyway?? In a way the use of drawings is a little deceiving, students appear to have no idea that the drawings are being 59 used to analyze their perceptions on certain topics. Instead they feel like they are getting to do something they enjoy doing and they like discussing the end product because it is something they have created by themselves. They are not aware that what they chose to draw tells something about them and their values and beliefs. Direct questions in traditional formats may clue the students into the researcher attempting to invade their privacy. The students may feel safe because they can convince themselves that they are personally desensitized from their drawings. Students consider their drawings as storytelling, made up, and not a true reflection of themselves. Therefore, they do not feel like they are showing any of their personal values and beliefs, after all it is just a drawing, isn?t it? Romeo said ?I?m going to tell you the best story about my picture.? (5) Freedom of expression Drawing allowed the students to feel comfortable expressing themselves. Even the directions given by the researcher did not limit the student?s freedom of expression. In fact, even though the students were given guidelines asking them to draw a picture with a certain title almost all of the students chose to give their pictures their own title which was usually very different from that of the researcher?s original title. Snoop was instructed to draw a picture with the title ?Responsible behavior in physical education? instead he chose to call his drawing ?Feelings.? Drawing is unique, it is original, it is their own lines, colors, forms, and symbols on the page, no two people draw alike or interpret things in exactly the same way, therefore it is unique, and it makes students feel special. Results from this study have shown that the use of drawings may be an alternative approach to reaching out to the students and allowing them to express themselves without 60 feeling intimated by the researcher. The cultural differences between the students and the researcher was never an issue because the students felt completely comfortable and in control. The use of narrations with the drawings made sure that there was no cultural misinterpretation about what they had drawn for example Kim had drawn two girls both with their hands on their hips. As the researcher looking at her drawing, subjectively they would have believed that they were angry with each other. However because a level of subjectively needs to be kept to a bare minimum in research it was necessary to ask the student why they had their hands on their hips. Kim said, ?Ms. Alexander has her hands behind her back because she is listening and K.K. has her hands on her hips because she is getting an attitude with the teacher.? Interviews While conducting the formal interviewing section of the research several incidences occurred that were somewhat different than the researcher?s prior experience interviewing predominately white children. These unique factors can possibly be attributed to a set of different cultural beliefs than the researcher had herself grown up following. Contrary to research stating the difficulties in white researchers interviewing black students the researcher found that once the students felt comfortable there was no stopping them talking. In fact, in the relatively small amounts of time there was to conduct the interviews there were times when I wanted to say please stop talking but obviously I did not. Results showed that the following factors were necessary to ensure a successful interview: (1) girls favored small groups, (2) boys preferred individual interviews, (3) being anonymous is essential, (4) students must feel in control, and (5) continual movement and facial expression. 61 (1) Girls favored small groups Results from this study showed that girls generally preferred a group interview approach. Groups were kept small usually between 3 to 4 girls. It was necessary to ensure that groups were decided based upon individuals from the same friendship circle. Mixing groups would have provided too much tension and inevitably direct attacks both verbal and physical. Jakeyla said about her group, ?Yeah we?ll talk to you but we ain?t having that Yolanda in our group unless you want some kinda problem on your hands, I mean just look at her, we all don?t get along, you know what I mean?? Within the groups the students would barely pause for breath, everyone wanted to talk. Each student demanded to be heard. This was accomplished by the students in a number of ways. It was considered perfectly acceptable to interrupt, talk while someone else is talking, raise your voice to be heard, challenge one another, be very blunt when necessary, use body language, and even use physical contact. Kim was in the middle of answering a question when K.K. started jumping up and down saying, ?Yeah, yeah I got something?, she took her hand and put it over Kim?s mouth saying, ?It?s my turn now, you be talking too much anyway?, Kim proceeded to stand up remove K.K.?s hand start bobbing her head and waving her finger saying, ?You always be doing stuff like this, I wasn?t finished?, and proceeded with her story while K.K. thought nothing of it and sat and listened to Kim talking over her a couple of time throughout her story. All students made it a point to answer the question posed followed with a series of examples that had either happened to them or someone they knew, school examples along with outside school examples were always given in reference to the original question. Although such behavior may be 62 considered as disrespectful in the eyes of a white middle class community, all of these behaviors are an accepted part of the African American culture (Irvine, 1990). (2) Boys preferred individual interviews Results showed that boys tended to be more open and responsive in one on one interviews with the researcher. Most of the boys had quiet demeanors and were less verbal and animated than the girls. When talking about their drawings they talked without hesitation but were less enthusiastic about direct questioning. Often they needed a degree of prompting when being asked direct questions by the researcher. Group interviews with the boys resulted in little conversation and generally one word or short sentence answers. The atmosphere during group interviews was somewhat awkward with nobody wanting to be the one to start talking and constantly looking at each other as if trying to determine if they had said the right thing. Although, the groups were comprised of friends there was not the comfortable or energetic environment I had experienced with all the girls groups. Typical answers from the boys during group interviews would be ?I don?t know? or they would just shrug their shoulders. Individual interviews were different the boys would tell their stories and be much like the girls offering real life examples to their answers from outside the school setting. For example during a group interview when asked about ?honesty? Snoop answered, ?Tell the truth when you do stuff.? However, in an individual interview when asked the same question he elaborated greatly saying, ?You have to be true to yourself man. People be saying I do stuff all the time when I don?t do it and I have to know myself that I didn? do it. My momma say that if I know I didn?t do it than that is enough that it is only me and God who can know and he be the only one who can judge 63 me no ways, so my momma say not to worry about what other people be saying as long as I be honest with myself, see?? (3) Being anonymous is essential All children participating in the study chose their own pseudonyms and were very proud of them. They seemed to like the fact that they were unidentifiable, Romeo said, ?Yeah Romeo that?s what I want to be called, nobody else got that one right, coz that?s gonna be me, I wanna be Romeo for this stuff and not?? (uses his real name). Before every interview they were all sure to remind me of their new name and to not forget to use it on the tape, ?Remember my name be Shavia, don?t forget now, on the tape.? Although all participants were made aware that data collection was completely anonymous before the commencement of the study and I was the only one who would have access to their tapes they were a little apprehensive. During one of the last sets of interviews I accidentally called a student by their real name. The student stopped talking looked at me with big eyes, raised her eyebrows, smiled crookedly, and leaned over and cut the tape off. I smiled realizing what I had done and apologized profusely. She started laughing and said, ?You said my real name, you can?t be doing that, erase it, erase it.? I again apologized and we erased it together. Another student when asked ?What could you do that was irresponsible now that would affect your whole life?? Jakelya did not want to answer on tape and whispered, ?I don?t want the tape to hear me? and proceeded to turn her drawing over, cover her paper with her arm, and write her answer down. Upon completion she slid the paper over to me which I read to myself it read, ?Get pregnant.? She then took the paper back and began erasing the evidence saying, ?Don?t tell no one,? for which I reassured her I would not. It was as if it was always okay for me to hear what 64 they had to say and trusted me in a one on one situation but that outside of that particular moment they did not trust or want others listening to their point of view. (4) Must feel in control The student?s continually showed that they wanted and needed to be in control of the interview. In fact, it seemed that the only way it would precede was on their terms. They loved to discuss their drawings and would often talk for several minutes about the picture and go beyond what appeared on the paper to outside examples or full stories about what happened before or after that particular time captured on the page. Only then would I be allowed to ask any questions about the drawing which they would politely answer. When I asked specific questions in the interviews they would always express when they were done talking. K.K frequently said, ?Okay that?s it I?m done with that one?, and would proceed to inform me she was ready for the next question saying, ?What?s the next one, I?m ready.? They would also express when they were not finished talking. I would patiently wait listening intently to their stories, waiting for them to finish and pause before asking the next question. However, many times they would think of something else and just as Shavia said, ?Hold on, I got another story.? If there was a question they didn?t like they would refuse to answer and I would have to figure out how to word it differently. Kim said, ?What?s the next one, I don?t like this one, got anything else, what?s next on that list you got?? Finally when they felt like they were done with the interview they would let me know as Jayravious did by saying ?okay I?m done now, I?ll come back after we be done with my tug-o-war game in there.? I got all my questions answered but I had to make the decision to let the students be in control. 65 (5) Continual movement and facial expression. Throughout the interview process the children would continually move around the room answering the questions as they walked around aimlessly with no real purpose, picking up the odd thing such as a ball, a book, or a hall pass looking at it and then returning to their seat or a new seat for a while before returning to walkabout mode once again. The walking around did not seem to distract them from answering the questions but somehow seemed to keep them focused on what they were saying. Even when they were sitting at a desk or sometimes on the floor their body language was very animated especially that of the girls. They would move their hands constantly and when they felt passionate about something they would begin to bob their heads, move their bodies, and make numerous exaggerated facial expressions to get their point across. All of the children utilized their body language to express themselves fully. It became necessary for me as the researcher to make notes on their body language throughout the interview because it spoke just as much as the words coming out of their mouths. In future, it may be beneficial to videotape student interviews if the students feel comfortable being on tape. Discussion This study spotlights the importance of entry characteristic awareness before implementing a personal and social responsibility initiative into any physical education curriculum. As predominately white teachers we are educated towards ?colorblindness? and stand behind the principle of treating all students the same regardless of obvious differences in an attempt to avoid conflict and undue stereotyping. Based on this concept current energies towards CRP contradict the idea of viewing all children the same and 66 strengthen the importance of determining cultural entry characteristics. At present, research is focusing on the implementation of CRP?s at a time when minority populations in schools throughout the United States are soaring. CRP will only be successful if the first step taken is to listen to the students involved. According to Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) when looking for answers concerning cultural understanding, ?It only makes sense to understand a student?s perspective (p.18).? This particular study gives voice to African American and Hispanic elementary school children from a small rural town in the southeastern United States. Furthermore, this is the only study that has attempted to look at elementary students entry characteristics regarding personal and social responsibility. Through a set of drawings along with accompanying narrations and interviews the children were able to paint a strong picture of how they constructed personal and social responsibility and its affect on their lives. From the drawings and narrations in this study, strong themes emerged. These were: (1) responsibility is generally perceived as the absence of negative actions, (2) responsibility is taking punishment enforced by the teachers, (3) responsibility is determined by the family and not the school, (4) responsibility is based on a one on one interaction