THE PERCEPTIONS OF ALABAMA HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ON THE KEY  
 
COMPONENTS OF TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAMS 
 
 
 
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this 
dissertation is my own or was done in collaboration with my advisory committee. 
This dissertation does not include proprietary or classified information 
 
 
 
________________________________ 
Jason Lee Yohn 
 
 
Certificate of Approval: 
 
 
 
             
Cynthia J. Reed     James E. Witte, Chair  
Associate Professor     Associate Professor 
Educational Foundations, Leadership   Educational Foundations, Leadership 
and Technology     and Technology 
 
 
 
             
Anthony J. Guarino     Joe F. Pittman 
Associate Professor     Interim Dean 
Educational Foundations, Leadership   Graduate School 
and Technology 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE PERCEPTIONS OF ALABAMA HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ON THE KEY  
 
COMPONENTS OF TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM 
 
 
 
Jason Lee Yohn 
 
 
 
A Dissertation 
 
 
Submitted to 
 
 
the Graduate Faculty of 
 
 
Auburn University 
 
 
in Partial Fulfillment of the 
 
 
Degree of  
 
 
Doctor of Education 
 
 
 
 
Auburn, Alabama 
August 4, 2007 
 
 
 iii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE PERCEPTIONS OF ALABAMA HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ON THE KEY  
 
COMPONENTS OF TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAMS 
 
 
 
Jason Lee Yohn 
 
 
 
 
Permission is granted to Auburn University to make copies of this dissertation at its 
discretion, upon the request of individuals or institutions at their expense. The author 
reserves all publication rights. 
 
 
 
 
       
Signature of Author 
 
 
 
       
Date of Graduation 
 
 
 iv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
VITA 
 
 
Jason Lee Yohn, son of Charles Harry Yohn and the late Sally Ann (Green) Yohn, 
was born December 3, 1970, in Enterprise, Alabama. He graduated from Enterprise High 
School in 1989. He attended Enterprise State Junior College from 1989 to 1991 and then 
entered Auburn University in September, 1991, and graduated with a Bachelors of 
Science degree in Secondary Education (Comprehensive Social Science) in June, 1993. 
After working as a social studies teacher and coach for five years, he entered graduate 
school at Troy State University-Phenix City, in December, 1998, and graduated with a 
Masters of Science degree in Educational Administration in August, 1998. After working 
three additional years as a social studies teacher and coach, he became an Assistant 
Principal at W.F. Burns Middle School in Valley, Alabama, in July, 2001. In January, 
2002, he entered the Educational Specialist program at Troy State University-Phenix 
City. He graduated with an Educational Specialist degree in Educational Leadership in 
December, 2002. In July, 2004, he became an Assistant Principal at Valley High School 
in Valley, Alabama, and in August, 2004, he entered the Doctor of Education program at 
Auburn University. In May, 2005, he became Principal of Dadeville High School in 
Dadeville, Alabama. He married Katherine Wright, daughter of Ronald and Judy Wright, 
on June 29, 1996. 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
DISSERTATION ABSTRACT 
THE PERCEPTIONS OF ALABAMA HIGH SCHOOL PRINICPALS ON THE KEY 
COMPONENTS OF TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAMS 
 
Jason Lee Yohn 
Doctor of Education, August 4, 2007 
(Ed.S., Troy University-Phenix City, 2002) 
(M.S., Troy University-Phenix City, 1998) 
(B.S., Auburn University, 1993) 
 
 
125 Typed Pages 
 
 
Directed by Dr. James E. Witte 
 
 
The teaching profession is both challenging and rewarding. Demands for 
educational reform have become more prevalent since the turn of the century. There is 
great concern about the quality of teaching and retaining young professional educators. 
Induction programs for new teachers are paramount in regard to whether or not 
new teachers become career educators. School administrators are responsible for hiring 
the most qualified teachers and then providing them support throughout their individual 
growth processes. Induction programs vary depending on the needs of the respective 
school districts and/or individual schools. Individual teacher induction programs are 
similar in design.  
 
 vi 
 
Engaging in professional development and having a supportive administrative 
team in place are crucial to the success of new teacher induction programs. Retaining 
highly qualified teachers is a critical factor in establishing consistent opportunities for 
students to reach their academic potential in the classroom. School administrators are 
often faced with alarming statistics regarding the number of teachers that leave the field 
of education within the first three years. In Alabama, approximately 10 percent of all new 
teachers left teaching after one year following the 1999?2000 school year (PARCA, 
2001). Numerous studies have indicated that 40?50% of new teachers leave teaching 
within five years (Grissmer & Kirby, 1992, 1997; Hafner & Owings, 1991; Huling-
Austin, 1990; Ingersoll, 2000; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Kantrowitz & Wingert, 2000). 
It is extremely important for school leaders to assist local school districts by 
developing and implementing teacher induction programs. Participation in the induction 
process will enhance the opportunity for new teachers to survive the period of the time 
when attrition is most likely to occur. School administrators must work diligently to 
ensure that students are receiving the best opportunities to reach their full academic 
potential. 
 
 
 vii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 I would like to offer my sincere thanks to the members of my committee who 
supported me throughout this process. I am forever indebted to Dr. James Witte, Dr. 
Cynthia Reed, and Dr. Tony Guarino for their support in this process. Each of you were 
willing to answer technical questions and to deal with my impatience while writing this 
dissertation. Thank you for all of your help. 
 When I entered the doctoral program and was introduced to the cohort concept, I 
really didn?t know what to expect. Throughout this process, I have developed a great 
friendship with several of the cohort members, but I would like to especially thank 
Rachael McDaniel. I appreciate the friendship and the support you have provided me 
throughout this process.  
 Lastly, I owe the greatest amount of thanks to my wife, Kathy, and sons, Ellis and 
Emory. Kathy, thank you for your support and for being an outstanding mother and wife. 
I love you very much. Ellis, you were without daddy for many nights during this process. 
Emory, you were lucky because you came into our lives at the end of this process and did 
not miss much time with daddy. I pursued this dream for all of us. Now we can truly be a 
family and enjoy all that life has to offer. 
 
 viii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Style manual used: Publication Manual of the American Psychological    
Association, 5
th
 ed. (2001), Washington, DC.       
Computer software used: Microsoft Word 2003 and the Statistical Package for the  
Social Sciences (SPSS), version 13.0         
 
 ix 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
       Page 
 
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... xi    
 
I. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................           1 
 
 Background of the Problem ........................................................................... 1 
 Purpose of the Study ...................................................................................... 9 
 Research Questions........................................................................................ 9 
 Significance of the Study............................................................................... 10 
 Definition of Terms........................................................................................ 11 
 Limitations of the Study................................................................................. 12 
 Summary........................................................................................................ 13 
 
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................ 14 
 
 Introduction.................................................................................................... 14 
 History of Induction Programs....................................................................... 18 
 Teacher Recruitment and Retention............................................................... 24 
 Mentoring....................................................................................................... 32 
 Induction ........................................................................................................ 34 
 Effective Teaching......................................................................................... 39 
 Professional Development ............................................................................. 40 
 The Role of the Principal ............................................................................... 43 
 Summary........................................................................................................ 48 
 
III. METHODS .................................................................................................... 53 
 
 Introduction.................................................................................................... 53 
 Research Questions and Design..................................................................... 53 
 Instrument ...................................................................................................... 54 
 
  Data Gathering................................................................................... 55 
  Reliability and Validity...................................................................... 55 
 
 Procedures...................................................................................................... 56 
 Data Analysis................................................................................................. 58 
 
 x 
 
 Summary........................................................................................................ 59 
 
IV. RESULTS ...................................................................................................... 61 
 
 Overview........................................................................................................ 61 
 Respondents ................................................................................................... 62 
 Results............................................................................................................ 67 
 Discussion...................................................................................................... 69 
 
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS................. 72 
 
 Introduction.................................................................................................... 72 
 Restatement of Study Procedures .................................................................. 73 
 Interpretations and Conclusions..................................................................... 76 
 Discussion of Conclusions............................................................................. 78 
 Recommendations for Further Research........................................................ 79 
 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 81 
 
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 83 
 
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 103 
 
 Appendix A: Permission to Use Survey from Dr. Jean Flanagan-Joest...... 104 
 Appendix B: Research Protocol Review Form ........................................... 106 
 Appendix C: Information Sheet................................................................... 108 
 Appendix D: Survey Instrument.................................................................. 111 
 
 
 xi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
 
 
 
Table 1. Participant Characteristics (Gender)........................................................ 63 
 
Table 2. Participant Characteristics (Age) ............................................................. 63 
 
Table 3. Participant Characteristics (Highest Degree)........................................... 64 
 
Table 4.  Participant Characteristics (Ethnicity) ..................................................... 64 
 
Table 5. School Size............................................................................................... 65 
 
Table 6. Participant Characteristics (Experience).................................................. 65 
 
Table 7. Examination of Central Tendency ........................................................... 66 
 
Table 8. MANOVAs.............................................................................................. 67 
 
Table 9. Pearson?s Correlation Results.................................................................. 68 
 
Table 10. Descriptive Statistics of Respondents? Ratings 
 of Program Effectiveness......................................................................... 69 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
I. INTRODUCTION 
 
Background of the Problem 
The comprehensive process used to train, support, and retain teachers is referred 
to as induction (Wong, 2004). Stephens and Moskowitz (1997) see induction programs as 
a way to ease the transition for pre-service teachers as they enter their individual 
classrooms and then help the teachers develop professionally in order to retain them in 
the teaching profession. An intent of induction programs is to turn new teachers into 
teachers of students instead of a student of a teacher (Stephens & Moskowitz, 1997). 
Schlechty (1985) feels that all new teachers hired are expected to survive the induction 
process and become career teachers. Castetter (1996) defines induction as ?a systematic 
organizational effort to assist personnel to adjust readily and effectively to new 
assignments so that they can contribute maximally to the work of the system while 
realizing personal and position satisfaction? (p. 182).  
The induction process should be one that fully informs the new teacher about the 
community they serve, existing relationships within the school, and overall characteristics 
of the system (Castetter, 1996). Induction programs can be paramount to the success of 
new teachers. A beginning teacher can be classified in one of two categories: a person 
recently completing college or someone who has been out of the field for several years 
and is returning to teaching (Ganser, 1996). Typically, a beginning teacher enters into the 
 
 2 
 
profession with a great deal of enthusiasm, but quickly realizes that reality is not a perfect 
situation. Each new teacher will have his or her own set of needs to be addressed. 
Teacher induction programs serve as a process for providing opportunities for new 
teachers to grow and develop throughout the duration of their personal development 
(Wilkinson, 1994).  
 Educators, researchers, and policy makers, in 1982, began referring to the first 
three years of teaching as the induction years (Odell et al., 2000). Odell et al. (2000) 
identified the induction years as the missing piece in the teacher development process. In 
1984, Veenman indicated that pre-service and in-service programs for new teachers could 
be improved if the problems beginning teachers faced were openly discussed. According 
to Brooks (1987), a national commission on current induction practices was created by 
the Association of Teacher Educators. This commission drafted formal recommendations 
that aided in the pursuit of quality teachers: 
1. Induction programs are necessary in every school district to assist 
beginning teachers in making a transition from novice to experienced 
professional. 
2. Induction programs must be based on the needs of the individuals as they 
adjust to their particular professional context. 
3. The experienced professionals who serve as sources of help to beginning 
teachers should receive training and support to facilitate their assistance, 
including reduced teaching loads. 
 
 3 
 
4. Support personnel should be concerned with the professional development 
of individual beginning teachers and be separated from the evaluation role 
of a district. 
5. The training of teachers should be recognized as an on-going educational 
process from pre-service to retirement requiring cooperative financial and 
programmatic support from all involved including the local district, higher 
education, and the state departments of education. (Brooks, 1987, p. v) 
The development of new teachers could be enhanced if troubling areas are 
identified and proper support provided to them (Odell, 1987). It is the belief of many 
veteran educators that the best way to improve the quality of teaching in classrooms is to 
have district-level induction programs (Kester & Marockie, 1987). ?The bottom line 
purposes of most induction programs are to develop better beginning teachers and to 
retain those promising beginning teachers who without an induction program might get 
discouraged and abandon the profession? (Huling-Austin, 1987, p. 7). ?Learning to teach 
is a lifelong process. Successful teachers grow in effectiveness throughout their 
professional careers as they gradually hone their style and strategies through trial and 
error, reflection, and critical inquiry? (Jonson, 2002, p. 213). Feiman-Nemser et al. 
(2001) see the ultimate goal of induction programs to be the training of teachers to help 
students learn in complex ways.  
 Any new teacher induction program should be developed to meet the needs of the 
school district or a particular school (Heidkamp & Shapiro, 1999). A framework for 
adequate support programs should recognize the struggles a new teacher may face in 
order to create a more positive experience during the first year of teaching (Moir, 1999). 
 
 4 
 
Previous research indicates that successful induction programs have four components: 
teaching standards, mentoring, reflective teaching practices, and formative assessment 
strategies (Wood, 1999).  
 Tried and true practices need to be integrated with new approaches for induction 
programs to become more effective (Villani, 2002). Kochan (2000) set forth guidelines 
for the professional development aspect of induction programs: 
? Focus professional development on issues of teaching and learning. 
? Model the practices that are being recommended. 
? Provide opportunities for teachers to apply their newly learned skills and 
knowledge to their practice. 
? Ensure that the learning environment for teachers is safe, allowing for failures 
as well as success. 
? Use adult learning principles in creating professional development activities 
by recognizing that adults: 
? have many roles, responsibilities and pressures on them,  
? are motivated to learn when the learning serves a purpose they view as 
important. 
? bring many diverse experiences to the learning task, and 
? want to have control over their own learning. 
? Establish and use networking and support systems both during and after 
professional development activities are being conducted (p. 67) 
Mentoring is a key component in the induction process because it is a powerful 
and cost-effective element in induction programs (Recruiting New Teachers, 2000). 
 
 5 
 
Reform movements in the early 1980?s enabled mentoring programs to help improve 
education (Feiman-Nemser, 1996; Mutchler, Pan, Glover & Shapely, 2000). Harry Wong 
(2004), a nationally known expert, states, ?mentoring is what a mentor does.? ?Mentoring 
is the complex and developmental process which mentors use to support and guide their 
prot?g? through necessary early career transitions which are a part of the learning how to 
be an effective, reflective educator and career-long learner? (Sweeney, 2001, p. 1). Little 
(1990) and Darling-Hammond (2003) state that providing a new teacher with support and 
consultation will help their attitudes, feelings of efficacy, and instructional skills in the 
profession. 
According to Gehrke (1998), the definition of mentoring should capture ?the 
giving and receiving, the awakening and the labor of gratitude? (p. 194). Dornan (1999) 
suggests that ?new teachers need to be involved in a mentoring program that allows them 
to work very closely with an experienced teacher who will help guide them through day-
to-day operations of a classroom teacher? (p. 5). Developing mentor/prot?g? relationships 
between new and veteran teachers should be an integral part of a professional 
development plan.  
 Comprehensive mentoring programs should have the following components: a 
sound hiring process; pre-service programs that provide necessary information and active 
participation; a support network, including ongoing dialogue; an ongoing mentoring or 
coaching program; an evaluation plan that promotes growth; and a professional 
development program that supports new teachers (London, 2003). In successful 
mentoring programs, trained mentors provide professional support and the process itself 
has strong administrative support (Brunson, 2004). 
 