with another person, and (5) responsibility appears to have little value in the context of physical education. Generalized themes included (6) responsibility and gender differences and (7) responsibility and race differences. Entry Characteristics and Responsibility The results of this study iterate the importance of recognizing and understanding student?s entry characteristics before proceeding with the adoption of curriculum models such as TPSR. It is not good practice to assume children?s values or beliefs mirror ours 67 neither is it conceivable to make judgments based on who they are perceived to be, where they come from or limited events witnessed in the classroom setting. In the case of personal and social responsibility it is clear from the results that these particular children had constructed a world were the concept of responsibility was indeed evident but the nature of what was deemed acceptable behavior to them differed from the characteristics associated with TPSR or current western hegemony. Determining student?s entry characteristics can (1) establish a need for adapting current models, (2) aid in establishing more authentic teaching strategies, (3) be used as a pre-test to establish a starting point, and (4) monitor progress. It is evident from the children?s current representations of responsibility that to implement TPSR into the curriculum would appear to be beneficial at this point but at the same time could easily fail depending on the strategies adopted by the teacher. It could be that it is not the concept of the model that needs revising neither is it the advised objectives as there has been certain evidence to suggest its success with various populations such as inner city or at risk children (Campagnone, 1995; Hellison, 2003; Hellison, 1985; Hellison, 1993; & Lickona, 1991). Instead the focus must be on how the teacher should utilize their knowledge of the student?s entry characteristics to successfully meet the objectives of the TPSR model. Being that TPSR is acknowledged in the field as being a strong and successful tool for creating behavioral changes within physical education, research should attempt to expand its base to encompass how teachers can adapt the model or even their individual teaching strategies to successfully implement the concepts in very different cultural settings around the world. Furthermore, investigation needs to be done to establish the merit for placing more emphasis on how 68 teachers can use their prior knowledge of the students? differing cultural ideals to strengthen the characteristics of the model and ultimately transference into the outside world. Evidence suggests that an individual is in a better position to learn if they can relate their experiences in the classroom to personal occurrences (Rink, 1998). Any time the students are placed in an authentic environment it is more likely to become meaningful for them. In using drawings it is possible to determine what is currently meaningful. Individuals draw what they know, what they value, and what they view as truth in their lives (Di Leo, 1983). In the children?s current school environment they were far more comfortable with negative forms of behavior. The drawings showed that at this time value was not placed on TPSR?s concepts of personal and social responsibility because you cannot draw something you do not know or have not had experience with nor are you likely to draw something you do not value in life. The children also did not relate their drawings to physical education although specifically asked to do so because they had no prior experience of what it meant to be responsible in the situation of physical education. This clearly shows that the context of responsibility in physical education had no meaning to them. This evidence shows not only the need to determine entry characteristics but also the importance of taking the personal representations provided in the children?s drawings as the basis for how TPSR should be effectively implemented into this particular environment. Entry characteristics may be viewed as a form of assessment. By establishing an individual?s starting point it becomes easier to help them set personal short and long term goals. By continuously recording the perspectives of the students their progress can be 69 closely monitored. Implementing TPSR into an existing physical education curriculum would inevitably require assessing students in the affective domain. At the same time affective assessments can be used as a means of evaluating teacher effectiveness while at the same time aiding the teacher in determining if class objectives are being met. With regard to entry characteristics more research needs to be conducted to look at how this information can best impact already existing behavioral change models such as TPSR. Cultural Differences and Responsibility Cultural differences were noticeable in the children?s interpretations of personal and social responsibility. Although, there may be a tendency to stereotype these differences for the general minority population it should be noted that the importance lies in getting to know the children individually. It cannot be assumed that one black girl?s view of responsibility speaks for the entire population. In light of this, teachers need to be prepared to encounter differing interpretations on responsibility. For example the idea of speaking the truth no matter how hurtful to another human being was considered responsible by these African American girls. However, the Hispanic girls although thinking the same potentially hurtful truth?s could not verbalize them as they viewed it as an irresponsible behavior and chose in their words ?to be polite? as depicted in Marina?s drawing (figure 12). Such information is valuable when introducing TPSR and Level 1 (Respect for the rights and feelings of others). Along with these noticeable differences teachers must be prepared to adopt their teaching strategies for TPSR accordingly. Gay (2000) explains that ?While most teachers are not blatant racists many probably are cultural hegemonists. They expect all students to behave according to the school?s cultural standards of normality (p.46).? If the teacher merely introduces TPSR as a 70 ?survival? mechanism or a classroom management tool the concept of personal and social responsibility is sure to fail because undoubtedly they are expecting their students to comply with their expectations and standards. Banks (1994) concurs by expressing that teachers generally consider their own cultural norms to be the right ones and therefore disregard the importance of other possibilities. They are likely to accept without question the ideas of European middle class structures as normal and right. TPSR needs to be introduced as a valuable and authentic learning experience for the children involved that will ultimately lead to transference outside the gym. A Euro-American?s perspective of a heated passionate conversation among African Americans that was very prevalent in the drawings and also the girls interview sessions may initially be one of irresponsibility. Whereas, in retrospect a white person?s interpretations of such actions are based on white ideals that promote passivity and such a response to a vibrant assertive conversation among African American children may be inappropriate. Research has stressed that African American children tend to come from an environment where conversation is high priority. Because of this children are likely to engage in passionate conversations to be heard and get their point across. Monroe and Obidha (2004) explain this cultural need to converse as ?unconscious? and that the students are not intending to be disruptive or rude. Many of the narrations go beyond the visible speech bubble which acts as a starting point and continues back and forth type conversation between the two individuals in the drawing. Irvine (1990) describes this as ?verbal sparring? an almost ritualistic communication style of African Americans. This is considered as a somewhat of a sport and is conducted in such a manner not considered to be irresponsible or outside of the 71 norm. Irvine continues to express that this form of communication is prevalent among African American males however the results of this study seems to suggest that girls also use this method frequently when conversing about something they feel passionate about. As was strongly evident in group interviews with the girls they would continually interrupt, raise their voice, and even use body language and mild physical contact [light punching or pushing] to be heard. These are described as normal cultural behaviors and are not considered acts of irresponsibility. African American?s tend to appear loud, active, and assertive to a white teacher who may focus on quietness, sitting still, and raising your hand to speak. Such rules are enforced by schools and student?s who follow them are deemed responsible. However, such rules tend to go against the cultural beliefs of certain cultures (Weinstein, Curran, Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003; Irvine, 1990). As is evident in the drawings that have a teacher and a student present such as in Kim?s drawing of Moesha confronting her teacher the concept of confronting a teacher is not necessarily irresponsible but what you choose to say separates a responsible act from an irresponsible one. Kim draws a positive picture where the confrontation is appropriate and a negative confrontation where Moesha uses inappropriate language when talking to the teacher. Irvine (1990) explains that black children are more likely to confront persons in authority than white children. They will challenge teachers or other person?s in authority because they determine leadership as a function of strength and forcefulness. Just because a person is in a position of power does not automatically mean they should be treated as such, in a sense the teachers constantly need to prove their right to be in charge. 72 Manifested in the Hispanic children?s representations of responsibility were noticeably different cultural norms. This can be explained by the notion that Hispanic parents tend to expect their children to show respect and responsibility by staying quiet and obedient. Weinstein, Curran, and Tomlinson-Clarke (2003) express that Hispanic students are also likely to seek approval before doing something. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy & Responsibility The concept of CRP appears to fit TPSR like a glove. It only makes sense that the two work together to achieve optimal results when working with children from culturally different backgrounds. Establishing children?s entry characteristics will greatly aid in providing information about how CRP can be imbedded into a TPSR physical education curriculum. The key to CRP is relating lesson content to the student?s backgrounds. By providing meaningful experiences students are more likely to respond positively to the possibility of behavioral changes with regard to personal and social responsibility. Prior real life experiences are a necessity when considering differing cultural responses to the same situation. The results from this study have shown differing cultural responses to responsibility between African Americans and Hispanic children and should be used to help enhance students understanding of differing cultures. At present the African American students negatively express why they do not interact with the Hispanic students saying that they talk about them in Spanish or merely that they are a different color. By addressing cultural diversity the students may learn to respect and appreciate the differences of others. CRP seeks to move away from the teacher expecting all students regardless of culture to adhere to their personal standards of normality. To be culturally responsive a teacher must acquire cultural content knowledge: learn about family 73 background, previous experiences, cultural norms for interpersonal relationships, parent?s expectations for discipline, and the way cultures treat time and space. However Mishne (2000) stresses that this information should not be used to stereotype individuals. As was shown in the results the children discussed their backgrounds with regard to their parents views on responsibility and how they respected and adhered to these ideas. In actuality it appears that the children?s backgrounds have played a predominate role in determining their current values and beliefs about what it means to be responsible. Further research needs to be done to determine the best approach to using children?s entry characteristics as a tool for optimizing learning in an environment that supports both CPR and TPSR. A question that may spark a degree of controversy from the children?s representations of personal and social responsibility might be ?How does a model such as TPSR balance what is largely considered socially responsible and the cultural differences of minority populations?? Obviously, the evidence here shows the importance of knowing your students as individuals and the criticality of gaining entry characteristics before adopting behavioral change models such as TPSR but how far should the model go to manipulating cultural differences to fit in the mold of the majority. At present it appears that TPSR imposes its western hegemonistic ideals of responsibility without really explaining to teachers how and to what degree they should consider students cultural entry characteristics. The ultimate goal of TPSR is to have transference from the gym to the outside world, yet for which outside world are the students being prepared. Further investigation needs to determine ways to teach children from different cultures how to assimilate to the environment while not compromising their cultural heritage. It seems that in the present physical education climate when teachers are trying to establish 74 control of the environment they may be tempted to adopt TPSR as a classroom management tool or a survival technique thereby forcing white rules on differing cultures and then negatively stereotyping them when they refuse to conform. 