 6 
 
 There are several factors that will enhance a new teacher?s ability to interact 
effectively within a school. New teachers must fulfill some of the most basic human 
needs: emotional stability, growth, and socialization (Maslow, 1954). Teaching is an 
extremely emotional practice (Hargreaves, 1998). Many teachers enter the teaching 
profession with many ideas and strategies, but sometimes are overwhelmed by the sheer 
responsibility of the job, which results in limited professional development opportunities 
after the first year of teaching (Howey & Bents, 1979; Shulman & Colbert, 1988). New 
teachers may fail to develop and will not be as effective as classroom teachers without 
the stimulation of professional growth. Many will quit after their first year of teaching 
(Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 1995).  
 A collegial relationship with a mentor teacher and the administration may help 
new teachers conquer many of the problems they face in the initial stages of their careers. 
One of the most common expectations of a new teacher is emotional support from a 
fellow teacher, a mentor (Tickle, 1991). High levels of support from mentors may help 
the new teacher reach higher levels of competence than those with little or no support 
(Fischer, Bullock, Rotenburg, & Raya, 1993). It is critical for relationships to be formed 
with colleagues, parents, and students (Hargreaves, 1998; Pianta, 1997, 1999).  
The relationship between the new teacher and the principal is also key to new 
teachers becoming successful. Brock and Grady (1998) indicate that new teachers wish to 
develop and maintain a relationship with the principal. Veenman (1984) has indicated 
several areas that new teachers are concerned with: discipline, assessment, teaching 
methods, parent and student relationships, motivation, and individual differences. 
Rosenholz (1989) declares that one of the key factors in helping new teachers interact 
 
 7 
 
with an existing faculty is the mentor relationship. New teachers need mentors to share 
their experiences, provide suggestions, communicate, and help them grow professionally. 
This relationship should provide the new teacher with feedback and affirmation of their 
progress (Brock & Grady, 1998). Many states and local districts have developed 
programs to help support new teachers (Archer, 1999; Cooperman, 2000). Schools and 
districts have been advised by policy analysts to professionalize teaching in order to 
improve retention (Holmes Group, 1986; Kanstorom & Finn, 1999; National Commission 
on Teaching and America?s Future [NCTAF], 1996, 1997). 
There are several barriers that limit new teacher effectiveness. Managing the 
induction programs is often problematic in large schools and districts. An induction 
program is most effective when the entire school community embraces the idea of 
induction. Large schools make this concept nearly impossible to achieve. Large school 
districts frequently hire more teachers each year than they can effectively mentor. Some 
researchers have suggested it would be more effective for the district to create smaller 
satellite programs (Joftus & Maddox-Dolan, 2000). New teachers are often assigned to 
classes they cannot effectively teach. Many schools make teaching assignments on the 
basis of seniority. Heavier course loads often are given to the new teachers (Joftus & 
Maddox-Dolan, 2000). Finally, induction programs do not adequately support non-
credentialed teachers. Most of the support goes to fully certified teachers. The need to 
make emergency hires from candidates that do not possess certification, along with lack 
of support, causes the educational system to lose many potentially strong teachers (Joftus 
& Maddox-Dolan, 2000).  
 
 8 
 
Educational leaders should have expectations of the induction process as well. 
Principals want teachers to possess a strong work ethic, care for their students, know their 
subject matter, communicate effectively, and have sound classroom management 
practices (Brock & Grady, 1998). These traits equate to high-level expectations, but good 
educational leaders realize all of these traits will not be achieved without a supportive 
climate within a school. Continuous administrative support may increase the level of 
competence within new teachers (Clift, 1991; Fischer et al., 1993; Katz, 1999). Quality 
professional development opportunities and incentives may help retain teachers in the 
profession (Hargreaves, 1998). If a lack of support exists between educational leaders and 
new teachers, then it is likely that more teachers will leave the profession (Buchmann, 
1990; Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 1998). 
 The retention rates of new teachers can be directly related to the amount of 
administrative support a new teacher receives. According to Billingsley and Cross 
(1992), Cole (1990), and Rosenholtz (1989), this support can be communicated in the 
following ways: providing continuous feedback and evaluation, demonstrating consistent 
beliefs and practices, operating procedures, and establishing a collegial support system. 
There is also need for support in the emotional and relational areas of a teacher?s 
development (Hargreaves, 1998). Educational leaders are critical in the development of 
new teachers and should realize their role, and provide support and direction that 
addresses a new teacher?s multiple needs (Brock & Grady, 1998; Sergiovanni, 1995). 
The task of finding highly qualified teachers to fill a multitude of open positions 
is becoming more difficult for school administrators (Ingersoll, 2000). In Alabama, 
approximately 10 percent of all new teachers left teaching after one year following the 
 
 9 
 
1999-2000 school year (PARCA, 2001). Teacher retirements and student enrollment have 
increased significantly since 1984 (Snyder, Hoffman, & Geddes, 1997).  
Retaining teachers in the teaching profession is a critical area for school 
administrators. Ingersoll (2000) believes the teacher shortage will get worse before it gets 
better. Retaining teachers may be more difficult than recruiting teachers to a school 
district. Retention is the key to helping solve the problem of teacher supply and demand 
(Ingersoll, 2000). The high annual turnover rate along with the large size of the teaching 
force creates a consistent flow into, between, and out of school districts each year 
(Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). A professional dilemma for school leaders now exists: 
increasing demand and decreasing numbers of qualified candidates. 
 
Purpose of the Study 
 Many issues need to be addressed when looking to develop quality induction 
programs in an attempt to improve retention rates among new teachers. The roles of 
several individuals need to be closely examined: the mentor, the prot?g? (new teacher), 
and the principal. The results of this study provide a review of the key components of a 
teacher induction program. 
 
Research Questions 
 The following research questions were investigated in this study: 
1. What is the influence of the length of the induction program in relation to the 
following: 
 
 10 
 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
2. What is the influence of school size in relation to the following: 
 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
 
Significance of the Study 
 The existing literature on teacher retention and the role induction programs play 
in ensuring that new teachers remain in the profession identifies the difficulties of 
transitioning into teaching. The need for quality induction programs is apparent. School 
principals serve many roles and leading teachers in an instructional capacity is a primary 
responsibility. Mentoring is a key component in induction programs and assigning new 
teachers a mentor can help the principal provide much needed instructional leadership to 
the new teachers. Practical advice on how to provide assistance to help new teachers meet 
the challenges of the profession is addressed in the current literature. 
 
 11 
 
 New teachers must be indoctrinated into the culture of the school community and 
the communities they serve. New teachers generally do not know much about the history 
or traditions of their new school. It is the responsibility of the principal and veteran 
teachers on the faculty to help new teachers become successful. The results of this study 
should assist principals and leaders at the district level to develop or revamp their 
induction programs to help ease the transition of new teachers into the general school 
setting.  
 
Definition of Terms 
 The following terms have been defined for this study: 
Induction: The comprehensive process used to train, support, and retain teachers. 
Mentor : Individuals who play a significant role in offering guidance and 
assistance to beginning teachers. 
Mentoring: The complex, developmental process which mentors use to support 
and guide their prot?g? through necessary early career transitions which are a part of the 
learning how to be an effective, reflective professional and a career-long learner. 
New Teacher: A teacher with less than three years experience in the classroom.  
Professional Development: Organized activities designed to improve one?s skill 
level. 
Prot?g?: A teacher who receives professional support from a mentor teacher. 
 
 12 
 
Successful Induction Program: A program that leads to increased teacher 
retention and/or to the development of effective skills and positive attitudes toward 
teaching. 
Teacher Attrition: Teacher turnover due to the decision to leave the teaching 
profession.  
Teacher Retention: The ability of school districts to maintain a stable teaching 
force.  
Veteran Teacher: A teacher completing more than three years in the classroom 
and choosing to remain in the field.  
 
Limitations of the Study 
 The following limitations are noted for this study: 
1. The study was limited to high school principals in Alabama. 
2. The study was limited to addressing only induction programs for teachers. 
3. The study was limited to assessing the perceptions of high school 
principals in Alabama serving grades 9-12 or 10-12. 
4. The researcher assumed that the respondents gave honest answers when 
completing the survey questions. 
5. The researcher assumed that new teachers have less than three years of 
experience in a classroom teaching environment. 
6. The researcher assumed that high school principals use some form of an 
induction program in an effort to increase teacher retention in their school. 
 
 13 
 
Summary 
 Induction programs are necessary to ensure that new teachers have every possible 
opportunity to receive the support they need to become career teachers. Teacher 
induction programs should be designed to meet the needs of new teachers. School leaders 
should gather information that allows them to successfully support new teachers. It is 
imperative that school principals improve the support provided to new teachers by 
structuring supervision and professional development activities that enable new teachers 
to become career professionals. 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 
 
Introduction 
 Academic achievement is at the center of the educational process. Due to the No 
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, academic requirements and accountability are beginning 
to increase in every state. The teacher is the most important resource in the classroom 
today. Quality teaching is an important factor in student achievement (U.S. Department 
of Education, 1999). Student success in increasing academic achievement will not occur 
without a competent and caring professional teacher in the classroom (U.S. Department 
of Education, 1999). The residual effects of effective and ineffective teachers will be 
evident two years later (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Darling-Hammond?s 
?research and personal experience tell her that the single most important determinant of 
success for a student is the knowledge and skills of that child?s teachers? (Goldberg, 
2001, p. 69). It is vitally important to retain competent teachers in instructional settings to 
meet today?s reform efforts. Professional development at the pre-service and in-service 
levels must be designed to equip all teachers to meet the escalating expectations in our 
profession.  
 Staffing our schools with the best teachers available gives schools the best 
opportunity to meet the requirements of leaving no child behind (U.S. Department of 
Education, 2000). Darling-Hammond (2003) indicated that there are more quality 
 
 15 
 
teachers available than are actually hired by school districts. Richard Riley (1998), 
former U.S. Secretary of Education, stated, ?Never has our nation been confronted with 
the task of teaching so much to so many while reaching for new standards? (p. 8). 
Anderson (2001) indicates that teachers experience different emotions such as: anger, 
happiness, boredom, frustration, gratitude, fear, impatience, pride, and exhaustion at any 
given time because teaching is a personally and professionally demanding profession. 
Culver, Wolfle, and Cross (1990) rank teaching as one of the top two professions with the 
most job-related stress. The demand for new teachers can be attributed to teachers leaving 
the profession at a much higher rate than other professionals (Ingersoll, 1999). Villani 
(2002) feels that new teachers must adapt quickly because their students will be counting 
on them as soon as the school year begins.  
 ?Teaching is a highly complex series of acts. It is not learned easily. Further, it 
cannot be done by formula or recipe? (Kronowitz, 1996, p. 3). Feiman-Nemser and 
Remillard (1995) indicate that new teachers have two jobs: teach and learn how to teach. 
?For the first time, novice teachers are fully responsible for blending the insights learned 
from their own educational experiences and the pedagogical theory gleaned from teacher 
education programs with the reality of inspiring and managing the learning of their 
students on a day-to-day basis? (Moir & Gless, 2001, p. 111). When beginning teachers 
fail, everyone loses (Brock & Grady, 1997, 2000). The assumption that all new teachers 
are ready to teach when they arrive on campus encourages the abandonment of new 
teachers (Bullough, 1989). Feiman-Nemser (2003) feels that to accomplish the task of 
assisting new teachers to transition from student teacher to professional teacher we must 
surround the new teachers in a professional culture that supports teacher learning. 
 
 16 
 
 Beginning teachers are at different stages when they begin their careers. Induction 
programs must approach supporting new teachers as a process in personal growth and 
development. These induction programs must be available to new teachers throughout 
their developmental process (Wilkinson, 1994). Experienced educators need to 
understand that novice teachers go through several phases during their first year in the 
profession (Moir, 1999). The five stages are as follows: 
 Stage 1: Anticipation. New teachers are extremely excited and a bit anxious about 
the beginning of their career. Many times, new teachers have a romantic view of 
their chosen profession. 
 Stage 2: Survival. New teachers become consumed and overwhelmed with their 
responsibilities on a daily basis. The new teachers have a difficult time managing 
all that is expected of them (Moir, 1999). Stress on the job becomes part of reality 
for new teachers (Dollase, 1992). 
 Stage 3: Disillusionment. New teachers in this stage many times experience low 
morale and disenchantment with their job (Moir, 1999). A new teacher?s stress 
level increases as a result of planning lessons, formal evaluations, parent 
conferences, and classroom management issues. A new teacher?s successful 
transition through this stage may be their toughest challenge throughout their first 
year of teaching (Moir, 1999). 
 Stage 4: Rejuvenation. Many teachers experience this stage about the midpoint of 
their first year of teaching. A new teacher can sense some accomplishment for 
pressing through the initial tough times during the first year and they can see the 
 
 17 
 
end of the year as a goal to reach. Many new teachers are able to focus more on 
planning and instruction during this stage (Moir, 1999). 
 Stage 5: Reflection. The new teacher can look back at their experiences during the 
first year and make appropriate adjustments for year two that will give them a 
better grasp of what it takes to be a teacher (Moir, 1999). 
 The new teacher may experience many highs and lows during the first year as a 
teacher. These experiences will greatly determine their effectiveness, behaviors, and 
attitudes that may last their entire career (Brock & Grady, 1997, 2001). Feiman-Nemser 
(2003) indicates that new teachers may become overwhelmed if they are left to survive 
on their own, without the support of an induction program and a mentor. Many new 
teachers quit after one year because they view themselves as failures (Brock & Grady, 
1997, 2000). 
 DePaul (1997) reports that many new teachers are assigned the most challenging 
students and multiple preparations. Many new teachers are assigned to teach courses out 
of their field of expertise (Bolich, 2001). A new teacher can enhance their personal 
satisfaction with teaching if they are assigned more manageable classes (Tshannen-
Moran et al., 1998). A study conducted by the U.S. Department of Education (2000) 
supports DePaul?s and Bolich?s assertion that new teachers are given the most difficult 
situations in which to succeed. This practice is referred to as environmental difficulties 
(Gordon & Maxey, 2000). Gordon and Maxey (2000) listed six (6) environmental 
difficulties experienced by new teachers:  
1. Reality shock 
2. Inadequate resources 
 
 18 
 
3. Role conflict 
4. Unclear expectations 
5. Difficult work assignments 
6. Isolation 
The need for teacher induction programs is well established. Many new teachers 
experience the same feelings as the following teacher reflected: 
Ugh! Paperwork was to become the bane of my existence. It never ends. If I was 
not planning lessons, I was grading papers, I was correcting homework; if I was 
not correcting homework, I was taking notes and reading up on my subject; if I 
was not reading up, I was running off copies; if I was not running off copies, I 
was filling out forms requested by guidance, the department, the administration, 
or the students; if I was not filling out forms, I was reading memos that were left 
in my mailbox by the truckload; if I was not reading memos, I was working on 
bulletin boards. If I was doing none of the above, I was feeling guilty. If there is 
one thing about teaching, it is a lot of work. Making sure I was organized and 
timely performing the necessary tasks was vital to my teaching. (O?Bryan, 1992, 
p. 2) 
 