75 References Adam, I. & Tiffin, H. (1991). Past the last post. Hemel Wheatshead: Harvester Wheatsheat. Albers, P. (1997). Art as literacy. Language Arts, 74, 338-350. Banks, J.A. (1994). An introduction to multicultural education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Buchanan, A.M. (2001). Contextual challenges to teaching responsibility in a sports camp. 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Educational Leadership, 53, 17-22. 80 CHAPTER IV Teacher Candidates Cultural Awareness When Placed in an Environment Culturally Different from their Own Abstract This study examined 16 white middle class teacher candidates? journey towards cultural transformation regarding cultural awareness and sensitivity when placed in a teaching environment culturally different from their own. The questions driving the research were recognized by Hastie, Martin, and Buchanan (in press) as necessary in eliciting a cultural transformation and were as follows: (a) were teacher candidates able to recognize their privileges? (b) Did teacher candidates become uncomfortable in an environment culturally different from their own? And (c) were teacher candidates compelled to seek culturally relevant pedagogy? Results from the study showed the emergence of the following themes: (1) negative cultural differences, (2) apathetic, (3) sympathetic, (4) stereotypes / assumptions, (5) differences among African Americans, (6) careful communication, (7) avoid the obvious, (8) culture shock, (9) expect assimilation, and (10) knowing the children. With regard to the a priori questions the themes helped with the following answers (a) teacher candidates recognized the children?s under privileges, (b) teacher candidates lacked the ability to recognize and therefore admit to feeling uncomfortable in the environment, and (c) teacher candidates possessed no knowledge basis with which to seek culturally relevant pedagogy. From the results it 81 becomes clear that Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs need to provide teacher candidates with a deliberate path to cultural transformation including both curriculum content and practical experience opportunities throughout the PETE program. It appears that a journey to self-discovery is not sufficient in reaching cultural awareness. Furthermore, it is determined that merely investigating the degree of cultural transformation in one course is not sufficient when attempting to understand the entire journey towards cultural awareness. Therefore, further research needs to be conducted to determine teacher candidate?s entire journey towards cultural transformation throughout the PETE program. Introduction ?Within the next century, educators will not be able to ignore the hard questions that schools will have to face regarding issues of multiculturalism, race, identity, power, knowledge, ethics, and work. These issues will play a major role in defining the meaning and purpose of schooling? (Giroux, 1994, p.280). Experiences and events shape an individual?s perception of truth and their thoughts concerning reality. Consequently attitudes and beliefs develop based on their view of truth. For many it seems to question their truth is not even a consideration. In our current western hegemony there is a stereotypical view of ?other? and because of such preconceived notions certain cultural groups are marginalized and denounced as being backward or somehow unworthy. Therefore, it becomes necessary to look critically at ourselves as well as social injustices and examine how our current actions are fueling the fire of inequity. Current educational experiences for teacher candidates must prioritize the 82 need for cultural equity and strive to ensure that critical thinking and reflection is a necessary entity in the act of praxis. Steps need to be taken to encourage these future teachers (predominately white middle class) to realize their privileges. Once realized the blinkers come off. Without the comfort of only seeing straight ahead down the road of western hegemony teacher candidates will hopefully become uncomfortable teaching in a setting culturally different from their own, where they suddenly find themselves as the minority. Thereby, forcing them to think critically and reflect on how they may be contributing to inequity and compelling them to identify ways to develop a culturally relevant pedagogy. This paper seeks to discuss and present data about a small group of teacher candidate?s journey when placed in an environment culturally different to their own during their enrollment in a required university Skill Acquisition for the School Aged Child course designed to embody praxis and criticality. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to attempt to answer the following relevant questions (a) were teacher candidates able to realize their privileges? (b) Did teacher candidates become uncomfortable in an environment culturally different from their own? (c) Were teacher candidates compelled to seek culturally relevant pedagogy? Methodology Due to the nature of the course and the environment in which teacher candidates were placed the scientific design was that of an ethnographic case study. Data were gathered through university course materials and assignments, critical incident slips, semi-structured interviews, and informal discussions and observations. Multiple data sources allowed for triangulation of data to add support to the themes. 83 Participants All 16 of the teacher candidates enrolled in the course agreed to participate in the study. Informed consent was obtained upon IRB approval and at this time the teacher candidates chose to either fully participate involving submission of all class work, completion of critical incident slips, and interviews or partially participate involving submission of their coursework. Nine students chose to fully participate these consisted of five females and four males all in their junior and senior years. 100 percent of the participants were Caucasian and from middle class upbringings. Hence, teacher candidates mirrored the current teaching population of the United States of America. All participants had minimal teaching experience and very little if any teaching experience in environments culturally different from their own. Course Description The university course entitled ?Skill Acquisition for the School Age Child? is basically an applied motor learning course. The course is typically taken by teacher candidates in the spring semester of their junior year. The objectives of the course are for the teacher candidates: (1) to be independent learners, (2) reflect and evaluate their own teaching, (3) to find and utilize effective and appropriate resources, and (4) to learn and practice applications of motor learning concepts. Although the course is primarily geared towards improving children?s motor skills the uniqueness of the course and its relevance to this particular study is that it places teacher candidates into an after school program environment at the Boutwell Center (pseudonym) working with African American underserved children for the first time in the Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) program. For many of these future teachers this environment is their first 84 continuous encounter in a setting culturally different from their own. The course met twice a week, Tuesday in the classroom and Thursday at the Boutwell Center. The teacher candidates were placed in pairs and were responsible for improving the motor skills of a group of approximately 4-5 African American children. The total number of children in the program was approximately 45 ranging in age from 5 to 9 years old. The teacher candidates had decided during the first class meeting that the use of stations focusing on skill development was to be their plan of action. Each team of two developed a station making eight stations in all. The groups of children and teachers rotated to each station and participated for a total of five minutes. The stations stayed in place throughout the semester with weekly modifications even sometimes resulting in complete changes of the stations focus. During this course was the only time the children spent in the gym for the entire week at the after school program. As a course requirement after every teaching episode the teacher candidates were required to complete the following as part of the course requirements: (1) identify a problem issue they encountered while teaching, (2) before coming to class collect resources with proposed solutions to the identified problem, (3) present their information in a 10 minute presentation to the class, and (4) be involved in a class discussion regarding the issue. The university professor Dr. Banks (pseudonym) reviewed all materials and returned them to the teacher candidates with comments and feedback each week. The teacher candidates were then required to implement their solution during their next teaching episode. This cycle continued throughout the duration of the course. Throughout the course the role of the university professor was supportive. She used her authority to attempt to guide the teacher candidates down a path to self discovery. She 85 encouraged them to critically reflect on their experiences and to use that information to spear head their next teaching episode. At no time did Dr. Banks try to force transformation upon her students but made sure she was always available to aid her students in any way she could, encouraging them to constantly delve deeper to find the solutions they sought. Data Collection Course materials & assignments. The required course assignments were reviewed and analyzed throughout the duration of the course as well as after completion to identify possible transformation of teacher candidates. Course assignments included weekly reflections, challenges, and lesson plans along with class presentations. Course syllabi and materials were also analyzed during this process. Class presentations were video- taped. Critical incident slips. The critical incident method was used for reflection on the teaching experience (O'Sullivan & Tsangaridou, 1992). These were completed by the teacher candidates immediately following a teaching episode. The slips were comprised of two questions, (1) what do you feel was your most influential experience during this teaching episode? And (2) how will you use what you have learned today to positively influence your future teaching? These slips were administered and collected by the researcher. Teacher candidates were made aware that the course professor would not have access to the slips neither would their grades in the class be affected in this process. Semi-structured interviews. The interviews were conducted approximately every three weeks for a total of four interviews following teacher candidates in-class reflective presentations. Questions were comprised based upon their individual critical incident 86 slips, observation of their teaching, and self analysis of their teaching during their presentation. Questions were tailored to the individual so as not to lead students towards cultural transformation but instead to encourage them to think critically about themselves and observe their own transformations. Interviews were conducted in a neutral environment and again teacher candidates were made aware that the university professor would not have access to the information they provided. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed immediately following the interview. Informal discussions and observations. Throughout the duration of the course observations were recorded by the researcher in both the classroom and teaching settings. Any informal discussions between researcher and teacher candidates were also recorded. Data Analysis Data was transcribed and thematic coding was used to analyze all data and identify common themes (Spradley, 1979). The number of data sources collected in different contexts was able to strengthen the themes and produce a clearer account of the teacher candidate transformation process. Transformation was identified as statements of change (self-discovery, new content, seeing and/ or doing things differently), and evidence of wrestling with ideas and questions (Greenman & Dieckmann, 2004). The use of multiple data sources allowed for comprehensive data collection of student perceptions and experiences. The design of the study was also strengthened through data triangulation. During data triangulation all data sources were reviewed and analyzed and themes were recorded to prevent misinterpretations. During data collection the researcher repeated participant answers back to them checking my interpretations. If participants agreed with the interpretation of meaning then the next question was asked. If there was a discrepancy 87 or misunderstanding the student was asked to clarify what they meant by their answer. Upon completion of initial data collection if unsure of the student?s response, the researcher would again ask for re-clarification. Results Throughout the university course ?Skill Acquisition for the School Aged Child? the collection of teacher candidates critical incident slips, informal discussions and observations, and course documents consisting of weekly reflections, challenges, and lesson plans provided a clear picture of what drives these particular students when dealing with a hands-on teaching experience in a setting culturally different from their own. The interviews served to strengthen the developing themes and also provided some new ones that were not evident in required course assignments turned in to the university professor for a grade. Although the course was intended to focus on skill acquisition this clearly became a back seat to classroom management and discipline which were ultimately of primary importance to the majority of the teacher candidates. This overwhelmingly predominant theme was able to tease out underlying notions of cultural, racial, and socioeconomic differences between the teacher candidates and their students. There was a definite journey or transformation of the teacher candidates however, with no specific guidance in cultural transformation as part of the course the three stages towards cultural awareness (1) recognizing their privileges, (2) feeling uncomfortable in the environment, and (3) seeking culturally relevant pedagogy were not met by merely placing teacher candidates in a different cultural environment. At