History of Induction Programs 
 Educators, researchers, and policy makers, in 1982, began referring to the first 
three years of teaching as the induction years (Odell et al., 2000). Odell et al. (2000) 
identified the induction years as the missing piece in the teacher development process. 
School districts, since the 1980?s, have begun to implement teacher induction programs 
 
 19 
 
to effectively recruit and retain highly effective teachers (Odell et al., 2000). In 1984, 
Veenman indicated that pre-service and in-service programs for new teachers could be 
improved if the problems beginning teachers faced were openly discussed. The first years 
of teaching are critical to the new teacher?s development as a professional. Little (1990) 
and Mills, Moore, and Keane (2001) expressed concerns about retaining new teachers 
during the first three years in the profession. According to Brooks (1987), a national 
commission on current induction practices was created by the Association of Teacher 
Educators. This commission drafted formal recommendations that aided in the induction 
process of quality teachers: 
1. Induction programs are necessary in every school district to assist 
beginning teachers in making a transition from novice to experienced 
professional. 
2. Induction programs must be based on the needs of the individuals as they 
adjust to their particular professional context. 
3. The experienced professionals who serve as sources of help to beginning 
teachers should receive training and support to facilitate their assistance, 
including reduced teaching loads. 
4. Support personnel should be concerned with the professional development 
of Individual beginning teachers and be separated from the evaluation role 
of a district. 
5. The training of teachers should be recognized as an on-going educational 
process from pre-service to retirement requiring cooperative financial and 
 
 20 
 
programmatic support from all involved including the local district, higher 
education, and the state departments of education. (Brooks, 1987, p. v) 
 Several factors have contributed to the planning and implementation of teacher 
induction programs in the United States. During the first year of teaching, teachers 
experience reality shock or transition shock (Veenman, 1984). Marso and Pigge (1992) 
indicate that reality shock is caused by new teachers having unrealistic expectations prior 
to having real job experiences. Reality shock can be defined as the collapse of ideals that 
are normally formed by new teachers while in college (Marso & Pigge, 1992). A 
teacher?s classroom life is quite different than their life as a student in a teacher education 
program (Veenman, 1984). Many factors contribute to new teachers experiencing a 
difficult transition to the classroom: lack of interaction with colleagues, managing 
professional responsibilities, and inadequate pre-service training (Veenman, 1984).  
?The bottom line purposes of most induction programs are to develop better 
beginning teachers and to retain those promising beginning teachers who without an 
induction program might get discouraged and abandon the profession? (Huling-Austin, 
1987, p. 7). ?Learning to teach is a lifelong process. Successful teachers grow in 
effectiveness throughout their professional careers as they gradually hone their style and 
strategies through trial and error, reflection, and critical inquiry? (Jonson, 2002, p. 213). 
Feiman-Nemser et al., (2001) sees the ultimate goal of induction programs to be the 
training of teachers to help students learn in complex ways. 
 New teacher induction programs had to borrow induction techniques of non-
teaching professions, such as law and medicine (Burbules & Densmore, 1991). Burubles 
and Densmore (1991) listed necessary characteristics of traditional induction programs: 
 
 21 
 
1. Professional autonomy 
2. A clearly defined, highly developed, specialized, and theoretical 
knowledge base 
3. Control of training, certification, and licensing of new entrants to the 
profession 
4. Self-governing and self-policing authority 
5. Commitment to public service. 
Teaching when examined through a perceptual lens many times lacks the criteria 
necessary to effectively consider teaching as an actual profession. The teaching 
profession lacks the clear presence of collegiality, an adequate amount of autonomy, and 
self-governance (Levine, 1988). Levine (1988) argued that teaching must have a 
?structured induction experience conducted under the supervision of outstanding 
practitioners who can and will attest to the competence of new inductees to practice to 
become a self-governing profession? (p. 2).  
 A high-priority of needs was established for new teachers by Gordon and Maxey 
(2000): 
? Managing the classroom 
? Acquiring information about the school system 
? Obtaining instructional resources and materials 
? Planning, organizing, and managing instruction, as well as other 
professional responsibilities 
? Assessing students and evaluating student progress 
? Motivating students  
 
 22 
 
? Using effective teaching methods 
? Dealing with individual students? needs, interests, abilities, and problems 
? Communicating with colleagues, including administrators, supervisors, 
and other teachers 
? Communicating with parents 
? Adjusting to the teaching environment and role  
? Receiving emotional support (p. 6) 
Any new teacher induction program should be developed to meet the needs of the 
school district or a particular school (Heidkamp & Shapiro, 1999). A framework for 
adequate support programs should recognize the struggles a new teacher may face in 
order to create a more positive experience during the first year of teaching (Moir, 1999). 
Previous research indicates that successful induction programs have four components: 
teaching standards, mentoring, reflective teaching practices, and formative assessment 
strategies (Wood, 1999).  
 In 1968, the National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) 
conducted a three-year experimental demonstration project aimed at surveying the 
positions of leading professionals in regards to induction programs (Ishler & Kester, 
1987). This study was the only project on induction initiated by a major professional 
organization until 1985 (Ishler & Kester, 1987). 
Ishler and Kester (1987) reported that the Association of Teacher Educators 
initiated a study on current induction practices in 1985. National studies, such as A 
Nation at Risk (1983, 1984) brought the focus of induction into prominence (Ishler & 
Kester, 1987). The development of new teachers could be enhanced if troubling areas are 
 
 23 
 
identified and proper support provided to them (Odell, 1987). As of 1985, only 10 states 
had statewide induction programs, while six states were in the process of piloting 
programs and several other states were in the planning stages (Hawk & Robards, 1987). It 
is the belief of many veteran educators that the best way to improve the quality of 
teaching in classrooms is to have district-level induction programs (Kester & Marockie, 
1987).  
Texas, in 1999-2000, implemented the Texas Beginning Educator Support System 
(TxBESS). The program was funded by a three-year grant and was designed to provide 
support to new teachers from their teacher preparation programs all the way to their 
individual classrooms. This program provided stipends for mentor teachers, opportunities 
for professional growth for the teachers and their teams, and training for support team 
members (Texas State Board of Educator Certification, 2001). More than 30 states had 
reported some form of mandated mentoring support for beginning teachers (Portner, 
1998). 
 In the United States, teacher induction programs have historically been based on 
two main principles: assist and assess (French, 2000). Guidance, feedback, and emotional 
or professional support are terms that characterize assistance. The monitoring and 
evaluation of beginning teachers describes assessment (French 2000). The models 
prescribing to the principles of assistance and assessment have been widely criticized 
because the reflective teacher was discouraged and the professional development 
component was left out of the induction program (French, 2000). According to Stephens 
and Moskowitz (1997), less than fifty percent of all new teachers were offered more than 
a brief orientation as part of their induction program.  
 
 24 
 
Teacher Recruitment and Retention 
The task of finding highly qualified teachers to fill a multitude of open positions 
is becoming more difficult for school administrators (Ingersoll, 2000). In Alabama, 
approximately 10 percent of all new teachers left teaching after one year, following the 
1999?2000 school year (PARCA, 2001). There are generally two broad approaches taken 
to recruit and retain better teachers: increasing teacher salaries and providing adequate 
support systems for new teachers (Halford, 1998). Teacher retirements and student 
enrollment have increased significantly since 1984 (Snyder, Hoffman, & Geddes, 1997). 
?Well-crafted induction programs can improve teaching quality, help staunch the flow of 
novice teachers from the profession, and, in doing so, decrease the overall cost of 
recruiting, preparing, and developing teachers? (Humphrey et al., 2000, p. 1). 
There was a teacher shortage of approximately 4,000 teachers in the United States 
in 1983 (Huling-Austin, 1987). Schlechty and Vance (1983) found that many teachers left 
the profession within the first seven years. A reform movement in education began in 
1983, when T.H. Bell, United States Secretary of Education, published A Nation at Risk. 
Bell claimed American students were not studying the right subjects or working hard 
enough. A major finding from the Nation At Risk report indicated teacher shortages 
existed in areas such as special education, math, foreign languages, and science (Gardner 
& Silvernail, 2000; National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). 
There are several pieces of legislation that include teacher quality, teacher 
recruitment, and teacher retention, but none of them address the issue of why fewer 
individuals are entering into the teaching force (Grissmer & Kirby, 1992, 1997; Hafner & 
Owings, 1991; Huling-Austin, 1990; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Kantrowitz & Wingert, 
 
 25 
 
2000). School leaders are now being challenged to find new ways to retain new teachers 
because Stephens and Moskowitz (1997) reported that attrition rates are five times higher 
for new teachers than experienced educators. Numerous studies have indicated that 40-
50% of new teachers leave teaching within five years (Grissmer & Kirby, 1992, 1997; 
Hafner & Owings, 1991; Huling-Austin, 1990; Ingersoll, 2000; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; 
Kantrowitz & Wingert, 2000). 
Retaining teachers in the teaching profession is a critical area for school 
administrators. It has been estimated that approximately 50% of beginning teachers leave 
the profession after teaching seven years or less (Head, Reiman, & Theis-Sprinthall, 
1992). Many of the teachers choosing to leave the profession seem to be the best, 
brightest, and most qualified teachers (Colbert & Wolf, 1992; Darling-Hammond, 1984; 
Head, Reiman, & Theis-Sprinthall, 1992; Schlechty & Vance, 1983). Ingersoll (2000) 
speculated that the teacher shortage will get worse before it gets better, further stating 
that retaining teachers may be more difficult than recruiting teachers to a school district. 
Retention is the key to helping solve the problem of teacher supply and demand 
(Ingersoll, 2000).  
The high annual turnover rate, along with the large size of the teaching force 
creates a consistent flow into, between, and out of school districts each year (Ingersoll & 
Smith, 2003). Huling-Austin (1987) wrote: ?If a profession is to remain viable and 
strong, it must be able to not only attract promising candidates to its ranks, it must also 
retain significant numbers of its most talented members? (p. 9). A professional dilemma 
for school leaders now exists: increasing demand and decreasing qualified candidates. 
The American Association for Employment in Education (1998) found the largest 
 
 26 
 
teaching shortages in bilingual and special education, computer science, math, science, 
English as a Second Language (ESL), and foreign language (Gardner & Silvernail, 2000). 
Several reasons exist that may explain the teacher shortage: many veteran 
teachers are retiring, teacher attrition, and few viable candidates entering the profession 
(Allen, 2000; Huling-Austin, 1987). Chaika (2000) contributes the following as 
additional factors relating to the teacher shortage: teachers hired on emergency 
certificates, an increase in student enrollment, and a lack of consistency among 
institutions of higher learning in reference to teacher training. 
The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is widely considered as the 
best source of information on teaching and teaching conditions. The NCES (1996) 
confirmed the high rate of teacher retention. The following statistics were provided by the 
NCES: 11% of beginning teachers left the profession after one year; 10% of beginning 
teachers left after two years; 29% of all new teachers left the profession after three years 
(Ingersoll, 2000). 
The National Commission on Teaching and America?s Future (2002) reports 
several barriers to educational reform efforts aimed at increasing teacher retention: 
1. Inadequate pre-service teacher education programs 
2. Poor support structures for new teachers 
3. Ineffective teacher recruitment activities and unclear hiring practices 
4. Inconsistent standards for teachers 
5. Little opportunity for significant job-embedded professional development. 
 Several strategies exist for ensuring effective teaching and increasing the 
opportunity for long-term teacher retention:  
 
 27 
 
1. Colleges and universities should improve pre-service teacher education 
programs 
2. School districts/schools should implement strong support structures for all 
new teachers 
3. Students should be expected to perform at a high level of achievement 
4. The needs of all students should be addressed 
5. Teachers should have adequate knowledge in their teaching area 
6. Teachers should focus on improving their performance and increasing 
student achievement  
7. Hold schools accountable for teaching and learning 
8. School districts/schools should support lifelong learning opportunities for 
teachers (Allen, 2000). 
 A large demand and a shrinking supply of quality teachers have leaders looking 
for solutions to the teacher shortage problem. Gerald and Husser (2000), Ingersoll and 
Smith (2003), Johnson (2001), and NCES (1997) predict that approximately 2.2 million 
teachers will be needed in the next ten years due to retirement, attrition, increased 
enrollment, and mandates by state and national agencies to lower class sizes. The U.S. 
Department of Education (1999) predicts that over half of the new teachers will be first-
time teachers. Enrollment in elementary schools is expected to rise by 17% and in high 
schools by 26% by 2008 (NCES, 1995). Goodnough (2000) expects the proportion of 
teachers who retire each year to rise. As experienced teachers retire, they are replaced by 
young, inexperienced teachers, whose attrition rates are higher than veteran teachers 
(Archer, 1999; Grissmer & Kirby, 1997). Ingersoll (1999) indicates the real issue is with 
 
 28 
 
retention, not a shortage of qualified teachers. Some areas may face critical issues in 
attracting teachers, which supports the need for induction programs that will support new 
teacher retention. 
A study conducted by the U.S. Department of Education (1999) produced data 
showing approximately 30% of new teachers leave the profession in the first three years. 
The areas hit the hardest by these shortages are: 
1. Minority teachers 
2. Teaching areas in difficult to staff areas such as: special education, 
science, foreign languages, and mathematics  
3. Communities with high levels of poverty 
4. Areas where the communities are experiencing a rapid increase in the 
number of students enrolling in their schools. 
According to Allen (2000), the impacts of a teacher shortage include: 
1. The overall quality of the teacher workforce is compromised 
2. The disparity between rich and poor schools becomes greater 
3. Poor school district have a more difficult time recruiting and hiring new 
teachers 
4. Staffing urban and rural schools becomes more of a problem 
The new teachers with the most talent are the ones most likely to leave the profession 
(Halford, 1998; Schlechty & Vance, 1983). Teaching sometimes resembles a revolving 
door because approximately 90% of all new hires are replacements (Ingersoll, 2001). It is 
ironic that the United States produces two times as many new teachers each year than 
actually begin teaching careers (Darling-Hammond, 1998a). With all of the extra pressure 
 
 29 
 
placed on new teachers, it should be no surprise that teacher attrition exists because the 
teachers look for more lucrative jobs in a less stressful environment (DePaul, 1997). 
Ensuring that quality teachers remain in the classroom is a challenge educational leaders 
are facing while planning for the future. Weiss and Weiss (1999) report that many first 
year teachers are offered little or no support and few opportunities for professional 
development. There is no time for discussion with colleagues about problems they are 
facing (DePaul, 1997). The reasons teachers leave the profession must be addressed while 
identifying effective practices to influence teacher retention. Enacting progressive 
recruiting approaches is not the only solution to the teacher shortage, but developing new 
teacher induction programs that are designed to support the development of new teachers 
is imperative to retaining new teachers (Johnson et al., 2001). 
Many new teacher induction programs may have the following outcomes: 
1. An increase in student achievement 
2. Fewer teachers leaving the profession 
3. More cost efficient to recruit and hire teachers (U.S. Department of 
Education, 1999).  
New teachers cite the lack of mentoring by an experienced teacher as the primary reason 
for leaving the classroom (Southern Regional Education Board [SREB], 2002). There are 
other factors that contributed to teachers leaving the classroom. Examples are low pay, 
lack of discipline among students, large classes, heavy workloads, lack of parental 
involvement, lack of respect, high stress, inadequate preparation, the lack of 
administrative support, and the lack of mentoring by experienced educators (Bradley, 
1998; Fideler & Hasselkorn, 1999; Mezzacappa, 2003; National Education Association 
 
 30 
 
[NEA], 2000). While there are many reasons attributing to teacher turnover in the 
literature, a possible solution was apparent: providing a support system to help guide new 
teachers in the first few years. The NCES (1997) issued two surveys: Schools and 
Staffing Survey and the Teacher Follow-up Survey. The data show the reasons why the 
teachers say they left the profession: retirement (12%), school staffing action (28%), 
family or personal reasons (39%), pursued other opportunities (25%), and dissatisfaction 
[26%] (Ingersoll, 2001).  
The difficulty in retaining teachers has an adverse effect on our most important 
group of stakeholders, the students. Hope (1999) reports a decrease in student 
achievement when a lack of consistency exists in the classroom. Working toward a 
common set of goals helps a school improve and student achievement to increase (Hope, 
1999). The greatest impact on student learning occurs when a teacher is well prepared to 
teach in their classroom (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 
2001).  
Many states and local districts have developed programs to help support new 
teachers (Archer, 1999; Cooperman, 2000). Schools and districts have been advised by 
policy analysts to professionalize teaching in order to improve retention (Holmes Group, 
1986; Kanstorom & Finn, 1999; National Commission on Teaching and America?s 
Future [NCTAF], 1996). 
Rushland (2001) conducted a study designed to investigate factors influencing the 
attrition and retention of newly hired Minnesota business education teachers in the public 
sector. The relevant conclusions from Rushland?s study are as follows: 1) the retention 
rate was higher for business education graduates responding to the survey; 2) the study 
 
 31 
 
identified retention factors such as: mentor support, money, and personal satisfaction, but 
may not have accurately reported attrition factors due to the low number of participants 
responding who did not enter the profession or chose to leave teaching later. Rushland?s 
study provides a wealth of information on retention and attrition factors. Examples of 
attrition factors are the person?s level of professional commitment, job advancement 
opportunities, classroom management issues, stress, and a lack of a mentoring program. 
There is not a national mentoring program aimed at recruiting and retaining 
teachers, but many states and several school districts have responded by implementing 
their own programs to help in recruitment and retention. For example, in North Carolina, 
the Department of Public Instruction has implemented several initiatives to recruit and 
retain teachers. Financial initiatives in North Carolina include the following: in-state 
tuition, financial incentives, scholarship loans, and support for National Board 
Certification. Other programs and services offered allow candidates alternative ways to 
become certified and offer assistance in placing candidates into open positions. 
Additionally, North Carolina has initiated programs to help recognize and reward 
teachers for their efforts. Examples of these initiatives include Teacher of the Year 
awards, salary increases for advanced degrees and National Board Certification, and a 
Fellows Program aimed at encouraging teachers to pursue advanced degrees. The state of 
North Carolina also offers extensive professional development opportunities, a three-year 
training program, paid mentors for two years, optimum working conditions for new 
teachers, and three days of orientation (Brunson, 2004). 
 
 32 
 
Mentoring 
Mentoring began as far back as ancient Greece. In Homer?s Odyssey, Odysseus 
entrusted Mentor to tutor his son, Telamachus (Lewis, 2001). A successful mentoring 
relationship can produce many positive results. According to Gehrke (1998), the 
definition of mentoring should capture ?the giving and receiving, the awakening and the 
labor of gratitude? (p. 194). Dornan (1999) suggests that ?new teachers need to be 
involved in a mentoring program that allows them to work very closely with an 
experienced teacher who will help guide them through day-to-day operations of a 
classroom teacher? (p. 5). Developing mentor/prot?g? relationships between new and 
veteran teachers should be an integral part of any professional development plan 
(Dornan, 1999).  
Reform movements in the early 1980s enabled mentoring programs to help 
improve education (Feiman-Nemser, 1996; Mutchler, et al., 2000). ?Mentoring is the 
complex and developmental process which mentors use to support and guide their 
prot?g? through necessary early career transitions which are a part of learning how to be 
an effective, reflective educator and career-long learner? (Sweeney, 2001, p. 1). Little 
(1990) and Darling-Hammond (2003) feel that providing a new teacher with support and 
consultation will help their attitudes, feelings of efficacy, and instructional skills in the 
profession. 
Many induction programs use mentoring as a major component to assist new 
teachers in their early development. Villani (2000) maintains that formal and informal 
methods utilized by experienced teachers will help new teachers acclimate themselves to 
their new school environment. Comprehensive mentoring programs should have the 
 
 33 
 
following components: a sound hiring process; pre-service programs that provide 
necessary information and active participation; a support network, including ongoing 
dialogue; an ongoing mentoring or coaching program; an evaluation plan that promotes 
growth; and a professional development program that supports new teachers (London, 
2003). In successful mentoring programs, trained mentors provide professional support 
and the process itself has strong administrative support (Brunson, 2004). Mentoring is a 
powerful, cost-effective tool in the teacher induction process (Recruiting New Teachers, 
2000). The assignment of a mentor teacher is the most cost-effective and significant 
component of a mentoring program (Huling-Austin, 1990).  
According to Ganser (1996), mentoring serves several purposes: 
1. To provide strong supports for new teachers 
2. To retain quality teachers in the classroom 
3. To guide curriculum and instruction 
4. To improve teaching and learning 
?The process also helps new teachers understand the history, customs, and culture of the 
school in which they work; and chart a course for long-term professional development? 
(Ganser, 1996, p.1). 
Building morale, professional competence, and the commitment of a new teacher 
is the goal of a mentor-mentee relationship (Fideler & Haselkorn, 1999). The school?s 
principal is the first mentor. He/she is responsible for identifying the roles and 
expectations of all stakeholders in the teaching and learning process (Bercik, 1994). A 
quality mentoring program can be designed to help retain new teachers, improve their 
instructional approach, and to help experienced teachers become reflective in their 
 
 34 
 
teaching practices (Recruiting New Teachers, 2000). New teachers desperately need their 
mentors to be well trained and willing to involve themselves by committing personal time 
to the teacher/mentor process (Simmons, 2002). Mentors are charged with helping new 
teachers discuss individual strengths and weaknesses in a non-threatening environment 
where trust is a vital factor (Brock & Grady, 2000). Jonson (1997) believes mentoring is 
one teacher helping to facilitate the growth of a colleague.  
 
Induction 
The comprehensive process used to train, support, and retain teachers is referred 
to as induction (Wong, 2004). Stephens and Moskowitz (1997) see induction programs as 
a way to ease the transition from pre-service teachers into their individual classrooms and 
then help the teachers develop professionally in order to retain them in the teaching 
profession. The intent is to turn new teachers into teachers of students instead of a student 
of a teacher (Stephens & Moskowitz, 1997). Schlechty (1985) feels that all new teachers 
hired are expected to survive the induction process and become career teachers. ?The best 
way to support, develop, and cultivate an attitude of lifelong learning in beginning 
teachers is through a new teacher induction program focused on teacher training, support, 
and retention? (Wong, 2002, p. 52).  
 New teacher induction programs vary in many ways. Many programs incorporate 
characteristics unique to an individual state, district, or school. Some programs are multi-
year in design, while others last just one year. Abell et al. (1995) found that one or more 
of the following characteristics were incorporated in the most common induction delivery 
systems: 
 
 35 
 
1. Consistent meetings are held throughout the year to facilitate growth 
2. Support groups are created to help new teachers adjust to a new 
district/school 
3. A mentor is assigned and a support system is implemented at the school 
level 
Heidkamp and Shapiro (1999) provide five steps to providing effective support 
for new teachers:  
1. New teachers should be welcomed to their new district/school 
2. Administrators should provide direction and support for new teachers 
3. Frequent contact with a support group should be encouraged 
4. Providing opportunities for developing relationships and participating in 
professional development activities should be offered 
5. New teachers should be encouraged to complete a self-evaluation to 
determine individual strengths and weaknesses.  
Fideler and Haselkorn (1999, p. 5) stated induction programs are needed for the 
following reasons: 
1. To staunch the hemorrhage of new teacher attrition; 
2. To eliminate unfit individuals and retain only those who have been 
deemed competent; 
3. To extend the preparation period of novice teachers through their crucial 
first few years upon the job so that they can continue to develop as 
proficient, knowledgeable, and successful teachers of our nation?s 
children; 
 
 36 
 
4. To improve the climate for teaching and learning, and build community 
between new and veteran teachers. 
Providing job embedded opportunities for new teachers to grow personally and  
professionally is imperative for teacher induction programs to succeed (Moir & Gless, 
2001). Mentoring programs could fail miserably if it is the sole component of a new 
teacher induction program (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2000). Teacher induction programs can 
provide the greatest benefits to new teachers only if it is a part of the overall professional 
development opportunities available to all teachers within a school system (Villani, 
2002).  
 The structure of teacher induction programs will vary among school districts. 
Induction programs may focus on best practices relating to instructional methods 
designed for mastering teaching skills and academic content or creating school 
environments that rely on a broad base of knowledge. Individual schools or school 
districts will design their induction programs to fit the needs of the teacher and the school 
or district (Recruiting New Teachers, 2000). Moir and Gless (2001) report that induction 
programs are most effective when new teachers become on-the-job learners who are 
reflective in their teaching practices with student achievement being their primary focus. 
Changing school cultures, while improving teaching and learning, should be the goal of 
any teacher induction program (Moir & Gless, 2001).  
 Teacher induction programs can only be successful when the activities of the 
program are carefully selected with a set of targeted goals are clearly identified (Huling-
Austin, 1985; Arends & Rigazio-DiGillo, 2000). Four major goals of teacher induction 
programs are: 
 
 37 
 
Goal 1: To improve teaching performance. It is difficult to measure the success of 
one group of teachers in comparison with another group of teachers. A significant 
difference was found in the way principals rated the teaching competencies of control and 
experimental teachers. Teachers assigned a mentor were rated significantly higher than 
first-year teachers without the support of a mentor (Blackburn, 1977).  
Goal 2: To promote the personal and professional well being of teachers. New 
teachers frequently fall victim to high levels of stress, anxiety, and a loss of self-
confidence. A quality teacher induction program provides professional and personal 
support for the new teacher (Schlechty & Vance, 1983; Jambor & Patterson, 1997). 
Goal 3: To satisfy mandated requirements related to induction and certification. 
Stansbury (2001) noted the organization and features of teacher induction programs fit on 
a continuum. One end of the continuum finds the induction period as a brief, school-level 
orientation at the start of the school year, while the other end of the continuum finds the 
induction period as multi-year process, with ongoing support, networking, mentoring, and 
job-embedded professional development (Stansbury, 2001). 
Goal 4: To increase the retention of promising beginning teachers. Teacher 
induction programs, when run effectively, should increase teacher retention. Without a 
sound teacher induction program, many new teachers abandoned the profession (David, 
2000; Ganser, 2000). Strong political support from individual state governments and 
local school districts are keys to successful teacher induction programs (U.S. Department 
of Education, 1995). Consistent funding is necessary for teacher induction programs to be 
successful for the long-term (Mills, Moore, & Keane, 2001). 
 
 38 
 
Goal 5: To transmit the culture of the system to beginning teachers. New teachers 
must adapt to their new surroundings and their new role as a teacher while being 
socialized to the role demanded by others (Feiman-Nemser et al., 1999). In 1981, Gehrke 
generated concepts of how new teachers adapt to their role as a teacher. Gehrke?s data 
generated three categories of teacher personalization: needs, perceptions, and behaviors.  
According to Gehrke (1981), new teachers have four specific needs during early 
role transition: need for respect, need for belonging, need for a sense of competence, and 
a need for liking. Beginning teachers must have these needs met before they can become 
autonomous and respond with confidence to the responsibilities of their job.  
In 1991, Smylie and Conyers suggested that teacher induction programs go 
through three paradigm shifts: 
Paradigm Shift 1: Replication to reflection. Teachers should reflect more on their 
individual learning and less on the transfer of knowledge. This paradigm shift would 
allow for a teacher to enhance their problem-solving skills and conducting action research 
aimed at improving their skills and knowledge specifically related to their individual 
schools and classrooms. 
Paradigm Shift 2: Learning separately to learning together. Novice teachers and 
their mentors work together to develop professional resources that will help both 
classrooms be more successful. Induction programs are aimed at allowing novice and 
experienced teachers the opportunity to share and learn together. 
Paradigm Shift 3: Centralization to decentralization. Professional development 
activities are selected and implemented at the local school level. These professional 
development activities are supported at the district level. Essentially, the importance of 
 
 39 
 
identifying and planning professional development activities shifts from the central office 
to the local school level. More tailored professional development activities may be 
available when decentralization occurs. 
 
Effective Teaching 
 Induction programs are developed and implemented for many reasons previously 
mentioned. Improving student achievement may be the most important reason teacher 
induction programs are so important. ?Expert teachers use knowledge about children and 
their learning to fashion lessons that connect ideas to students? experiences. These skills 
make the difference between teaching that creates learning and teaching that just marks 
time? (Darling-Hammond, 1998b, p. 78). Any information being presented to students 
must be meaningful because it gives students more points in their knowledge structures to 
which they can attach new information (Rosenshine, 1996). Roshenshine (1996) states, 
?Education is a process of developing, enlarging, expanding, and refining our students? 
knowledge structures? (p. 197). Effective teaching correlates with an increase of student 
achievement (Rosenshine, 1996). Rosenshine (1986) reported that effective teachers used 
the following procedures:  
1. Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals; 
2. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous, prerequisite learning; 
3. Present new material in small steps, with student practice after each step;  
4. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations; 
5. Provide active practice for all students; 
 
 40 
 
6. Ask many questions, check for student understanding, and obtain 
responses from all students; 
7. Guide students through initial practice; 
8. Provide systematic feedback and corrections;  
9. Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercises and, where 
necessary, monitor students during seatwork; and 
10. Continue practice until students are independent and confident. (pp. 61-
62) 
Rosenshine (1996) maintained that guided practice consisted of engaging students in the 
following cognitive processing activities: organizing, comparing, contrasting, and 
summarizing, all of which lead to meaningful learning.  
 
Professional Development 
 The principal of a school must always be cognizant of his/her role as the 
instructional leader of the school. Providing professional development opportunities for 
teachers is part of being an instructional leader (Cole, 1990). It is imperative for school 
principals to offer new teachers opportunities to participate in meaningful, job-embedded 
professional development activities. These activities will allow new teachers to sharpen 
their existing skills and to possibly acquire new techniques to help improve their 
performance on the job. Principals are charged with identifying professional development 
opportunities and making it possible for new teachers to attend necessary activities 
(Hope, 1999).  
 
 41 
 
School districts are challenged on a yearly basis to meet standards for student 
achievement on standardized assessments. School districts, along with individual schools 
should offer professional growth opportunities that will help teachers raise student 
achievement and to improve their knowledge base of applicable content knowledge and 
pedagogy. Adult learners, such as teachers, must be treated differently than students 
(Trotter, 2006). 
 Adult learners are often referred to as a neglected species (Knowles, 1990). 
Knowles (1990) listed five assumptions about adult learners when viewing professional 
and adult development: 
? Adults were motivated to learn as they experienced needs and interests that 
the learning would satisfy. 
? Experience was the main resource for adult learning, 
? Individual differences among people increased with age, 
? Learning for adults was lifelong, and 
? Adults had a need to be self-directed in their learning. 
Teachers, to some extent, should be held responsible for their own professional 
development needs. Individuals search for professional development opportunities that 
will interest them, extend their knowledge, and provide the best opportunity for them to 
improve in their field. The success of many teachers in their journey to be lifelong 
learners can be greatly increased if the teacher has the opportunity to determine the 
direction of their individual professional development opportunities. Much of the data 
found in adult development research can be used in planning professional development 
activities for teachers (Trotter, 2006). 
 