no time throughout the study were the teacher candidates led by the researcher to discuss cultural, racial, or 88 socioeconomic issues. The following cultural themes discussed below emerged from the teacher candidate?s perceptions of their environment. Instead of the teacher candidates ability to recognize their privileges they were more likely to either compare ?us and them? or recognize the children?s under privileges. All information provided by the teacher candidates was based on their personal assumptions and not factual knowledge regarding these particular children at the Boutwell Center. Negative Cultural Differences Teacher candidates were constantly comparing their experiences in other environments with their current experience at the Boutwell Center. None of the comparisons were favorable towards the children at the Boutwell Center. Sophie had been discussing how she was having problems with her children listening to instructions and generally misbehaving, she continues by saying, I base it all on how you end up disciplining them. I went to Honduras on a mission trip one time and it was an orphanage and they didn?t have anything but the way they disciplined them the children were wonderful but they didn?t have anything so you can?t base it on how much money they have or income it ends up coming down to how you discipline your child and I just can?t imagine what it?s like when their mom gets mad because they talk about them going outside and grabbing a switch, oh my goodness if my mom ever did that, my dad did have his F4 belt and I might get a little whooping but he would never go outside and get a switch and start beating me to death. It?s just I?m more like if you make me feel guilty about it that is a lot worse than beating me, you know what I mean, like if 89 my mom said Sophie you have really disappointed me that hurts a lot more. I see how Dr. Ross said you tell them they are not being a good friend maybe that will affect them. I think you have to take different approaches for each child. I just think that at home they get more of a violent type of discipline. When asked to elaborate on her understanding of a possible difference in discipline techniques Sophie says, They are horrible. It is not working, it may work at home because when they do something wrong they get a beating but they might not think about doing it a second time but we can?t beat them and a lot of them wouldn?t let us discipline them, those parents would be like no let them come home and there are some things we think are wrong and the parents don?t think its wrong and they wouldn?t discipline them once they got home anyway. Sophie was then asked to give a specific example of how she perceived the parents might disagree with her when it came to disciplining a child. Sophie had earlier discussed how her mother works in a predominately African American school and replied, I know that there are things that have happened with my mom. She had a student that was stealing and she went to the parents and the parents were in denial about it which they automatically denied and said he wouldn?t steal and my mom said that he is stealing and what can my mom do about it if they are not disciplining him even though my mom knows for sure. I think he is still stealing to this day she?ll be like I do not know where my sunglasses went. She is just losing all this stuff. 90 Apathetic There was a tendency for the teacher candidates to appear to go out of their way to ignore completely the obvious differences in cultural and race between themselves and the children. Often pausing when talking to figure out how they could avoid mentioning any differences that may be perceived as politically incorrect. During a class discussion about the hoarding of equipment Dr. Banks says, ?I think it?s a poor kid thing.? To which Zane replies, ?Is that politically correct?? Vaughn says, ?Shouldn?t we say financially challenged?? Danielle rebuts with ?No, it?s under privileged, not poor you can?t say poor.? Apart from the avoidance of certain words and the teacher candidates concentrating hard on using terms such as ?African American? or ?low socioeconomic status? the general consensus was that all children are the same and should be treated the same. Bridget iterates this notion by saying, ?I don?t care what they look like, where they came from. I want to teach them how to be better people and how to be physically active.? Sympathetic Depending on some of the personal past experiences of the teacher candidates there was a trend to be sympathetic to the needs of the children at the Boutwell Center. Bridget was asked, ?What do you feel is your best attribute as a teacher and how do you feel that will help you in your time at the Boutwell Center?? Bridget came from a military upbringing where she moved around the world throughout her childhood and answered, My best attribute is that I have experienced a little bit of everything. Because of my diverse background I have experienced a number of different countries and different ethnicities and cultures and been in different environments. I can maybe 91 sympathize with a lot of the students and see where they are coming from. I have a better understanding for new students moving in, more so than someone who has been in one place their whole life. I can relate with more students. Danielle had experienced first hand the feelings of financial insecurity growing up and when asked ?What are your initial thoughts about the environment?? she responded, First I feel bad, I really do. I mean financially starting off my mom went through tough times she was pretty much left with nothing, so she didn?t have a job, so I understand the financial stuff, I mean we were there it took my mom a while to be able to do things. So I understand their perspective of money and stuff, financially, but I feel like I just had a more emotionally stable childhood and so like Kameron, so emotionally unstable, he thinks that everyone is out to get him, that everyone is trying to be a bully to him, you know, I was bullied as a child too but I don?t know I feel bad, different things they are not able to have. William talks about the importance of caring for the children and essentially being aware of their differing needs. He says, Like I was saying more of the interaction getting to know them to their level. If you don?t get to do that some of them are going to be especially the older ones, all you do is care about school you don?t care about me as a person. So in a sense you have to act a little bit different not because of the socioeconomic differences but treat them differently because they are different because you can?t just take away their background and not even look at it because it makes them who they are. If they are going through hard times you can adjust how you treat them and 92 stuff like that. Don?t just go in with a set standard and telling them they have to live up to your standard. It is a little unrealistic. Ronald is sympathetic to the children?s apparent need for constant attention and attributes it to possibilities of lack of attention at home. Ronald says, They definitely want some attention they will grab you up and hug you. They are all just looking for attention pretty much. They probably have a lack of attention at home or I don?t know if the teachers are ready to get rid of them at the end of the day. I don?t know if their teachers care or if they are uncomfortable, it could be different things. I remember Vitarious couldn?t wait to get home because he just got a new X Box game and couldn?t wait to play but then you have Rotraius who was getting on Vitarious for ripping his brand new shirt and it was just a Hanes white T shirt. Just stuff like that. Rotraius is more clingy but Vitarious you can tell may get more attention at home and stuff. Darius likes my attention he views me as one of his homeys right now, I?m one of his boys but that is about the way I need to handle it because he is supposed to be one of the problems. But I just tried to be his buddy. I think he said ?hell? one time and I told him that wasn?t cool and then he started saying ?heck? but when he talks, he doesn?t talk like a 5 year old. Even when he?s not doing the ghetto, the gang stuff he talks, well he?s a smart kid, it?s kind of weird. Stereotypes/ Assumptions Teacher candidates were quick to make assumptions about the children?s backgrounds and to fall in to the trap of using stereotypical ideas of the African American 93 population to base their responses. Bridget was asked, ?Is there anything that stands out about your group of children?? She paused and expressed the following, They have no goals or no aspirations. I have been at Leighton Elementary (another predominately African American school in the area) and here (Boutwell Center). I know the ones here are really young but at Leighton they were older and they just didn?t have any goals in life. They didn?t dream of being a doctor, not saying that you have to always dream big but they don?t have that I want to do this, it is just I?m here at school, there is not a reason for what they are doing. They are kinda going through the motion of things. When I do something there is a reason for it and there is a motive behind it, I?m going to learn something from this and it may not necessarily affect me right now but it may affect me down the road. These students I just don?t see a goal. Sophie when talking about discipline appears to make the following assumptions about how the children at the Boutwell Center are reprimanded saying, One thing that I think, their parents there is no way they can be as strict with them as my parents were with me and I base it on, I don?t know if this is wrong to do but when I go to the grocery store and I see that low socioeconomic people getting onto their children, the way that they do it like I can?t count the number of times I?ve seen them yank the kid up by the arm and just start beating on them right in the middle of Wal-Mart and you?re just like goodness and my mom would have been the one to talk in my ear and ground me later. She would get control of me like that, not beat the crap out of me in the middle of the store. I think that is where a lot of the violence and stuff comes from and the way that they yell and 94 the way they are loud because like at the Boys and Girls Club I did a lot of work there and even the people who run it they scream and everything and you are just like oh, and that makes it to where the kids think it is okay and they will hit each other when someone?s doing something wrong and your like whoa no you don?t have to do that, you know. It is just shocking I mean I would just never do that. If I saw one of my friends doing something I wouldn?t slap her. I?d be like stop that you?re not supposed to do that. I mean they do that, don?t hit and then you?re getting on to the one that is trying to keep them from doing something wrong because she just hit her trying to tell her not to do it. I mean it is just very different. Danielle talks about how she feels the need to be strict with her group of children in the beginning to gain the upper hand. Danielle stresses why she believes this is important. She explains, My aunt is a second grade teacher and the one thing she always taught me was to enforce rules and be strict but as the year goes on you can slack off but start off strict so they know the rules and then you are able to love on them. It used to be a higher income area but now it?s gone down so she has gotten both sides as far as her career and stuff. That?s one thing I think I could do is just to love on them but keep that stable environment which they don?t have at home. In response to the question, ?Do you think that there is anything that you don?t have control over with your children?? Danielle replies, Nutrition, sleep, bullies. Different things like that. The teacher?s attitudes towards them. The whole self-esteem thing. I looked at that for our next paper. One of the 95 articles said how everyone is talking about self-esteem and how we must improve the children?s self esteem and to not label a child as being a certain way but allow them to improve as much as they can. In response to Danielle?s answer she is then asked, ?You mentioned labeling. Do you think there is a tendency to label kids?? Danielle says, Most definitely. Before we even came in the class we got names of children that were going to be hard which you know, I don?t know. It?s good to know but as a teacher it is important to put that label aside and go on your child is just as good as everyone else it?s just the environment that they are in they are just children. All children are potentially good but the perception is to label them as bad. During a class discussion Krystal was asking the group for possible solutions to discourage Carl from running through the surveyors tape boundaries. One suggestion was to make an obstacle course with the surveyor tape where the goal was to not touch it as you climbed through and collected objects. Danielle suggested the following story to accompany the obstacle course to which the whole class agreed that they were all thinking the same thing. Yeah it could be like they were breaking in to a house trying to avoid setting off the alarm and stealing stuff before the police got there and they had to get away with the TV and VCR.? To which she quickly said, ?I know I shouldn?t say that.? Differences among African Americans Some of the teacher candidates compared the children at the Boutwell Center with experiences of other African American children they had growing up. They tended to 96 discuss African American friends they had through high school or even at university. When Sophie was asked ?What do you hope to gain from this experience?? she replied, I have already gotten a lot out of it. I really want to be able to feel more comfortable when I go into my pre-teaching and then actually go into my teaching. This is letting me see different environments because mine was maybe 20% African American and most of them weren?t even like these children, do you know what I mean, nowhere near. I was friends with most of them, they were the athletes and I was the cheerleader and I knew most of them as friends and their home lives weren?t like these kids. So I?m actually