 42 
 
 Thompson and Zeuli (1999) define professional development as ?learning by 
widening circles of teachers, so that it is not only these teachers? knowledge but the 
whole profession that develops? (p. 367). Lieberman (1995) calls for teachers to engage 
in actual learning opportunities that promotes student achievement and transformation of 
schools. A transformation in a teacher?s knowledge can be an outcome of professional 
development (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). 
 New teachers face many challenges that can be related to the stages of 
professional development. The first stage of being survival-oriented was identified by 
Frances Fuller (Borich, 1993). The concern for just getting through the day is the focus of 
teachers at this stage. The second stage calls for new teachers to become task-oriented. 
Rigid control, strict organization, and establishing classroom routines becomes the focus 
of new teachers (Borich, 1993). Many teachers are extremely effective, in a boring way, 
while in stage two and they develop a ?get tough? attitude (Borich, 1993). The third and 
final stage calls for teachers to become impact oriented where they are most concerned 
with their classroom routines (Borich, 1993). 
Teachers often participate in professional development opportunities that are 
required by a local school district/school and/or by taking classes in a graduate degree 
program. Through these two traditional methods, teachers cannot learn to be more 
effective because conventional professional development opportunities for teachers are 
simply considered a dissemination activity. Many times, teachers are expected to 
participate in activities that they have little or no input in planning. These activities are 
often not meaningful to the teachers. Although teachers may gain a new idea, they may 
struggle to implement changes of any magnitude in their classrooms. Professional 
 
 43 
 
activities of this nature allow disconnect between development and practice. Teaching 
and learning will not improve significantly without new ways to develop our teachers 
(Feiman-Nemser, 2001). 
 Professional development is critical to any real efforts to professionalize teachers, 
redefine teaching, and transform schools. Professional development opportunities are 
designed to improve the process of teaching and learning. Teachers need to be involved 
in sustained learning opportunities that are built directly into the needs of individual 
teachers (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). New teachers are subject to leaving the teaching 
profession within the first three years at high rates. School administrators see the need to 
provide job-embedded professional development as a prime method of assistance 
provided to new teachers (Little, 1990; Mills, Moore, & Keane, 2001). 
Some school districts use a multitude of strategies to assist new teachers. Many 
strategies involve professional development activities such as collegial observations and 
continuing education classes through local colleges and universities (State of Michigan 
Department of Education, 1994). Many states offer new teachers an opportunity to 
complete professional development activities in areas where their performance is below 
the standard (Defino & Hoffman, 1984). 
 
The Role of the Principal 
 Each participant in a teacher induction program should have a written job 
description. The principal is the vital part of the teacher induction process (Bercik, 1994). 
All principals should be instructional leaders for all of their teachers, although research 
provides little guidance in how to meet the challenges of beginning teachers (Ryan, 1986; 
 
 44 
 
Stansbury, 2001; Veenman, 1984). Many times a principal expects the novice teacher to 
exhibit the same proficiency as a veteran teacher. Kyle, Moore, and Sanders (2001) 
suggest that individual principals should help the novice teacher adapt the methodology 
learned in college to the specific school setting. Many novice teachers feel overwhelmed 
and fail to realize that others are experiencing the same feelings. Veenman (1984) 
indicates that many novice teachers cling to the first method that works for them and 
maintains the same approach throughout their entire career.  
 Principals are the key players and have a major role in inducting new teachers into 
the culture of the local school and the teaching profession (Hughes, 1994; Stansbury, 
2001). Novice teachers have expectations of the role the principal should play in their 
development as professional educators. Novice teachers want the principal to simply 
communicate the criteria necessary for them to become good teachers (Brock & Grady, 
1998). A major factor influencing the increase in teacher attrition is the lack of 
administrative support the principal offers to new teachers (Karge, 1993). The most 
useful of the induction techniques used by principals is developing personal interactions 
with the novice teachers (Brock & Grady, 1998). 
 Lack of administrative support is a primary reason why new teachers fail to 
remain in the teaching field during the first three years of employment (Billingsley & 
Cross, 1992; Darling-Hammond & Sclan, 1996; Rosenholz, 1989). Developing and 
maintaining an open relationship with the principal is a desire of new teachers. The 
problems of new teachers may diminish if the presence of a relationship where the 
principal is actively involved in assisting the new teacher exists. Principals are expected 
to provide new teachers with clear criteria for things such as: good teaching, classroom 
 
 45 
 
visits, affirmation, feedback, support, and effective communication. A principal?s high 
expectations may influence the level of self-efficacy achieved by many new teachers 
(Brock & Grady, 1998). 
 According to Brock and Grady (1998), principals expect new teachers to: 
1. Have a professional attitude, 
2. Have an adequate knowledge base, 
3. Utilize effective classroom management strategies, and 
4. Employ excellent communication skills with all stakeholders. 
Hargreaves (1998) maintains that supporting a high level of performance and providing 
professional development and incentives for new teachers will help new teachers remain 
in the teaching profession. An increase in the amount of burnout and attrition among new 
teachers increases in the absence of a supportive relationship between the educational 
leader and the new teacher (Buchmann, 1990; Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 
1998). Principals have a critical role in the induction process and should realize the 
importance of providing support and direction that goes a long way towards satisfying the 
multiple needs of a new teacher (Brock & Grady, 1998; Sergiovanni, 1995). 
 Principals must seriously consider critical factors such as: selecting mentors, time 
constraints, forming relationships, and matching methods (Little, 1990). Principals who 
are involved in utilizing a mentoring program as part of the teacher induction process 
must consider the following characteristics when selecting mentor teachers: 
1. Grade level, 
2. Proximity in age, 
3. Master teachers, 
 
 46 
 
4. Similar personalities, 
5. Adult educators, 
6. Listeners, 
7. Knowledge, 
8. Friendliness, (Brock & Grady, 1998) 
Villani (2002) indicates that the educational leader?s interest in effective practices for 
new teacher induction has proven to be invaluable in nurturing the organizational health 
in their building and in the educational system as a whole. 
 The role of the principal is more evolutionary because principals must clarify their 
agendas to themselves and all of their stakeholders (Bolman & Deal, 1993). The principal 
serves the key role of being an instructional leader and thus leading his or her school 
towards a more instructional model (Bolman & Deal, 1993; Chalker, 1992). Chalker 
(1992) believes a principal?s acceptance of an increased involvement in staff instruction 
will enhance his/her performance beyond being a traditional manager. Training in 
supervision will help the principal facilitate a novice teacher?s skill development (Greene, 
1992). Developing the culture of the school is vital to a principal?s success in allowing 
novice teachers to have a legitimate chance at being successful early on in their careers 
(Boyer & Lee, 2001; Carter & Francis, 2001; Frase, 1992; Fullan, 1999; Mills, Moore, & 
Keane, 2001; Sergiovanni & Carver, 1980). 
 A recognized tool for assisting in the growth of novice teachers is the creation of 
a collegial atmosphere (Boyer & Lee, 2001; Carter & Francis, 2001; Saunders & 
Pettinger, 1995; Stansbury, 2001). The principal, as the instructional leader, should not 
assume that all staff members wish for new teachers to be successful (Maynard, 2000; 
 
 47 
 
Paese, 1997). Many veteran teachers express the need to be assigned easier classes, less 
preparations, and the best room assignments (Johnson, 2001). Principals should not favor 
veteran teachers over the novice teachers. Some researchers have stated that workloads 
for novice teachers should be reduced (Lohr, 1999; Paese, 1990; Stansbury, 2001). Often 
principals try to satisfy the veteran teachers by assigning the novice teachers multiple 
preparations and the worst classes (Paese, 1990). Principals may offer little or no support 
to these novice teachers that are struggling to survive in such a demanding situation 
(Johnson, 2001). It is the duty of the principal to assign novice teachers to situations that 
meet their skill and competence level (Carlin, 1992).  
 Some have claimed the most important role for a principal is to care so much 
about the individuals around him/her that they want to do the best they can for the benefit 
of the organization and themselves (Pellicer, 1999). Zepeda and Ponticell (1998) report 
that common classroom reinforcement tools such as praise and cheer will help novice 
teachers alleviate more stress than formal observation methods where mistakes are 
magnified. A principal must cultivate the professional development and growth of all 
teachers under his/her supervision. A principal?s ability to clinically supervise the staff, 
especially novice teachers, is of paramount importance (Carlin, 1992; Glatthorn & Fox, 
1996; Sagor & Barnett, 1994). Principals need to pay close attention to allowing novice 
teachers release time in which to observe seasoned veterans who are effective teachers 
(Carter & Francis, 2001; Stansbury, 2001). Ponticell and Zepeda (1997) report that many 
novice teachers encountered many problems due to the lack of connection to their 
principal and other teachers.  
 
 48 
 
 A principal must lead by example. ?An authentic principal not only does things 
right, but he or she does the right thing. And all of them are done with a genuine spirit of 
contributing to the future? (MacKay & Ralston, 1998, p. 5). Novice teachers are 
concerned about coping with disruptive students (Smith, 2000). Nelson (1996) indicated 
that new teachers, when they perceived strong administrative support, felt more in control 
of their classrooms and better equipped to deal with disruptive students.  
 
Summary 
 True reform efforts to implement teacher induction programs began in earnest 
during the early 1980s. Many researchers feel that teacher induction programs provide 
the missing pieces in the teacher development process. A teacher?s development is 
critical in the early years of their careers. New teachers often struggle in many areas 
while learning to be a teacher. Some research shows that many colleges and universities 
struggle to adequately prepare new teachers during their pre-service programs.  
 Many new teachers experience what researchers call reality shock once entering 
the profession (Veenman, 1984). A new teacher enters the classroom with ideals that are 
far from the realities of public education. New teachers feel they are on their own once 
they receive their first job. Many times, the new teacher is correct in their thinking due to 
a lack of support from leaders at the school district and individual school to which they 
have been assigned. The transition from being a student to being a teacher is a difficult 
process for many new teachers to master. According to Veenman (1984), there are 
several factors that make the transition more difficult for new teachers such as the 
 
 49 
 
following: a lack of interaction with colleagues, managing all of their professional 
responsibilities, and inadequate pre-service training. 
 New teacher induction programs are vital to the success and development of 
young teachers. Administrators at the district and local school levels are faced with a 
shortage of teachers. Some researchers believe there are plenty of teachers for hire, but 
many of them choose to follow a different career path due to the perceived working 
conditions in America?s public schools. Many new teachers are faced with the daunting 
task of overcrowded classrooms, lack of instructional resources, poor support from 
administrators, lack of discipline, low pay, high stress, a lack of respect, a heavy 
workload, and inadequate preparation at the pre-service level. Teacher induction 
programs are designed to assist new teachers in managing the overall process of being a 
teacher. 
 Although there is no national teacher induction model for new teachers, many 
district level induction programs share a common thread. Many new teacher induction 
programs possess the following characteristics: ongoing discussions with mentors and 
other members of the teacher support system, an establishment of a mentoring program, 
and job-embedded professional development opportunities for new teachers. Professional 
development plays a key role in helping new teachers sharpen their skills to improve their 
teaching ability and student achievement. All induction programs should have five main 
goals: to improve teaching performance, to promote the personal and professional well 
being of teachers, to satisfy mandated requirements related to induction and certification, 
to increase the retention of promising beginning teachers, and to transmit the culture of 
the system to beginning teachers. 
 
 50 
 
 Mentoring is a key component of any successful teacher induction program. A 
successful mentoring relationship can produce many positive results that can carry a new 
teacher through a long career as a professional educator. Dornan (1999) suggests that 
?new teachers need to be involved in a mentoring program that allows them to work very 
closely with an experienced teacher who will help guide them through the day-to-day 
operations of a classroom teacher? (p. 5). Developing a mentor/prot?g? relationship is the 
first step in providing key professional development opportunities for new teachers. It is 
cost efficient and extremely effective when a new teacher can walk down the hall and 
garner a large amount of support from a fellow teacher. By providing a new teacher with 
support and consultation, research shows that a new teacher?s attitude, self-efficacy, and 
instructional skills within the teaching profession will improve (Darling-Hammond, 
2003; Little, 1990). 
 Developing new teachers is a challenging task for school administrators, but 
research shows that an effective teacher is the most important resource in a classroom. 
The effects of effective and ineffective teachers will be clearly evident two years later 
(U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Student achievement is clearly aligned with 
effective teaching (Rosenshine, 1996). Improving student achievement is one of the 
primary reasons for the implementation of quality teacher induction programs because 
with the proper supports, many new teachers will become effective teachers. 
 Professional development is critical to any teacher?s success in the profession, but 
to a new teacher, it is of paramount importance. Many new teachers are placed into 
classrooms with little in the way of resources and a lack of confidence in themselves. The 
principal, as the instructional leader, must take the initiative in providing quality, job-
 
 51 
 
embedded professional development opportunities for new teachers. The new teachers 
must be given the opportunity to work with their mentor(s) in a setting where each 
individual may learn and thrive in their classrooms. Collegial observations, joint in-
service training, and common planning times are ways administrators can help facilitate a 
nurturing relationship that helps the new teacher become an effective teacher. Thompson 
and Zeuli (1999) define professional development as ?learning by widening circles of 
teachers, so that it is not only these teachers? knowledge but the whole profession that 
develops? (p. 367). Professional development for all teachers allows for the engagement 
in actual learning opportunities that promotes student achievement and the transformation 
of schools (Lieberman, 1995).  
 The principal is a vital part of the teacher induction process (Bercik, 1994). 
Principals, as the instructional leader of the school, must be proactive in the support of 
the developmental process of all teachers. The principal must understand that new 
teachers have a special set of needs that many veteran teachers have already satisfied. 
New teachers will not have the same proficiency level as a veteran teacher. Principals 
must ensure that new teachers are given the opportunity to grow and obtain higher level 
skills that will enable them to become effective teachers who can foster student 
achievement.  
 The purpose of this study is to measure how Alabama high school principals in 
public schools perceive the key components of teacher induction programs. The teacher 
shortage throughout the United States is requiring school administrators at the district and 
local school level to work together to develop programs aimed at teacher retention. 
Retaining young teachers in the teaching profession is paramount to the future success of 
 
 52 
 
schools. The following chapter describes the methods that were used to conduct this 
study. 
 
 53 
 
III. METHODS 
 
Introduction 
 Following a review of the literature, this study was developed to study the 
perceptions of Alabama high school principals on the key components of teacher 
induction programs. The study examined if a relationship existed between the principal?s 
school size and the length of the induction program among various components of 
teacher induction programs such as the following: classroom management, instructional 
planning, teaching strategies, student assessment, understanding the environment, and 
professional expectations. A survey developed by Dr. Jean Flanagan-Joest (2002), was 
used to determine if relationships existed and if so, to what extent among the variables. 
Permission was sought and granted by the survey developer to utilize her instrument, 
with revisions. 
 
Research Questions 
 In order to study the perceptions of Alabama public high school principals on the 
key components of teacher induction programs it was determined that an anonymous 
survey would be the most appropriate method to use when conducting this study. The 
researcher used a survey to determine if a relationship existed between the independent 
and dependent variables described in the following research questions:  
 
 54 
 
1. What is the influence of the length of the induction program in relation to 
the following: 
 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
2. What is the influence of school size in relation to the following: 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
 
Instrument 
 Flanagan-Joest (2002) developed the survey to:  
identify competencies, as identified by novice teachers, that positively 
impact teacher retention. Additionally, the study compared the impact, if 
any, on the competency categories identified by the novice teachers and 
 
 55 
 
district administrators related to demographic variables of gender, 
chronological age, organizational level, and district size. (p. 57) 
Dr. Flanagan-Joest was contacted by e-mail and agreed to provide written permission to 
use the survey, with revisions, to the researcher by electronic mail (See Appendix A).  
Data Gathering 
 The survey instrument that was mailed to each public high school principal in 
participating school districts in Alabama serving schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12 
consisted of three sections. Section one consisted of several demographic-type items such 
as the following: gender, age, highest degree earned, ethnicity, school size, percentage of 
free and reduced lunches, and the number of years as a high school principal. The second 
section of the survey consisted of 36 questions regarding the school?s teacher induction 
program and perceptions about how the program assisted novice teachers in the following 
areas: classroom management, instructional planning, teaching strategies, student 
assessment, understanding the environment, and professional expectations. The 
respondents were asked to respond to each question using a Likert-type scale of 1-5, with 
one (1) indicating that they strongly disagree and five (5) indicating that they strongly 
agree. The final section of the survey consisted of two open-ended questions that 
addressed the number of years new teachers were involved in the induction program and 
the most valuable aspects of the induction programs from each principal?s perspective. 
Reliability and Validity 
 The instrument, in its original form, was developed by Dr. Jean Flanagan-Joest, 
but was modified for this study. The original survey was tested for content validity by a 
panel of experts and through field-testing exercises. Seven experts reviewed the survey. 
 
 56 
 
Six of the seven reviewers provided feedback to Dr. Flanagan-Joest. Field-testing 
involving the original survey instrument took place in November 2002, after Dr. 
Flanagan-Joest made revisions recommended by the expert panel. The field-testing 
component included 24 teachers, one-half were first-year teachers and one-half were 
teachers completing their student teaching experiences. Seventeen of the summary sheets 
provided to the field-testing group were returned, with an average completion time of 10-
15 minutes. No responses indicated that there were any problems with the clarity of the 
survey instrument. The only survey modifications undertaken for this study was an 
expanded demographic section. 
 
Procedures 
 The investigator secured a list of current superintendents serving in county and 
city school systems from the Alabama State Department of Education. The 
superintendents serving city and county school districts in Alabama were contacted via 
electronic mail, phone, and/or fax in order for the researcher to receive permission to 
send the survey instrument to the high school principals serving schools with grades 9-12 
or 10-12. Several attempts were made by the researcher to obtain permission to conduct 
the study in the respective school districts via electronic mail, phone, and/or fax. If 
permission was granted by phone, the researcher requested permission be granted in 
writing via electronic mail or by fax. At the time of the study, there were 131 public 
school districts in Alabama. Of the 131 school districts, 51 superintendents granted the 
researcher permission to conduct the study within their school district. This authorization 
 
 57 
 
gave the researcher permission to approach 119 public high school principals that were 
currently serving schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12. 
 Prior to sending the survey to each prospective participant for this study, the 
researcher submitted a Research Protocol Review Form to the Office of Human Subjects 
Research at Auburn University. After submitting the proposed study to the Institutional 
Review Board, approval was given to utilize human subjects when conducting this study 
(see Appendix B).  
 A survey was sent to pubic high school principals in participating school districts 
that were serving schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12 (n = 119) in the state of Alabama. 
The researcher relied on a volunteer sample to conduct this study. The names and 
addresses of each public school district and all principals serving schools with grades 9-
12 or 10-12 were obtained from the Alabama State Department of Education.  
 Each prospective participant was mailed an information packet. Included in the 
packet were an information sheet (See Appendix C), the survey instrument (See 
Appendix D), and a self-addressed, stamped envelope in which to return the completed 
survey. The information sheet informed each prospective participant that their 
information would remain confidential. 
 Prospective participants were given two weeks to complete and return the survey.  
Surveys were mailed to all prospective participants on December 6, 2006. The surveys 
were mailed in the information packet previously discussed in this chapter. Forty- six 
surveys were returned by December 20, 2006. The data collected from each survey was 
stored in the researcher?s home until all data was collected. Once all data were collected, 
 
 58 
 
they were entered into SPSS for the data analysis part of the study. A total of 46 surveys 
were returned, with a return rate of 38.7%.  
 The survey sent to each prospective participant was copied on the front and back 
of an 8 ?? x 11? sheet of paper. All surveys were printed on fluorescent yellow paper to 
make sure it would be clearly distinguishable among other documents received by the 
prospective participants. The survey was mailed to each prospective participant in an 11? 
x 17? brown envelope. 
 
Data Analysis 
 The data collected through the surveys regarding public high school principals 
perceptions of the key components of teacher induction programs were analyzed using 
quantitative research methods. The survey administered to each prospective participant 
consisted of three sections that addressed several areas relevant to this study. The first 
section addressed participant demographics such as: gender, age, highest degree earned, 
ethnicity, school size, percentage of students on free/reduced lunch and the number of 
years as a high school principal. Section two of the survey asked 36 questions addressing 
the areas of: classroom management, instructional planning, teaching strategies, student 
assessment, understanding the environment, and professional expectations. The 
prospective participants were asked to respond to each question using a Likert-type scale 
of 1-5, with one (1) indicating that they strongly disagree and five (5) indicating that they 
strongly agree. The final section of the survey consisted of two open-ended type 
questions that addressed the number of years new teachers were involved in the induction 
 
 59 
 
program and the most valuable aspects of the induction programs from the principal?s 
perspective. 
 All data were entered into SPSS where the descriptive data were generated. It was 
determined that a series of one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was 
the appropriate statistical technique to use in order to determine the effects of the 
respondents? gender, age, highest degree earned, ethnic background, and school size on 
the six dependent variables in this study (classroom management, instructional planning, 
teaching strategies, student assessment, understanding the environment, and professional 
expectations). A Pearson Product Moment Correlation was also conducted to determine 
the relationship, if any, between the dependent variables and the length of the induction 
program and the percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch. It was 
determined that an alpha level of < .05 would be used to determine if a significant 
relationship existed among the independent and dependent variables.  
 
Summary 
 The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of public high school 
principals in Alabama on the key components of teacher induction programs. The survey 
used in this study was originally developed by Dr. Jean Flanagan-Joest, during her 
doctoral studies at the University of Texas-San Antonio. Flanagan-Joest (2002) 
developed the survey to  
identify competencies, as identified by novice teachers, that positively impact 
teacher retention. Additionally, the study compared the impact, if any, on the 
competency categories identified by the novice teachers and district 
 
 60 
 
administrators related to demographic variables of gender, chronological age, 
organizational level, and district size. (p. 57) 
The original survey was tested for content validity by a panel of experts and through 
field-testing exercises. Minor modifications were made by the researcher to the original 
survey through revisions in the Likert-scale from 0-1 to 1-5 and the addition of different 
demographic questions to fit the research goals of this study. The revised survey was 
mailed to the 119 prospective participants. The prospective participants were public high 
school principals from participating school districts in Alabama serving schools with 
students in grades 9-12 or 10-12. A volunteer sample of 46 returned the survey at a rate 
of 38.7%. All data were collected from the survey in a confidential manner.  
 
 61 
 
IV. RESULTS 
 
Overview 
Many issues need to be addressed when looking to develop quality induction 
programs in an attempt to improve retention rates among new teachers. The purpose of 
this study was to measure the perceptions of Alabama high school principals on the key 
components of teacher induction programs. The researcher investigated whether a 
significant relationship (p < .05), if any, existed between school size and the length of the 
induction program and the six dependent variables (classroom management, instructional 
planning, teaching strategies, student assessment, understanding the environment, and 
professional expectations. The results of this study provide an investigation of the key 
components of a successful induction program. 
The research questions analyzed in this chapter include the following: 
1. What is the influence of the length of the induction program in relation to 
the following: 
a. Classroom Management 
 
b. Instructional Planning 
 
c. Teaching Strategies 
 
d. Student Assessment 
 
e. Understanding the Environment  
 
 
 62 
 
 
f. Professional Expectations 
 
 2. What is the influence of school size in relation to the following: 
 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
 
Respondents 
 A list of the 119 high school principals from participating school districts serving 
in schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12 was acquired from the Alabama State Department of 
Education. The list included the names of each high school and the current principal of 
each school for the 2006-2007 school year. Of the 119 surveys mailed to each high 
school principal serving in schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12, 46 were returned. The 
return rate for this study was 38.7%. The following tables describe the volunteer sample 
used in this study. 
 Table 1 provides the gender of each respondent, the frequency of males and 
females responding to the survey, and the percentage that each gender represented in the 
sample.  
 
 63 
 
Table 1 
Participant Characteristics (GENDER) 
Respondent's Gender
34 73.9 73.9 73.9
12 26.1 26.1 100.0
46 100.0 100.0
Male
Female
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
 
 Table 2 provides the age of the respondents in ten-year intervals, the frequency of 
each age group, and the percentage that each age group represented in the sample.  
 
Table 2 
Participant Characteristics (AGE) 
Respondent's Age
10 21.7 21.7 21.7
11 23.9 23.9 45.7
22 47.8 47.8 93.5
3 6.5 6.5 100.0
46 100.0 100.0
31-40
41-50
51-60
61+
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
 
 
 Table 3 provides the highest degree earned for each respondent, the frequency of 
each degree level, and the percentage of each degree represented in the sample. 
 
 64 
 
Table 3 
Participant Characteristics (HIGHEST DEGREE EARNED) 
Respondent's Highest Degree Earned
24 52.2 52.2 52.2
14 30.4 30.4 82.6
8 17.4 17.4 100.0
46 100.0 100.0
Master's
Specialist
Doctorate
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
 
 
Table 4 provides the ethnic background of each respondent, the frequency of each 
ethnic background, and the percentage of each ethnic group represented in the sample. 
Table 4 
Participant Characteristics (ETHNIC BACKGROUND) 
Respondent's Ethnic Background
40 87.0 88.9 88.9
5 10.9 11.1 100.0
45 97.8 100.0
1 2.2
46 100.0
Caucasian
African-American
Total
Valid
SystemMissing
Total
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
 
 
 Table 5 provides the school size for each participant, the frequency of each 
classification of school size, and the percentage of each classification of school size 
represented in the sample. 
 
 65 
 
Table 5 
Participant Characteristics (SCHOOL SIZE) 
Respondent's School Size
27 58.7 58.7 58.7
19 41.3 41.3 100.0
46 100.0 100.0
0-400
400-800+
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
 
 
 Table 6 provides categories for the number years of experience as a high school 
principal for the participants, the frequency of each category for the number of years of 
experience as a high school principal, and the percentage of each category representing 
the number of years as a high school principal in the sample. 
 
Table 6 
Participant Characteristics (EXPERIENCE) 
Respondent's Experience as a HS Principal
17 37.0 37.0 37.0
13 28.3 28.3 65.2
6 13.0 13.0 78.3
2 4.3 4.3 82.6
8 17.4 17.4 100.0
46 100.0 100.0
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21+
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
 
 
 66 
 
Table 7 provides descriptive statistics for the percentage of students on 
free/reduced lunch and the length of the induction programs. The mean for the percentage 
of students receiving free/reduced lunches for the 46 participants was 40.32 (SD = 19.38). 
The mean for the length of the induction program was 2.0 years (SD = .915). 
 
Table 7 
Examination of Central Tendency 
 Free/Reduced Lunch 
Percentage 
Length of Induction Program 
(in years) 
Mean 40.32 2.00 
Median 37.50 2.00 
Mode 30 1
a
Standard Deviation 19.381 .915 
Skewness .972 .000 
Standard Error of Skewness .383 .357 
Minimum 10 1 
Maximum 98 3 
N 38 44 
a.
 multiple modes exist. The small value is shown. 
 
 
 67 
 
Results 
A series of one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were 
conducted to determine the effects of several demographic and institutional 
characteristics on six dependent variables: classroom management, instructional 
planning, teaching strategies, student assessment, understanding the environment, and 
professional expectations. Demographic and institutional characteristics utilized as 
independent variables were respondents? gender, age, highest degree earned, ethnic 
background, and school size. Wilks' ? was reviewed and differences were found to be 
nonsignificant in all cases. Results are illustrated in the Table 8. 
 
Table 8 
MANOVAs  
IV 
Wilks' ? 
F p 
Gender .770 F(1,46) = 1.95 .097 
Age .672 F(3, 46) = 0.88 .601 
Highest Degree Earned .632 F(2,46) = 1.63 .100 
Ethnic Background .873 F(1,45) = 0.92 .489 
School Size .869 F(1,46) = 0.98 .451 
 
 
 Further analysis was conducted utilizing a Pearson Product Moment Correlation 
to determine the relationships between the six dependent variables and free/reduced lunch 
percentage and length of new teacher induction programs (in years). In all cases, no 
significant relationship was found. Results are illustrated in Table 9. 
  
  
  Classroom 
Management 
Instructional 
Planning 
Teaching 
Strategy 
Student 
Assessment
Understanding 
Environment 
Professional 
Expectations 
Free/Reduced 
Lunch 
 
Corr 
 
.100 
 
.231 
 
.237 
 
.72 
 
.076 
 
.111 
Percentage Sig. (2 tail) .551 .136 .153 .098 .648 .505 
 N 38 38 38 38 38 38 
Length of 
Induction 
 
Corr 
 
.123 
 
.074 
 
.237 
 
.047 
 
-.128 
 
-.045 
Program Sig. (2 tail) .427 .635 .118 .762 .409 .771 
 N 44 44 44 44 44 44 
Pearson Correlation Results 
Table 9 
68 
 
 
 69   
 
Perceived effectiveness of the Induction Support Program was evaluated utilizing 
the average ratings of items within each of six content areas. Items about whether the 
program prepares the novice teacher effectively were rated by respondents on a 5 point 
scale: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither Disagree or Agree, Agree, Strongly Agree. 
Overall, respondents? agreed that the program was helpful in preparing a novice teacher. 
Statistics are illustrated in Table 10. 
 