getting to see that and I?m going to have students like that and my mom tells me stories about her students and she has to figure out how to work with each child and their background and how she needs to discipline them and I?m actually being able to learn that and I just want that to keep happening. I?m really scared that I?m going to have to do my pre-teaching in Madison (nearby city) and that?s what most of the schools are and I?m really nervous. It would be quite the learning experience but the next place I go it might be like heaven compared even though it will still be tough. Ronald talks about growing up in a predominately African American high school and the differences between the children there and the children at the Boutwell Center. Ronald says, Me and Krystal are from this majority black big time, it?s probably 70, 30 maybe 65 but it?s a lot of blacks and I had a lot of great black friends growing up from low income families but still it?s not the same. The knowledge of the kids towards things that they really don?t need to know at ages like this. At that age I couldn?t, 97 I mean like Darius saying he?s a gangsta. At 5 years old I didn?t know words like that. I didn?t know what a gangsta was until I was 12 and then I still didn?t really know. You know whether it is their parents working long hours and has no time for them or what. Just really the knowledge about what they know. To me it is how you were brought up and you can tell the difference. Sophie during a class discussion was telling the class how Carl would always run off around the gym and not pay any of the teachers any attention. She preceded this statement by saying, ?Did you see his dad came to pick him up this week? He was not what I expected at all. He was very tall, polite, well dressed, Hugo Boss guy.? Instead of the teacher candidates admitting to feeling uncomfortable in a setting culturally different from their own when asked about their comfort levels in the environment the majority would say that they felt comfortable throughout the experience. The teacher candidate?s ability to feel comfortable seemed to fill them with a sense of accomplishment even though at times observations showed it seemed almost forced in comparison. Ronald?s response to feeling comfortable in the environment conforms to the feelings of the other teacher candidates. He explained, ?Like I said I have grown up kinda in something like this so. I mean I can talk to these kids pretty much like I talk to any kids. I haven?t felt uncomfortable yet.? Vaughn also expresses that he has not felt uncomfortable in the environment. He says, ?I?ve felt comfortable, fine, I?d been here before and so I didn?t really expect anything different except the difficulty with being able to keep structure.? 98 Careful Communication Several incidences occurred that left the teacher candidates second guessing their responses to the children. They often wondered if they had made the right decisions and considered alternatives if the situation arose again. Some even expressed that avoidance may be the best solution to uncomfortable situations. Bridget was trying to create a conversation with her children during their very first meeting and the following occurred, It is difficult to separate how I was raised and trying to stay open minded that they really have a different situation, like not everyone has a mom and dad, that?s another thing you know I have had to caution myself a lot in some of things that I say. Like I remember last week I said something about someone?s mom, like is your mom at home or does your mom work, I mentioned a mom somehow, and she said she didn?t have a mom. I was like oh bad subject and I have to caution myself and stuff like that because I am lucky enough to have a mom and a dad. Bridget was then asked, ?What did you say when she told you she didn?t have a mom?? I was just like, well how about your dad or I changed the subject completely, I just switched it up. I hated that because she kinda gave me that look of thanks for bringing it up. I think you make mistakes and that?s how you learn. Avoid the Obvious The teacher candidates were adamant about avoiding the obvious, that the children were African American. Very few teacher candidates acknowledged that they were even working with African American students directly instead choosing to use ?they? or ?them.? Bridget even appeared to try and emphasize the point that obvious racial differences were of minimal importance. She said, 99 I hope that I can learn how to cope with a variety of students. It is so diverse not racially or ethnically but just different skill levels and personalities. Just my four students are four totally different people. Both ends of the spectrum. Culture Shock As the semester and the course progressed the teacher candidates were more likely to discuss feelings of ?culture shock? that they had experienced in different environments prior to or as time went by in the setting. Sophie had talked about having lots of different experiences working with African American students and her feelings of culture shock. She said, I have been going for the past couple of years to Rydell (African American school in the area) and Boutwell Center and the Boys and Girls Club and at first it was a complete culture shock like just like how do they think they can do this stuff because I can?t imagine being that old and cussing and stuff. I didn?t know what those words were when I was four and five years old, I mean oh my goodness. The teacher candidates never expressed a need to meet the cultural differences of their children. However, they did express that they felt it was important to know their children individually. Their teaching did elicit an expectation of assimilation and also the need to avoid certain activities. Expect Assimilation At times the teacher candidates would express that they thought that by showing the children the correct way (their way) that the children would be better off in the long run. Bridget talked about an Hispanic girl she had had the opportunity to teach at Leighton Elementary saying, 100 It was good I know with one girl in my group, she didn?t speak any English. So it was difficult communicating but it was good for her to kind of see that there is another way, I don?t know. Knowing the Children A standard question was to ask the teacher candidates ?Do you feel that it is important to know your children as individual people?? At the beginning of the semester all the teacher candidates believed that ultimately it was important to know about all the children in their classes but did not really see the relevance in this particular setting as they were only there once a week. However, as the semester progressed they developed a sense of caring for their particular children and this initial view completely changed to how important it was to know the children in order to make an impact on their lives. At the beginning of the semester Bridget said, I think in this setting it is not really important. I think if I saw these students daily it would be very important to get to know the child and be able to relate to them and know everyone?s different learning capabilities. I think that by knowing their background, where they come from, and what they know at home, and what they do at school it would be good but since we only have them once a week at this point I don?t think it is necessary to know how their parents are. In her final interview Bridget was again asked the same question to which she replied, I think it has turned out to be really important. It was important for me because like with Marcy I was able to help her and I think understand her and give her what she needed which was sometimes just a hug because I found out all about how terrible a time she is having at home and all the problems with her mom and 101 everything. So I think I was able to just give her a little bit of attention even if for just a short time. I definitely noticed that she has been behaving a lot better for us since we have gotten to know each other better. William expressed the importance of knowing the children?s backgrounds and how he felt both parties involved would benefit from the experience of knowing one another. He explained, I want them to have a good time because they are there because their parents can?t be there to take care of them so I want it to be a good experience for them I don?t want them going away thinking they don?t ever want to do that again if those people come back just having the mindset of not wanting to do it again and I think also some in a sense of maybe getting experience to a little different cultural thing, it?s kind of a two way street we are dealing with kids that are very different from how we grew up but also in the sense that they get to experience people they usually don?t have around them just something positive about that about the fact that other stereotypes that they are growing up with about people from different parts of the city and stuff about not reinforcing those. Avoidance of Certain Activities There was a tendency to steer clear of activities that may be perceived as typical African American activities. In fact, the professor even suggested steering away from basketball, a sport she said ?they had plenty of opportunities to play.? The biggest concern however was with dance. An incident had occurred where Sophie had reprimanded one of the girls in her group for dancing on the bleachers. She had referred to it at the time as ?humping the bleachers? and so when Dr. Banks had asked if there 102 was anyone who would like to have a dancing station the next week, Sophie had politely declined. In her interview that week she was asked, ?If Dr. Banks told you today that this week you have to teach a dance station what would you say?? Sophie laughed and replied, I would be nervous just because of the one child I saw getting her groove on that day. It was really scary I was just like oh my goodness, it was right off an MTV video but I think it would be okay if we did something like one, two, step like those are songs that people listen to like these young kids I?m pretty sure that even though they are 5 years old they listen to the same music that I listen to and there are some of those songs like ?one, two, step? that they wouldn?t have to bump and grind on the bleachers. Things like that would catch their attention because I know just the little stepping aerobics they love because the music is going immediately, they get all excited about it. No doubt they get it from home, no doubt in my mind. They probably have an older sister or their mom is probably my age and they are at home all getting their little groove on. One day I was in Barry?s class at the Boys and Girls Club and this girl was getting some water and she was doing the thing up against the water fountain and I was like oh my gosh these girls can move and they are like half my age and less and its scary and I just have to walk away. That girl was on the bleachers and you see it on TV. Sophie was asked, ?What would your approach be as a teacher having to deal with similar situations?? Initially tell them it is not appropriate to do that at all. Because, Ohhh you can?t tell them it?s like sex. I don?t know what you would say. They think its fine 103 because they?ve seen it, you are catching me with these questions. I may approach it as it?s not lady like you know, it?s not what you need to be doing around people at school. It?s not cute it?s nasty, you know, approach it like that. It?s just scary when you see an 8 year old doing that. It is scary, really scary. The final interview question posed upon completion of the course and the only question that alluded to anything cultural from the researcher asked the teacher candidates if they had ever heard the term ?culturally relevant teaching.? Not one of the teacher candidates had heard the term before. However once it was explained to them they seemed receptive and interested to know more. The overwhelming response was that unless their professors or the courses specifically taught them to concentrate on something then they would not come up with it on their own or think that it was necessary to their teaching at this point in their journey. Danielle says, I didn?t even consider any of the cultural differences in how I was going to teach. We are not worried about that right now. One thing that Dr. Bruchetta was talking about in our other class which I have slowly stopped doing is worrying about my lesson plans, now I?m more worried about the students and what they are doing. That?s more the kind of stuff we are worried with right now. Also right now if they (professors) are not saying it, well we are only going to worry about what they are telling us right now. We?re like yes ma?am we?ll do whatever you say. We have to believe that they have our best interests at heart and aren?t really going to think too critically about it. We are not going to be focused on doing anything outside. If we are taught it we will definitely pay attention to it. 104 Vaughn talks about the structure of his Instructional Strategies in Physical Education course being taken during the same semester and explains how what he is learning in that class he is able to able to transfer into this course. Vaughn says about cultural relevance, It?s like lots of stuff in Dr. Bruchetta?s class if you don?t know it before hand then you are not going to be looking to do it, you know what I mean. I know that we get them at the same time but in that class (Instructional Strategies in Physical Education) we had 3 or 4 weeks to learn and practice the stuff she wanted us to do and then go out into the school and teach and in here we got nothing. If I didn?t have that class this class would be awful just like a daycare. Discussion Throughout the course of the semester teacher candidates showed small flashes of cultural awareness and sensitivity sparked by events they experienced while teaching the children during the after school program. However, these often appeared to be fleeting thoughts that did not spearhead the teacher candidates to delve any deeper into the impact of the experience or to think critically about the situation. Any inkling of cultural transformation was limited to the teacher candidate?s placing greater