Table 10 
Descriptive Statistics of Respondents? Ratings of Program Effectiveness 
Program Areas Mean 
%  
Max 
Standard  
Deviation 
Letter Grade 
Equivalent 
Classroom Management 3.72 75 .80 C 
Instructional Planning 3.98 80 .68 B- 
Teaching Strategies 3.92 79 .64 C+ 
Student Assessment 3.58 72 .80 C- 
Understanding the Environment 3.61 74 .94 C- 
Professional Expectations 3.81 77 .70 C 
 
 
Discussion 
 Results were based on respondents? perceptions of the effectiveness of the six 
areas included in the Induction Support Program: classroom management, instructional 
 
 70   
 
planning, teaching strategies, student assessment, understanding the environment, and 
professional expectations. Analysis indicates that demographics such as gender, age, 
highest earned degree and ethnic background have no significant or practical effect in 
respondents? assessment of program effectiveness. Further, the percentage of 
free/reduced lunch and size of the respondents? school did not influence the educators? 
perspective of program effectiveness. Overall, respondents rated the effectiveness of the 
program irrespective of the programs length indicating that the ideas presented in the 
program could be communicated just as effectively in shorter amounts of time. 
 Individual and institutional characteristics did not influence the perceived 
effectiveness of the Induction Support Program; therefore, all respondents? ratings were 
averaged within each content area of the program for program evaluation purposes. 
Respondents? mean ratings for program areas indicated that they tend to agree that the 
program was effective; however they did not strongly agree overall. Program content 
dealing with Instructional Planning and Teaching Strategies were viewed as the most 
effective areas (M = 3.98, SD = .68; M = 3.92, SD = .64, respectively). To a slightly 
lesser degree, Classroom Management, Student Assessment, Understanding the 
Environment, and Professional Expectations were rated as effective in preparing the 
novice teacher (M = 3.72, SD = .80; M= 3.58 SD = .80; M = 3.61, SD = .94; M = 3.81, 
SD = .70, respectively).  
  Based on the overall ratings of effectiveness, the program appears to be beneficial 
in preparing novice teachers in various areas related to being a successful teacher. 
Further, the programs effectiveness is not affected by individual and/or institutional 
characteristics indicating that it would be useful in various settings regardless of 
 
 71   
 
socioeconomic status of pupils, size of school, and ethnicity, age, or gender of teachers 
participating. Although further research into the programs value in various situations is 
needed to verify the finding within this study, the initial evaluation indicates that the 
program is without bias and is viewed as constructive by respondents. Following up with 
respondents to identify possible improvements to the program would be worthwhile 
considering the ratings overall were closer to the Agree than the Strongly Agree rating on 
the various areas of the program. 
 
 72   
 
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to discuss findings and conclusions that were drawn 
based on the analysis of data accumulated throughout this study. The need to examine the 
perceptions of Alabama high school principals on the key components of induction 
programs is reviewed followed by the restatement of the procedures used in this study. 
Interpretations and conclusions are then provided. A summary of the demographics 
provided by all of the participants in the study is provided along with an analysis of each 
research question being addressed in the study. Recommendations to improve teacher 
induction programs in Alabama high schools are provided, and suggestions for future 
research, based on the findings in this study are also addressed. 
 
Introduction 
This study examined the Alabama high school principals? perceptions of the key 
components of teacher induction programs. The comprehensive process used to train, 
support, and retain teachers is referred to as induction (Wong, 2004). Further, Castetter 
(1996) defines induction as ?a systematic organizational effort to assist personnel to 
adjust readily and effectively to new assignments so that they can contribute maximally 
to the work of the system while realizing personnel and personal satisfaction? (p. 182). 
?The best way to support, develop, and cultivate an attitude of lifelong learning in 
 
 73   
 
beginning teachers is through a new teacher induction program focused on teacher 
training, support, and retention? (Wong, 2002, p. 52).  
The task of finding highly qualified teachers to fill a multitude of open positions 
is becoming more difficult for school administrators (Ingersoll, 2000). In Alabama, 
approximately 10 percent of all new teachers left teaching after one year following the 
1999-2000 school year (PARCA, 2001).The relationship between the new teacher and the 
principal is a key to new teachers becoming successful. Brock and Grady (1998) indicate 
that new teachers wish to develop and maintain a relationship with the principal. 
Educational leaders have expectations in regards to the importance of the 
induction process as well. Principals want teachers to possess a strong work ethic, care 
for their students, know their subject matter, communicate effectively, and have sound 
classroom management practices (Brock & Grady, 1998). These traits equate to a high-
level of expectations, but good educational leaders realize all of these traits will not be 
achieved without a supportive climate within a school. Continuous administrative support 
will increase the level of competence within new teachers (Clift, 1991; Katz, 1999, 
Fischer et al., 1993). If a lack of support exists between educational leaders and new 
teachers, then it is likely that more teachers will leave the profession (Buchmann, 1990; 
Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 1998).  
 
Restatement of Study Procedures 
 In order to study the perceptions of Alabama high school principals on the key 
components of teacher induction programs it was determined that a survey would be the 
best method in which to conduct this study. Names and addresses of current 
 
 74   
 
superintendents serving in county and city school systems were obtained from the 
Alabama State Department of Education. The superintendents serving city and county 
school districts in Alabama were contacted via electronic mail, phone, and/or fax in order 
for the researcher to receive permission to send the survey instrument to the high school 
principals serving schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12. Several attempts were made in 
order to obtain permission to conduct the study in the respective school districts via 
electronic mail, phone, and/or fax. If permission was granted by phone, the researcher 
requested that the request be granted in writing via electronic mail or by fax. At the time 
of the study, there were 131 public school districts in Alabama. A listing of each public 
school district, along with the names of the current superintendent was obtained from the 
Alabama State Department of Education. Of the 131 school districts, 51 granted the 
researcher permission to conduct the study within their school district. The 51 school 
districts gave the researcher permission to approach 119 public high school principals 
that were currently serving schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12. 
 Prior to sending the survey to each prospective participant for this study, the 
researcher submitted a Research Protocol Review Form to the Office of Human Subjects 
Research at Auburn University. After submitting the proposed study to the Institutional 
Review Board, approval was given to utilize human subjects in conducting this study.  
 A survey was sent to every pubic high school principal serving schools with 
grades 9-12 or 10-12 (n = 119) in the state of Alabama. A volunteer sample was utilized 
to conduct this study. The names and addresses of each public school district and all 
principals serving schools with grades 9-12 or 10-12 were obtained from the Alabama 
State Department of Education.  
 
 75   
 
 Each prospective participant was mailed an information packet. Included in the 
packet were an information sheet, the survey instrument, and a self-addressed, stamped 
envelope in which to return the completed survey. The information sheet informed each 
prospective participant that their information would remain confidential. 
 Prospective participants were given two weeks to complete and return the survey.  
Surveys were mailed to all prospective participants on December 6, 2006. The surveys 
were mailed in the information packet previously discussed in this chapter. Forty six 
surveys were returned by December 20, 2006. All data was entered into SPSS where the 
descriptive data was generated. It was determined that a series of one-way multivariate 
analysis of variance (MANOVA) was the appropriate statistical technique to use in order 
to determine the effects of the respondents? gender, age, highest degree earned, ethnic 
background, and school size on the six dependent variables in this study (classroom 
management, instructional planning, teaching strategies, student assessment, 
understanding the environment, and professional expectations). A Pearson Product 
Moment Correlation was also conducted to determine the relationship, if any, between 
the dependent variables and the length of the induction program and the percentage of 
students receiving free and reduced lunch. It was determined that an alpha level of < .05 
would be used to determine if a significant relationship existed among the independent 
and dependent variables.  
 
 76   
 
Interpretations and Conclusions 
The descriptive statistics produced from the data collected in this study resulted in 
the following. Thirty four males and twelve females responded to the survey. Males made 
up 73.9% of the respondent group, while females made up 26.1%. Of the participants in 
this study, 47.8% reported being between the ages of 51-60, 23.9% reported being 
between 41-50, 21.7% reported being between 31-40, and 6.5% reported being 61 or 
older. The highest degree earned varied among the participants who returned the survey. 
Master?s degrees were held by 24 participants (52.2%), 14 participants held an 
Educational Specialist degree (30.4%), and eight participants held an earned Doctorate 
degree (17.4%).  
The ethnic background of the participants indicated that 40 (87%) were 
Caucasian, 5 (10.9%) were African-American, and 1 (2.2%) did not report their ethnic 
background. Each participant reported their school size in following manner: 27 (58.7%) 
had a student population of 0?400, and 19 (41.3%) had a student population of 400-800+. 
The participant?s experience as a High School Principal varied as 17 (37%) reported 
having 0-5 years of experience, 13 (28.3%) reported having 6-10 years of experience, 6 
(13%) reported having 11-15 years of experience, 2 (4.3%) having 16-20 years of 
experience, and 8 (17.4%) having 21+ years of experience. 
Two main research questions were analyzed in this study. This section includes  
the findings from the data analysis for each question. 
Research Question 1: What is the influence of the length of the induction program in 
relation to the following: 
 
 77   
 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
Research Question 2: What is the influence of school size in relation to the following: 
a. Classroom Management 
b. Instructional Planning 
c. Teaching Strategies 
d. Student Assessment 
e. Understanding the Environment 
f. Professional Expectations 
No statistically significant relationship was detected among the demographic and 
institutional characteristics on the six dependent variables: Gender (p = .097), Age (p = 
.601), Highest Degree Earned (p = .100), Ethnic Background (p = .489), and School Size 
(p = .451). No significant relationship was found between the six dependent variables and 
the length of the new teacher induction program: Classroom Management (r = .12, p = 
.427), Instructional Planning (r = .074, p = .635), Teaching Strategies (r = .24, p = .118), 
Student Assessment (r = .05, p = .762), Understanding the Environment (r = -.13, p = 
.409), and Professional Expectations (r = -.50, p = .771). It was concluded that the 
respondents rated the effectiveness of the program irrespective of the program?s length 
indicating that the ideas presented in the induction program could be communicated just 
 
 78   
 
as effectively in shorter amounts of time. Analysis indicates that demographic data have 
no significant or practical effect in the respondents? assessment of program effectiveness.  
The program content dealing with Instructional Planning and Teaching Strategies 
were viewed as the most effective areas (M = 3.98, SD = .68; M = 3.92, SD = .64, 
respectively). To a slightly lesser degree, Classroom Management, Student Assessment, 
Understanding the Environment, and Professional Expectations were rated as effective in 
preparing the novice teacher (M = 3.72, SD = .80; M= 3.58 SD = .80; M = 3.61, SD = 
.94; M = 3.81, SD = .70, respectively).  
 
Discussion of Conclusions 
   1. No statistically significant relationship was detected among the demographic 
and institutional characteristics on the six dependent variables. This suggests that the 
components of the teacher induction program are not affected by the size of the school or 
the length of the program. In addition, the educational level among Alabama high school 
principals did not influence the respondents? perceptions of the teacher induction 
program components.  
2. No statistically significant relationship was found between the six 
dependent variables and the length of the new teacher induction program. This suggests 
that teacher induction programs can be beneficial to new teachers regardless of the 
amount of time spent in the program. In addition, the most effective areas indicated by 
the data were Instructional Planning and Teaching Strategies. 
 
 
 
 79   
 
Recommendations for Further Research 
Based on the researcher?s review of the literature, the influence of time as a factor 
to the effectiveness of the teacher induction program is a unique finding in this study. The 
researcher suggests that further investigation should be conducted to determine why the 
length of the teacher induction program was not considered as a factor of effectiveness by 
high school principals in Alabama. Research indicates that on-going, sustained 
professional development activities are key components in teacher induction programs. 
Teachers need to be involved in sustained learning opportunities that are built directly 
into the needs of individual teachers (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). New teachers are subject to 
leaving the teaching profession within the first three years at high rates. School 
administrators see the need to provide job-embedded professional development as a 
prime method of assistance provided to new teachers (Little, 1990; Mills, Moore, & 
Keane, 2001). This implies that the length of time in the teacher induction program may 
influence the benefits to teachers; therefore supporting the need for further research of 
time as a factor. Areas of further research are as follows: 
? Additional data utilizing qualitative methods could be collected from high 
school principals to strengthen a study of the length of time as a factor. 
? Additional quantitative and qualitative data could be collected from teachers 
to determine if the length of time is a factor in their participation in the teacher 
induction program. 
? This study could be replicated to measure Alabama middle school principals? 
and/or elementary school principals? perceptions of the key components of 
teacher induction programs. 
 
 80   
 
 Based on the researcher?s review of literature, the lack of influence of principals 
with more experience and principals with higher advanced degrees is a unique finding in 
this study. The researcher suggests that further investigation should be conducted to 
determine why teacher induction programs led by more experienced and highly educated 
high school principals in Alabama are not more effective than those led by lesser 
experienced and/or less educated principals. Research indicates that principals play a key 
role in the teacher induction process and thus improves the likelihood of retaining young 
teachers in the teaching profession. Kyle, Moore, and Sanders (2001) feel that individual 
principals should help the novice teacher adapt the methodology learned in college to the 
specific school setting. Principals are the key players and have a major role in inducting 
new teachers into the culture of the local school and the teaching profession (Hughes, 
1994; Stansbury, 2001). Chalker (1992) believes a principal?s acceptance of an increased 
involvement in staff instruction will enhance his/her performance beyond being a 
traditional manager. Training in supervision will help the principal facilitate a novice 
teacher?s skill development (Greene, 1992). This implies that more experienced and more 
highly trained principals have more of an impact on the success of teacher induction 
programs than those principals with less experience and training; therefore supporting the 
need for further research into the experience of the principal and their educational levels 
as a factor in the success of teacher induction programs. Areas of further research are as 
follows: 
? A study could be conducted to measure the retention rates among teachers 
after spending time in a teacher induction program. 
 
 81   
 
? A study could be conducted to examine why the amount of experience and the 
level of education did not impact the effectiveness of the teacher induction 
program among Alabama High School principals. 
? A study could be conducted to examine how the areas of classroom 
management, student assessment, understanding the environment, and 
professional expectations can be improved within a teacher induction 
program.  
 
Conclusion 
The topic of teacher induction is a complex matter in the field of education. 
School principals are faced with the task of hiring highly qualified teachers and then 
providing a supportive environment that allows them the best opportunity to succeed and 
become a career teacher. Teachers are exiting the field of education at alarming rates and 
teacher induction programs should be designed to minimize the teacher attrition that 
exists today. 
The impact of the structure of teacher induction programs remains inconclusive 
after conducting the research for this study. It is the belief of the researcher that principals 
with more experience and higher degree levels should value the importance of a sound 
teacher induction program and work diligently in putting together a comprehensive 
teacher induction model that will support all new teachers. Research indicates that there 
are not comprehensive standards for induction programs. Many induction programs have 
several of the same characteristics, but the individual components in the induction 
programs vary depending on the individual needs of school districts and local schools. 
 
 82   
 
It is extremely important for school leaders to develop ways to recruit, support, 
and retain new teachers in the field of education. It is the researcher?s desire that this 
study may open additional lines of investigation on the topic of teacher induction 
programs and the researcher hopes that this study will further the body of knowledge in 
the field of education. 
 
 
 83   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
REFERENCES 
 
Abell, S., Dillon, D., Hopkins, C., McInerney, W., & O?Brien, D. (1995). ?Somebody to 
count on?: Mentor/intern relationships in a beginning teacher induction program. 
Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(2), 173-188. 
Allen, M. (2000). Focusing state policy on higher quality teaching. Washington, DC: 
National Commission on Teaching and America?s Future. 
Anderson, J. (2001). The answers to questions that teachers most frequently ask. 
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Archer, J. (1999). New teachers abandon field at high rate. Education Week, 18(27), 1, 
20-21. 
Arends, R., & Rigazio-DiGillo, A. (2000). Beginning teacher induction: Research and 
examples of contemporary practice. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 
ED 450 074) 
Bercik, J. (1994). The principal?s role in mentoring. (ERIC Document Reproduction 
Service No. ED 378 687) 
Billingsley, B., & Cross, L. (1992). Predictors of commitment, job satisfaction, and intent 
to stay in teaching: A comparison of general and special educators. The Journal of 
Special Education, 25(4), 453-471. 
 