amounts of importance on knowing their children as individuals. This was clearly shown from comments in interviews and class discussions at the beginning of the semester where the teacher candidates did not place a priority on knowing their children as individuals. They were very clear that the time they spent with them was too short and that they did not see it as a necessity to helping the children learn. However, as the semester continued these opinions changed and a real sense of caring and compassion developed towards each of their children and the importance of treating them as individuals and even modifying 105 their teaching approaches depending on the individual child. With regard to cultural transformation it seems that this experience was worthwhile in eliciting an initial starting point for these teacher candidates to continually build on throughout the remainder of their PETE program thereby turning these small flickers into brightly burning torches of cultural awareness. Evidence from this particular study suggests that merely placing teacher candidates in an environment culturally different from their own is not enough to cause teacher candidates to fully recognize their privileges, recognize and then admit to being uncomfortable in the environment, or to encourage them to seek culturally relevant pedagogy. Placing teacher candidates in such an environment shows that it is definitely beneficial in eliciting small sparks of awareness. Shor and Freire (1987) mention that however insignificant the sparks may appear in comparison to the required outcome they are indeed priceless in the journey to triggering long term changes. Therefore, it stands to reason that the more opportunities the teacher candidates have to spend time in culturally different environments the more frequent the sparks and ultimately the greater the probability of jump starting the teacher candidate?s ability to think critically and eventually seek cultural relevant pedagogies. With this in mind infusing opportunities to develop cultural awareness at every stage of the PETE program seems to be the strongest choice to encourage a cultural transformation. At this point it seems no longer necessary to research how one experience may alter teacher candidate?s cultural awareness as it appears minimal. Instead it may now be more beneficial to concentrate on the entire cultural transformation process throughout the PETE program. As suggested by Burden, Hodge, O?Bryant, and Harrison (2004) many of the teacher candidates may come from backgrounds and have prior experiences both 106 professional and personal that exercise the importance of colorblindness when dealing with different races. It is not uncommon to hear phases throughout PETE programs such as ?treat all students equally.? This statement along with others may inadvertently be encouraging teacher candidates to ignore obvious differences among children. In some cases it may be that cultural diversity issues have been excluded altogether in an attempt to somehow reach equity through denial. DeSensi (1995) proposes that such ideas of colorblindness may actually make individuals unaware of their fears. Teacher candidates who may be unaware of their fears are unlikely to realize that they are uncomfortable in a different cultural environment. Results from this study showed that teacher candidates repeatedly responded that they did not feel uncomfortable in this particular environment. It may be as DenSensi suggests that in the pursuit of colorblindness they become unaware of their fears, which makes it impossible to admit to feeling uncomfortable. It would seem that they are then also unable to critically reflect on their own personal stereotypical beliefs. In the long term conditioning to colorblindness may cause teacher candidates to only be prepared to work effectively with children from the dominant white middle class culture from where they have originally come. The teacher candidates in this study held the popular stereotypical beliefs about the African American population. This appeared to encourage them to make assumptions about their children rather than seeking factual evidence about each individual child. Although the teacher candidates were able to see the importance of knowing each child as an individual by the end of the semester it did not stop them making stereotypical judgments regarding African American children as a whole. This was shown by the teacher candidates assumptions that the children came from poor homes, their parents did not have enough time for them, and they were likely 107 to have discipline problems. Their responses were similar to the findings of Schultz, Neyhart, and Reck (1996) such as believing that these children are likely to bring with them negative behaviors that will harmfully affect their learning. Pang and Sablan (1998) put forward that expectations of negativity may lead to the documented decline in teachers self-efficacy in differing cultural environments. Burden, Hodge, O?Bryant, and Harrison (2004) advocate with the utmost importance providing teacher candidates many experiences in different environments to reflect on the cultural relevance of their pedagogy. According to Locke (1995) small attempts have been made to include new methods and materials into current PETE programs but the reality is that little has actually changed with the majority still being traditional information. Stroot and Whipple (2003) imply that PETE programs are likely to focus more heavily on particular areas of teacher education such as skill development thereby unconsciously allowing other important material such as behavior management and socialization issues to receive minimal attention. A heavy focus on skill development is not addressing the complete needs of the teacher candidates. It was evident from this group of teacher candidates that the focus for them at this point of their PETE program was classroom management issues. The majority of cultural findings stemmed from the teacher candidates problems with classroom management. It is suggested that to encourage cultural awareness teacher candidates must spend many hours of practicum and field based experiences in environments culturally different from the mainstream (DeSensi, 1995; Stroot & Whipple, 2003). The consensus is that teacher candidates will learn best how to work in diverse settings if constantly placed there. Although the results of this study strengthen 108 this perspective it is also evident that alone this is not enough. It was evident that teacher candidates were unable to think critically on their own about cultural issues when not required to do so. In the case of this particular university course socialization experiences in a culturally diverse setting was provided. Results of cultural transformation may have been kept to a minimum due to the lack of cultural content provided by the professor. This course although not designed to focus on cultural issues may have provided an opportunity to introduce the teacher candidates to cultural content. It seems like a missed opportunity to elicit the cultural transformation process if not backed up by the necessary curriculum content. DeSensi (1995) states that the only way to lead novice teachers on a journey of cultural transformation is to provide them with continuous opportunities both in socialization but also curriculum content. There is an alarming shortage of teachers of color (American Association of College Teachers, 1994). The agreement is that it is important to increase the numbers. Thernstrom and Thernstrom (2004) suggest that children benefit from being taught by teachers of the same cultural background. They are more likely to respond positively towards the teacher as well as providing them with a role model. As attempts to increase teachers of color seems to be failing it seems that the solution at this point is to take what is there and provide them with the necessary experiences to become effective teachers and role models in culturally diverse settings. Also, the reality is that the minority population is increasing so rapidly that white middle class teachers will not be able to escape having to provide culturally relevant pedagogies. Results in this study showed how teacher candidates found the opportunities to watch the African American teachers 109 in the after school program interact with African American students priceless in terms of learning. They found it particularly helpful to watch the interactions along with how to get and sustain the children?s attention long enough to listen and follow directions. It seems therefore that it is not only necessary to place teacher candidates into culturally different teaching situations but also provide them with opportunities to teach or observe in educational environments where the teacher comes from a similar cultural background to the children. The effectiveness of teachers from the same cultural background was discussed in Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, Curran (2004) and how these teachers can aid in helping white teachers become effective in the environment. The consensus of the teacher candidates after the completion of the course was if it is not mentioned or they are not taught it then they will not worry about it. They felt that the university professors had their best interests at heart and would bring up what they needed to know. They felt that the important stuff was continually re-emphasized to them and practiced by them and that is what ultimately made it of utmost importance to them. The teacher candidates also expressed that they would be unlikely to think critically unless asked to do so and only then would it be on what was being instilled in them at the time. With results such as this it shows the need to continually focus on cultural issues throughout PETE programs. At present it appears cultural awareness issues are either not discussed or at best restricted to one general multicultural course taken as a foundation of education course. It therefore becomes necessary to relate the material specifically to the physical education environment. According to Graber (1989) teacher candidates do not enter PETE programs with empty minds waiting to have them filled with the correct knowledge. In fact their prior 110 experiences and beliefs will determine what they do with the information provided to them. It is suggested that teacher candidates are likely to acquire the skills they believe are important and discard those that they believe have little relevance. Doolittle, Dodds, and Placek (1993) state that teacher candidates enter the PETE program with strong stereotypical beliefs and that these beliefs are then molded through experiences. Results of this study suggest that this particular group of teacher candidates are waiting to be molded and are willing to take onboard new ideas that might help them become better teachers. The possible discarding of what they see as unnecessary cannot be tested if they are not given the information in the first place. It would seem that discarding of information will be kept to a minimum regarding culturally relevant pedagogies if they are able to transfer the content into the environment. Successful use of culturally relevant teaching can only lead to teacher candidates recognizing its importance in their effectiveness as physical educators. Burden, Hodge, O?Bryant, and Harrison (2004) suggest novice teachers should be taught to view their learners as unique individuals. Although this was not taught or mentioned in the course it was provided by the instructional situation thereby allowing the teacher candidates to come to the conclusion through merely interacting with a small group of children once a week. Whilst Britzman (1991) suggests that continual placements will help mold the students through meaningful teaching experiences and help cast away preconceived stereotypical beliefs. Stereotypical beliefs seemed to become less prominent as they got to individually know their children. In several incidences what they found out about their children held strongly with their original stereotypical beliefs. This poses an important question in the cultural transformation 111 process of how teacher candidates evolve when their stereotypical views are constantly reinforced by the environment. Articles and McClafferty (1998) said that teacher educators may be likely to generalize when teaching cultural issues which should be stressed do not always hold true. Therefore, the cultural content needs to be covered while stressing that it important to know the child as an individual and how methods of cultural relevant teaching may help the individual learn to their potential. In conclusion, PETE programs must move beyond the one step multicultural course requirement to imbedding culturally relevant issues within the course structure. These experiences should be throughout the PETE program and should not be limited to one or two experiences. It is not sufficient to expect cultural transformation by merely placing teacher candidates in a diverse environment. A combination of time in the environment, content knowledge in the classroom, and observation of teachers of color will lead the teacher candidates on a journey to cultural transformation. 112 References American Association of College Teachers. (1994). Minority teacher recruitment and retention: A public policy issue. Washington, DC: Author. Articles, A. & McClafferty, K. (1998). Learning to teach culturally diverse learners: Charting change in preservice teachers thinking about effective teaching. Elementary School Journal, 98, 189-220. Banks, J.A. (1994). An introduction to multicultural education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Britzman, D. (1991). Practice makes practice. New York: SUNY Press. Burden, J.W., Hodge, S.R., O?Bryant, C.P., & Harrison, L. (2004). From colorblindness to intercultural sensitivity: Infusing diversity training in PETE programs. Quest, 173-189. Darder, A. (1997). Creating the conditions for cultural democracy in the classroom. In A. Darder, R.D. Torres & H. Gutierrez (Eds.), Latinos and education: A critical reader (pp. 331-350). New York: Routledge. Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (2003). The landscape of qualitative research: Theories and issues (2 nd edition). Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage Publications Inc. DeSensi, J.T. (1995). Understanding multiculturalism and valuing diversity: A theoretical perspective. Quest, 47, 34-43. 113 Doolittle, S., Dodds, P., & Placek, J. (1993). Persistence of beliefs about teaching during formal training of preservice teachers. (Monograph). Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 246-261. Friere, P. (1992). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Giroux, H.A. (1994). Doing cultural studies: Youth and the challenge of pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, 64, 278-308. Graber, K. (1989). Teaching tomorrows teachers: Professional preparation as an agent of socialization. In T. Templin & P. Schemp (Eds.), Socialization into physical education: Learning to teach (pp.59-80). Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press. Greenman, N.P. & Dieckmann, J.A. (2004). Considering criticality and culture as pivotal in transformative teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 240-256. Hastie, P., Martin, E., & Buchanan, A. (in press). Stepping out of the norm: An examination of praxis for a culturally relevant pedagogy for African American children. Journal of Curriculum Studies. Kincheloe, J.L. & McLaren, P. (2003). Rethinking critical theory and qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.). The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues (p.433-488). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 465-491. 114 Locke, R.S. (1995). Beyond bats and balls: Teaching about knowledge, culture, power, and ideology in physical education. In R.J. Martin (Ed.), Practicing what we teach: Confronting diversity in teacher education (pp.219-234). Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Mishne, J. (2000). Multiculturalism and the therapeutic process. New York: Guilford Press. National Education Association Online. (2003). Education Statistics. http://www.nea.org/edstats/index.html O'Sullivan, M., & Tsangaridou, N. (1992). What undergraduate physical education majors learn during a field experience. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 381-413. Pang, V.O. & Sablan, V.A. (1998). Teacher efficacy. In M.E. Dilworth (Ed.), Being responsive to cultural differences (pp.39-58). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Parker, L., Deyhle, D., Villeras, S., & Nebeker, K.C. (1998). Guest editors? introduction: Critical race theory and qualitative studies in education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11, 5-6. Reed, D. F. (1998). Speaking from experience: Anglo-American teachers in African American schools. The Clearing House, 71, 224-231. Schultz, E.L., Neyhart, K., & Reck, U.M. (1996). Swimming against the tide: A study of prospective teachers? attitudes regarding cultural diversity and urban teaching. Western Journal of Black Studies, 20(1), 1-7. Scoon R.K. (2001). Prep-school program opens doors for minority teachers. Education Week, 6. 115 Shor, I., & Freire, P. (1987). A pedagogy of liberation: Dialogues on transforming education. New York: Bergin and Garvey. Spradley, J.P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers Stroot, S.A. & Whipple, C.E. (2003). Organizational socialization: Factors affecting beginning teachers. In S.J. Silverman & C.D. Ennis (Eds.), Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction (2 nd ed.; pp.311- 328). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Thernstrom, A., & Thernstrom, S. (2004). No excuses: Closing the racial gap in learning. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. Weinstein, C.S., Curran, M., & Tomlinson-Clarke. (2003). Culturally responsive classroom management: awareness into action. Theory into Practice, 42, 269-277. Weinstein, C.S., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 25-39. 116 CHAPTER V Educational Implications To summarize, the purpose of this investigation was to explore possible reasons for the apparent ?disconnect? between white middle class teachers and their culturally diverse students. The findings were able to show the cultural differences between teacher and student through a series of interviews, children?s drawings and narrations. While the cultural differences were obvious in their values, beliefs, and interactions both teacher and student showed an apparent lack of concern, in fact a lack of consciousness regarding the cultural differences of people unlike themselves. The African-American children in Study I expressed ideas of personal and social responsibility that differed greatly from current western hegemony. Moreover, their cultural heritage and upbringing often landed them in trouble in their present school climate. Cultural differences of opinion caused clashes between teachers and students as the children were more than willing to express their dislike for school rules. Study II showed similar results with regard to cultural differences in opinion. Teacher candidates showed they were unable to step outside of their white privileges and into the shoes of children culturally different from them. During the university course teacher candidates repeatedly showed a lack of ability to even recognize cultural issues and were therefore unable to think critically about their teaching. Due to the lack of ability to understand their privileges they were unable to even contemplate culturally responsive teaching. The conditioning by society to conform 117 to your respective cultural beliefs makes it impossible to recognize others opinions as valid. A lack of understanding for different cultures is causing a struggle for power in the classroom. A way to combat these problems must be sought before the ?disconnect? is past the point of return. The following are suggestions to attempt to rectify the problems when dealing with diversity issues in education. 1. PETE programs must have multiple opportunities for teacher candidates to experience cultural settings different from their own. 2. PETE programs must include cultural curriculum content throughout the entire teacher education program. 3. PETE programs should provide opportunities for teacher candidates to observe or team teach with teachers from different cultural backgrounds. 4. PETE programs must nurture teacher candidates during their journey to cultural awareness by teaching them how to think critically and reflect on their experiences. 5. Teachers must know the individual backgrounds and cultural beliefs of their students. A level of trust and caring should be developed before they can expect positive responses from the students. 6. Teachers should strive towards culturally responsive teaching including in their lessons differences and similarities between cultures and methods of working together. 7. Teachers should use real life experiences the children can relate to on a cultural level. 118 8. Students should be encouraged to verbalize their opinions and cultural differences and how this affects them in and outside of school. 9. Students should be provided with opportunities to teach the class about their cultural heritage. 10. Students should be taught to appreciate diversity and look at differences positively, while also seeking to find commonalities. As suggested by the teacher candidates involved in Study II if they are not taught to value the importance of culturally responsive teaching they will not incorporate it into their lesson plan. Teacher candidates were adamant that if CRT is not drilled into them and the theory consistently put into practice throughout the PETE program they will be very unlikely to seek it out on their own or even believe in its relevance in teaching physical education. Therefore, PETE programs need to step up and provide teacher candidates with adequate experience and knowledge necessary to be successful teachers in an ever changing world. 119 REFERENCES Adam, I. & Tiffin, H. (1991). Past the last post. Hemel Wheatshead: Harvester Wheatsheat. Albers, P. (1997). Art as literacy. Language Arts, 74, 338-350. American Association of College Teachers. (1994). Minority teacher recruitment and retention: A public policy issue. Washington, DC: Author. Articles, A. & McClafferty, K. (1998). Learning to teach culturally diverse learners: Charting change in preservice teachers thinking about effective teaching. Elementary School Journal, 98, 189-220. Banks, J.A. (1994). 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New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Solmon, M.A., & Carter, J.A. (1995). Kindergarten and first grade students? perceptions of physical education in one teacher?s classes. The Elementary School Journal, 95, 355-365. Solmon, M.A., Lee, A.M., Belcher, D., Harrison, L., & Wells, L. (2003). Beliefs about gender appropriateness, ability, and competence in physical activity. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 22, 261-280. Spradley, J.P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers 126 Stroot, S.A. & Whipple, C.E. (2003). Organizational socialization: Factors affecting beginning teachers. In S.J. Silverman & C.D. Ennis (Eds.), Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction (2 nd ed.; pp.311- 328). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Thernstrom, A., & Thernstrom, S. (2004). No excuses: Closing the racial gap in learning. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. Weinstein, C., Curran, M., & Tomlinson-Clarke, S. (2003). Culturally responsive classroom management: awareness into action. Theory into Practice, 42, 269-277. Weinstein, C.S., Tomlinson-Clarke, S., & Curran, M. (2004). Toward a conception of culturally responsive classroom management. Journal of Teacher Education, 55, 25-39. Wlodkowski, R., & Ginsberg, M. (1995). A framework for culturally responsive teaching. Educational Leadership, 53, 17-22. 127 APPENDICES 128 APPENDIX A STUDY I: GENERAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS General 1. What is your name? 2. How old are you? 3. Who are your best friends? Why? 4. Who do you look up to? Why? 5. Is there anyone you don?t like in PE? Why? 6. Choose a fake name for yourself so you can never be recognized no matter what you say? 7. Describe PE for me? 8. What is your favorite thing about PE? 9. What is your least favorite thing about PE? 10. What do you concentrate on in PE? 11. What do you notice about other people in PE? 12. What do students mostly get in trouble for in PE? What happens? Do you think it is right? Irresponsibility 1. Can you tell me what it means to be irresponsible? 2. Should we try to be irresponsible? Why? 129 3. Can you give me some examples of irresponsible? 4. Can you give me some examples of irresponsible in PE? 5. Who tells you that you shouldn?t be irresponsible? 6. Do you think it is important to listen to them? 7. Why do you think they try to make you responsible? 8. If you are always irresponsible what do you think will happen? Now? When you?re an adult? 9. Do you think all your examples of irresponsible behavior are really irresponsible or do you think some things depend on the circumstances? Explain. 10. If you were the principal or the president what things would you make irresponsible and what would you do to the people who were irresponsible? 11. What would you try to tell them about being irresponsible? 12. Do you ever make excuses in PE? Explain. 13. Do you ever blame others in PE? Explain. 14. Do you ever pretend like you didn?t do something when you did? Why? Responsibility 1. Can you tell me what it means to be responsible? 2. Should we try to be responsible? Why? 3. Can you give me some examples of being responsible? 4. Can you give me some examples of being responsible in PE? 5. What happens if you are not responsible? What do you think about that? 6. Who tells you that you have to be responsible? 7. Do you think it is important to listen to them? Why? 130 8. Why do you think they want you to do responsible things? 9. If you are responsible now what do you think will happen later in life? 10. Do you believe in all your examples of responsibility or does it depend on the circumstances? When would it be okay to not follow these examples? 11. If you were the principal or the president what would you make responsible? 12. What would you try to tell people about responsibility? 13. Do you agree with all the school rules? Which ones? Why? 14. What rules do you disagree with? Why? How would you change them or would you just get rid of them? Respecting the Rights and Feelings of Others 1. What does respect mean? 2. Who should you respect? Why? 3. Who do you respect? Why? 4. Who do you not respect that you should? Why? 5. Should you respect yourself? Peers? All adults? Why? 6. What kinds of things do you do to show that you respect teachers, parents, peers, yourself? 7. Do you think all of these things are important or do you think some of these things are pointless or silly? Why? 8. Why do you think people say respect your elders? What do they mean? What do you think? 9. When you are in PE do you think about the feelings of others? How? Why? 131 10. Do you know what self-control is? Explain. Is it important? Do you have it? Give an example of having and not having self control? 11. Do you ever get in arguments in PE? Why? What do you do? What do others do? 12. If you made the rules on respect what would they be? 13. Do you ever call people names, make fun of others, intimate others, bully others, hog equipment or space, not control your temper, not be able to resolve conflicts or disrupt others when they are trying to work? Why? Who does these things? Participation and Effort 1. Can you tell me what it means to participate in PE? 2. Can you give me some examples of participating in PE? 3. Do you like to participate in PE? Why? 4. Do you think most people participate or join in during PE? Who does? Who does not? Why? 5. Are there certain people you like / do not like to participate with? Why? 6. Do you think that you participate better alone or in a group? Why? 7. Can you tell me what it means to have effort in PE? 8. Can you give me some examples of effort in PE? 9. What is the opposite of effort? Can you give me some examples in PE? 10. Do you have lots of effort in PE? Does this ever change? What does it depend on? 11. Do you think it is important to always do your best? Why? Is there any time it is okay to not do your best? When and why? 12. Do you always do your best in PE? What helps/ not helps you do this? 13. What would happen if you chose not to participate? Why? 132 14. Does your participation and effort come from inside you? Do you decide or does someone/ something else decide for you? Explain. Self-Direction 1. Can you explain to me what self-direction means? 2. Can you give me some examples of self-direction? 3. Can you work hard on something in PE by yourself? Give example. 4. If Ms. Evans said I want you to chose something to work on in PE by yourself what would you do? Explain. 5. Do you work well by yourself or are you easily distracted by others? 6. Do you like to work by yourself in PE? 7. What do you learn when you work by yourself in PE? 8. Do you ever distract others from working in PE? Explain. 9. Why are you in PE, other than you have to be? What do you want to learn? 10. Would you come to PE if you didn?t have to? Why? 11. If Ms. Evans gave you basketball and told you to go and practice what would you do? 12. If you wanted to get better at something what would you do? Helping and Caring for Others 1. Can you explain to me what it means to help someone? 2. Can you give me an example of helping someone in PE? 3. Can you explain to me what it means to care for someone? 4. Can you give me an example of caring in PE? 5. Do you help others in PE? Who do you help? Why? 133 6. Do others try to help you in PE? How? Why? 7. Is it important to help and care for others in PE? Why? 8. What would happen if people never helped each other in PE? 9. Will helping in PE make you better at PE? Explain. 10. Does Ms. Evans help you in PE? Explain. Outside the Gym 1. Do you think being responsible in PE will help you be responsible at home? How? Why? 2. Do you think if you are irresponsible in PE it will hurt you at home? How? Why? 3. Do you think respecting the rights and feelings of others in PE will help you do the same in life? How? Why? 4. If you don?t respect the rights and feelings of others in PE how will this affect you outside the gym? 5. Do you think that having good participation and effort in PE will help you outside in the real world? How? Why? 6. If you don?t work hard in PE how will this affect you at home? 7. Do you think that being able to work by yourself and have self-direction in PE will help you in your life? How? Why? 8. If you can?t work by yourself in PE do you think this will hurt you in life? How? Why? 9. Do you think that helping and caring for others in PE will help you care for others outside of PE? How? Why? 134 10. If you don?t help and care for others in PE how do you think this will affect you at home? 11. Do you think PE helps you become a better person? How? Why? 135 STUDY II: GENERAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS General Questions 1. Where did you grow up? 2. Tell me about the area you grew up in? 3. Tell me a little bit about your childhood? 4. What values were instilled in you as a child? 5. What do you feel is your strongest/ weakest attribute as a person? 6. Tell me about your PE experience? 7. What were you expecting before you went to the Boutwell Center? 8. Was the actual experience similar or different than you expected? 9. What do you think of the Boutwell Center? 10. What do you think of the after school program? 11. What do you think of the discipline? 12. How do you see the environment? 13. What do you know about your children? 14. How do you think your children view you? 15. Do you think you can get your children do learn? 16. What do you think will be the biggest challenge? 17. Do you think there is anything outside of your teaching that will affect student learning? 136 18. Can you relate to the children? Explain. Do you feel it is important? 19. What do you think will be the easiest part of this teaching experience? 20. Do you feel ready to teach the children? 21. What might prevent the children learning? 22. Describe your comfort level in the environment? 23. Have there been any feelings of discomfort? Explain. 24. What do you think about on your way home after teaching? 25. What do you want to get out of the experience? 26. What do you want your children to get out of the experience? Exit Questions 1. What did you enjoy most about your experience at the Boykin Center? 2. What did you enjoy least about your experience at the Boykin Center? 3. Do you feel your experience was worthwhile? Explain. 4. Has your experience forced you to reflect/ change your mind/ perception about anything? 5. Which child influenced you the most/ least and why? 6. Which child do you feel you influenced the most/ least and why? 7. At any time throughout the course of the semester did you fell uncomfortable in the environment? 8. Do you feel more comfortable now/ with what/ why? 9. How do you see this experience helping you in the future? 10. Has this experience influenced your desire to teach similar children in the future? How? 137 11. What was your overall most influential experience? 12. How did your lessons progress? What were you doing at the end that was different from the beginning? Describe your journey as a teacher? 13. Is there anything you would like to have done that you didn?t get the opportunity to do? 14. Do you feel like you have gone through any kind of transformation during your experience? 15. If you had the chance to do it all over again what would you do differently? 138 APPENDIX B STUDY II: CRITICAL INCIDENT SLIP PLEASE COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS (All information provided is confidential and will not influence your grade in this course). Date: Lesson Content: Objectives: Question 1: What do you feel was your most influential experience during this teaching episode and why? Question 2: How will you use what you have learned today to positively influence your future teaching? 139 APPENDIX C INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH STUDY ENTITLED, ?Drawings to Identify 5 th Grade Students? Attitudes & Beliefs Concerning Personal & Social Responsibility in Physical Education? Your child is invited to participate in a dissertation research study during their physical education class at Loachapoka Elementary School. The purpose of the study is to obtain student attitudes and beliefs concerning personal & social responsibility in physical education through the use of a series of drawings, narrations, and interviews. The results will be used to help strengthen the already developed Taking Personal & Social Responsibility Curriculum Model. The procedures will not interfere with regular classroom activities. This study is being conducted as part of the dissertation of Claire M. Mowling enrolled at Auburn University. I have been assisting in physical education at Loachapoka as part of my graduate assistantship for the last 2 years under the supervision of Dr. Alice Buchanan. The hope is to discover student?s attitudes and beliefs concerning personal & social responsibility, therefore assisting in the development of a curriculum model that focuses solely on the needs of the students currently enrolled. Loachapoka Elementary students have been selected to participate in this action research based dissertation because I have had the opportunity to observe the needs and wants of the students for the past 2 years which is paramount to the development of a suitable curriculum model. As parent/ guardian your permission to allow your child to participate in this study during physical education class is necessary. If you agree to allow your child to participate they will not be disrupted from regular physical education class. All data will be collected during the latter part of the lesson when the equipment is being put up and students are lining up to return to class or during any down time they may have during class. Data will be collected in the form of drawings, narrations, and interviews on approximately six separate occasions by approximately 10-15 students who agree to participate in the study. This process should take no more than 10 minutes and should not disrupt the students? regular schedule in any way. Any information obtained in connection with this study will remain anonymous. Information collected through the schools participation may be (e.g., used to fulfill an educational requirement, published in a professional journal, and/or presented at a professional meeting, etc.) Participants in the study may withdraw from participation at any time, without penalty, however, after they have provided anonymous information they will be unable to withdraw their data after participation since there will be no way to 140 identify individual information. As parent/ guardian your decision whether or not to allow your child to participate will not jeopardize your future relations with Loachapoka Elementary School, Auburn University or the Department of Health and Human Performance. Your child?s physical education grade will not be affected by your decision. If you have any questions we invite you to ask them now. If you have questions later, please contact Claire M. Mowling at (205) 884-0160 or email mowlicn@auburn.edu I will be happy to answer them. For more information regarding your child?s rights as a research participant you may contact the Office of Human Subjects Research by phone or e-mail. The people to contact there are Executive Director E.N. ?Chip? Burson (334) 844-5966 (bursoen@auburn.edu) or IRB Chair Dr. Peter Grandjean at (334) 844-1462 (grandpw@auburn.edu) . HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED, YOU MUST DECIDE WHETHER TO ALLOW YOUR CHILD TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS DISSERTATION RESEARCH. IF YOU DECIDE TO PARTICIPATE PLEASE SIGN BELOW. YOUR SIGNATURE WILL SERVE AS YOUR AGREEMENT TO PARTICIPATE ALONG WITH THE DATA PROVIDED. ___________________________________ Investigator's signature Date I, _________________________________ agree to allow my child to participate in the research study ?Using Drawings to Identify 5 th Grade Students? Attitudes & Beliefs Concerning Personal & Social Responsibility in Physical Education?. ____________________________________ Parent/ Guardian Signature Date I, _________________________________ agree to participate in the research study ?Using Drawings to Identify 5 th Grade Students? Attitudes & Beliefs Concerning Personal & Social Responsibility in Physical Education?. ____________________________________ Child Participant Date 141 INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH PROJECT ENTITLED ?Teacher Candidates and the Cultural Transformation Process.? You are invited to participate in a dissertation research study. The purpose of this study is to determine the transformative process teacher candidates go through during the university course ?Skill Acquisition for the School Aged Child.? This study is being conducted by Claire M. Mowling who is a doctoral student in the Department of Health & Human Performance under the supervision of Dr. Sheri J. Brock. I hope to learn how teacher candidates evolve when placed in an unfamiliar teaching environment. You were selected as a possible participant because you are enrolled in the spring 2005 university course as a requirement for the teacher education program. If you decide to participate there are two possible ways to do so. Full participation will require you to consent to a series of semi-structured interviews that will occur for approximately 15-20 minutes every two weeks throughout the semester. The interviews can be scheduled at your convenience. Also, you will be asked to complete a two question critical incident slip after every teaching episode. I will also need to have access to all your class assignments. Partial participation would require access to your class assignments only. All information you provide will be completely confidential and the university professor will not have access to the information you provide. Hence, your grade in the course will not be affected by your choice to participate in the study. Reasonable benefits to participants will include an opportunity to critically reflect on their teaching giving the chance to become more effective teachers when placed in culturally diverse environments. I cannot promise you that you will receive any or all of the benefits described. Any information obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified will remain confidential. Data will be kept confidential by the use of pseudonyms on all documents and during interviews. Information collected through your participation may be (e.g., used to fulfill an educational requirement, published in a professional journal, and/or presented at a professional meeting, etc.) If so, none of your identifiable information will be included. Participants may withdraw from participation at any time, without penalty, and may withdraw any data which has been collected about themselves, as long as that data is identifiable. Your decision whether or not to participate will not jeopardize your future relations with Auburn University or Department of Health & Human Performance or your course grade in ?Skill Acquisition for the School-Aged Child.? 142 If you have any questions I invite you to ask them now. If you have questions later, Claire M. Mowling (205) 884-0160 (mowlicn@auburn.edu) or advisor Sheri J. Brock (334) 844-1464 (brocksj@auburn.edu) will be happy to answer them. You will be provided a copy of this form to keep. For more information regarding your rights as a research participant you may contact the Office of Human Subjects Research by phone or e-mail. The people to contact there are Executive Director E.N. ?Chip? Burson (334) 844-5966 (bursoen@auburn.edu) or IRB Chair Dr. Peter Grandjean at (334) 844-1462 (grandpw@auburn.edu) . HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED, YOU MUST DECIDE WHETHER OR NOT YOU WISH TO PARTICIPATE FULLY IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY. YOUR SIGNATURE BELOW INDICATES YOUR WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE THE STUDY LISTED ABOVE. _____________________________ ___________________________________ Participant's signature Date Investigator's signature Date _____________________________ ____________________________________ Print Name Print Name