 84   
 
Blackburn, J. (1977). The first year teacher: Perceived needs, intervention strategies and 
results. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 135 768) 
Bolich, A. (2001). Reduce your losses: Help new teachers become veteran teachers. 
Atlanta: Southern Regional Education Board. 
Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (1993). The path to school leadership: A portable mentor. 
Newbury Park: Sage. 
Borich, G. (1993). Clearly outstanding: Making each day count in your classroom. 
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. 
Boyer, L., & Lee, C. (2001). Converting challenge to success: Supporting a new teacher 
of students with autism. Journal of Special Education, 35(2), 75-84. 
Bradley, A. (1998). Uneven distribution contributes to teacher shortages, study warns. 
Education Week on the Web. 
Brock, B., & Grady, M. (2001). From first year to first rate: Principals guiding 
beginning teachers (2
nd
 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.  
Brock, B., & Grady, M. (2000). Rekindling the flame: Principals combating teacher 
burnout. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.  
Brock, B., & Grady, M. (1998). Beginning teacher induction programs: The role of the 
principal. The Clearing House, 71(3), 179-183. 
Brock, B., & Grady, M. (1997). From first year to first rate: Principals guiding 
beginning teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Brooks, D. (Ed.). (1987). Teacher induction: A new beginning. Reston, VA: Association 
of Teacher Educators. 
 
 85   
 
Brunson, L. (2004). Mentoring and induction practices and their influence on new 
teacher retention in selected Eastern North Carolina school districts. 
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, East Carolina University, Greenville, North 
Carolina.  
Buchmann, M. (1990). Beyond the lonely, choosing will: Professional development in 
teacher thinking. Teachers College Record, 91(4), 481-508. 
Bullough, R. (1989). First year teacher: A case study. New York: Teachers College 
Press.  
Burubles, N., & Densmore, K. (1991). The limits of making teaching a profession. 
Educational Policy, 5(1), 44-63. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. EJ 422 827) 
Carlin, P. (1992). The principal?s role in urban school reform. Education & Urban 
Society, 25, 45-57. 
Carter, M., & Francis, R. (2001). Mentoring and beginning teachers? workplace learning. 
Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 29, 249-262. 
Castetter, W. (1996). The human resource function in educational administration. 
Columbus, OH: Merrill. 
Chaika, G. (2000). The teacher shortage: Apply, please! Education World. Retrieved 
July, 22, 2006, from http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/55.shtml 
Chalker, D. (1992). Refocusing school leadership for the 21
st
 century across the board. 
Education, 58(3), 4-9. 
Clift, R. (1991). Learning to teach English?Maybe: A study of knowledge development. 
The Journal of Teacher Education, 42(5), 357-372. 
 
 86   
 
Cole, A. (1990). Personal theories of teaching: Development in the formative years. The 
Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 36(3), 203-222. 
Cooperman, S. (2000). The sky is not falling!: There?s a well-traveled route to solving 
our teacher shortage. Education Week, 19(20), 31. 
Culver, S., Wolfle, L., & Cross, L. (1990). Testing a model of teacher satisfaction for 
blacks and whites. American Educational Research Journal, 27(2), 323-349. 
Darling-Hammond, L. (2003). Keeping good teachers: Why it matters, What leaders can 
do. Educational Leadership, 60(8), 6-13. 
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement. A review of 
state policy evidence. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). [online 
journal]. Available: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8nl 
Darling-Hammond, L. (1998a). Teacher learning that supports student learning. 
Educational Leadership, 55(5), 6-11. 
Darling-Hammond, L. (1998b). How can we ensure a caring, competent, qualified 
teacher for every child? Washington, DC: National Commission on Teaching and 
America?s Future. 
Darling-Hammond, L. (1984). Beyond the commission?s reports: The coming crisis in 
teaching. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.  
Darling-Hammond, L. & Sclan, E. (1996). Who teaches and why: Dilemma of building a 
profession for twenty-first century schools. In J. Sikula, T. J. Butterly, & E. 
Guyton (eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 67-101). New 
York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. 
 
 87   
 
David, T. (2000). Teacher mentoring, benefits all around. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 36(3), 
134-136. 
Defino, M., & Hoffman, J. (1984). A status report and content analysis of state mandated 
teacher induction programs. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 251 
438). 
DePaul, A. (1997). Survival guide for new teachers. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 
of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement. 
Dollase, R. (1992). Voices of beginning teachers: Visions and realities. New York: 
Teachers College Press. 
Dornan, J. (1999). The new dropouts. Issues Challenging Education, 1-7. 
Feiman-Nemser, S. (2003). What new teachers need to learn. Educational Leadership, 
60(8), 25-29. 
Feiman-Nemser, S. (2001). From preparation to practice: Designing a continuum to 
strengthen and sustain teaching. Teachers College Record, 103(6), 1013-1055. 
Feiman-Nemser, S. (1996, July). Teacher mentoring: A critical review. (ERIC Document 
Reproduction Service No. ED 397 060). 
Feiman-Nemser, S, Carver, C, Schwille, S., & Yusko, B. (2001). Beyond support: Taking 
new teachers seriously as learners. In M. Scherer (Ed.), A better beginning: 
Supporting and mentoring new teachers (pp. 3-12). Alexandria, VA: Association 
for Supervision and Curriculum. 
Feiman-Nemser, S., Schwille, S., Carver, C., & Yusko, B. (1999). A conceptual review 
of literature on new teacher induction. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service 
No. ED 449 147) 
 
 88   
 
Feiman-Nemser, S., & Remillard, J. (1995). Perspectives on learning to teach (Issue 
Paper 95-3). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of 
Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service 
No. ED 392 749). 
Fideler, E., & Haselkorn, D. (1999). Learning the ropes: Urban teacher induction 
programs and practices in the U.S. Belmont, Massachusetts: Recruiting New 
Teachers, Inc. 
Fischer, K., Bullock, D., Rotenberg, E., & Raya, P. (1993). The dynamics of competence: 
How context contributes directly to skill. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer 
(Eds.), Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments (pp. 
93-117). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 
Flanagan-Joest, J. (2002). The impact of induction programs on retention of novice 
teachers as reported by novice teachers and district administrators in selected 
Texas public schools in Regions XIII and XX Education Service Centers. 
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, 
Texas. 
Frase, L. (1992). Maximizing people power in schools: Motivating and managing 
teachers and staff. Newbury Park: Corwin Press 
French, K. (2000). Millennium mentoring: 1
st
 year teacher statewide mentoring programs 
in the United States, 199301994 and 1999-2000. (ERIC Document Reproduction 
Service No. ED 448 139). 
Fullan, M. (1999). Change forces: The sequel. Philadelphia: Farmer Press. 
 
 89   
 
Ganser, T. (1996). Mentor notes???: Views of participants in a state-mandated program. 
Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 9(20), 15-20. 
Ganser, T. (2000). Teams of two. Journal of Teacher Education, 32(6), 34-38. 
Gardner, V., & Silvernail, D. (2000). Educator shortages in Maine?s public schools. The 
Center for Educational Policy, Applied Research and Evaluation. Maine 
Education Policy Research Institute. Retrieved July, 2005 from 
http://usm.maine.edu/cepare/pdf/ meg/esemh.pdf 
Gehrke, N. (1998). Toward a definition of mentoring. Theory Into Practice, 27(3), 190. 
Gehrke, N. (1981). A grounded theory study of beginning teachers? role personalization 
through reference group relations. Journal of Teacher Education, 32(6), 34-38. 
Gerald, D., & Husser, W. (2000). Projections of education statistics to 2010 (NCES 
2000-071). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education 
Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 
Glatthorn, A., & Fox, L. (1996). Quality teaching through professional development. 
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Glickman, C., Gordon, S., & Ross-Gordon, J. (1998). Supervision of instruction: A 
developmental approach (4
th
 ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 
Glickman, C., Gordon, S., & Ross-Gordon, J. (1995). Supervision of instruction (3
rd
 ed.).  
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 
Goldberg, M. (2001). Balanced optimism: An interview with Linda Darling-Hammond. 
Phi Delta Kappan, 82(9), 687-690. 
Goodnough, A. (2000, January). Union says poll of teachers predicts wave of retirements. 
The New York Times. 
 
 90   
 
Gordon, S., & Maxey, S. (2000). How to help beginning teachers succeed (2
nd
 ed.). 
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum. 
Greene, M. (1992). Teacher supervision as professional development: Does it work? 
Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 7, 131-149. 
Grissmer, D., & Kirby, S.N. (1997). Teacher turnover and teacher quality. Teachers 
College Record, 99, 45-56. 
Grissmer, D., & Kirby, S.N. (1992). Patterns of attrition among Indiana teachers, 1965-
1987. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. 
Hafner, A., & Owings, J. (1991). Careers in teaching: Following members of the high 
school class of 1972 in and out of teaching. (NCES Report No. 91-470). 
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education 
Statistics. 
Halford, J. (1998). Easing the way for new teachers. Educational Leadership, 55(5), 33-
36. 
Hawk, P., & Robards, S. (1987). Teacher induction. In D. M. Brooks (Ed.), Teacher 
induction: A new beginning (pp. 33-44). Reston, VA: Association of Teacher 
Educators. 
Hargreaves, A. (1998). The emotional practice of teaching. Teaching and Teacher 
Education, 14, 835-854. 
Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2000, Winter). Mentoring in the new millennium. Theory 
into Practice, Ohio State University. 
 
 91   
 
Head, T., Reiman, A., & Theis-Sprinthall, L. (1992). The reality of mentoring: 
Complexity in process and function. In T. Bey & C. Holmes (Eds.), Mentoring: 
Contemporary principles and issues (pp. 5-24). Reston, VA: Association of 
Teacher Educators. 
Heidkamp, A., & Shapiro, J. (1999). The elements of a supportive induction program. In 
M. Scherer (Ed.), A better beginning: Supporting and mentoring new teachers 
(pp. 40-44). Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum. 
Holmes Group (The). (1986). Tomorrow?s teacher: A report of the Holmes Group. East 
Lansing, MI: Author. (ERIC Digest ED270454) 
Hope, W. (1999). Principals? orientation and induction activities as factors in teacher 
retention. Clearing House, 73(10), 54-56. 
Howey, K., & Bents, R. (1979). Toward meeting the needs of the beginning teacher. 
Minneapolis, MN: United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 
Hughes, L. (Ed.). (1994). The principal as leader. New York: Macmillan. 
Huling-Austin, L. (1990). Teacher induction programs and internships. In W. R. Houston 
(Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. Reston, VA: Association of 
Teacher Educators. 
Huling-Austin, L. (1987). Teacher induction. In D.M. Brooks (Ed.), Teacher induction: A 
new beginning (pp. 3-24). Reston, VA: Association of Teacher Educators 
Huling-Austin, L. (1985). Teacher induction programs: What is and isn?t reasonable to 
expect: R & D CTE Review, 3 (3), 1, 2, 5. 
 
 92   
 
Humphrey, D., Adelman, N., Esch, C., Riehl, L., Shields, P., & Tiffany, J. (2000). 
Preparing and supporting new teachers: A literature review. Menlo Park, CA: SRI 
International. 
Ingersoll, R. (1999). The problem of underqualified teachers in American secondary 
schools. Educational Researcher, 28(2), 26-37.  
Ingersoll, R. (2001). A different approach to solving the teacher shortage problem. 
Seattle, WA: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy. 
Ingersoll, R. (2000). Turnover among mathematics and science teachers. Washington, 
DC: National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21
st
 
Century. 
Ingersoll, R., & Smith, T. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage. 
Educational Leadership, 60(8), 30-33. 
Ishler, P., & Kester, R. (1987). Professional organizations and teacher induction: 
Initiatives and positions. In D. M. Brooks (Ed.), Teacher induction: A new 
beginning (pp. 61-68). Reston, VA: Association of Teacher Educators. 
Jambor, M., & Patterson, J. (1997). Teach is for new teachers: An innovative mentoring 
program for first-year teachers is paying big dividends for Alabama district. 
Principal, 77(36). 
Joftus, S., & Maddox-Dolan, B. (2002). New-teacher excellence: retaining our best. 
(ERIC Digest ED 473 235) 
Johnson, H. (2001). Administrators and mentors: Keys in the success of beginning 
teachers. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28(1), 44-49. 
 
 93   
 
Johnson, S. (2001). Can professional certification for teachers reshape teaching as a 
career? Phi Delta Kappan, 82(5), 393-399. 
Johnson, S., Birkeland, S., Kardos, S., Kauffman, D., Liu, E., & Peske, H. (2001). 
Retaining the next generation of teachers: The importance of school-based 
support. Harvard Education Letter Research Online. 
Jonson, K. (2002). The new elementary teacher?s handbook: Flourishing in your first 
year (2
nd
 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.  
Jonson, K. (1997). The new elementary teacher?s handbook: (Almost) everything you 
need to know for your first years of teaching. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Kanstorom, M. & Finn, Jr., C.E. (Eds). (1999). Better teachers, better schools. 
Washington, DC: Fordham Foundation. 
Kantrowitz, B., & Wingert, P. (2000, October). Teachers wanted. Newsweek, 36-42. 
Karge, B. (1993). Beginning teachers: In danger of attrition. Paper presented at the 
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA. (ERIC 
Document Reproduction Services No. ED 360 281) 
Katz, S. (1999). Teaching in tensions: Latino immigrant youth, their teachers, and the 
structures of schooling. Teachers College Record, 100(4), 809-840. 
Kester, R., & Marockie, M. (1987). Local induction programs. In D. M. Brooks (Ed.), 
Teacher induction: A new beginning (pp. 25-32). Reston, VA: Association of 
Teacher Educators. 
Knowles, M. (1990). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. (4
th
 ed.) Houston: Gulf 
Publishing Company. 
 
 94   
 
Kochan, F. (2000). Division I summary. In D. J. McIntyre & D. M. Byrd (Eds.), 
Research on effective models for teacher education (pp. 62-71). Thousand Oaks, 
CA: Corwin Press. 
Kronowitz, E. (1996). Your first year of teaching and beyond (2
nd
 ed.). White Plains, NY: 
Longman. 
Kyle, D., Moore, G., & Sanders, J. (1999). The role of the mentor teacher: Insights, 
challenges, and implications. Peabody Journal of Education, 74(3-4), 109-122. 
Levine, M. (1988). Introduction (ED 313 344). In M. Levine (Ed.), Professional practice 
schools: Building a model (pp. 1-25). Washington, DC: American Federation of 
Teachers. 
Lieberman, A. (1995). Practices that support teacher development: Transforming 
conceptions of professional learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(8), 591-596. 
Lewis, L. (2001). The effect of gender on an induction year mentoring program for 
principals as perceived by selected female principals an their mentors in Austin, 
Texas. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University, College 
Station.  
Little, J. (1990). The mentor phenomenon and the social organization of teaching. In C. 
B. Cazden (Ed.), Review of Research in Education (16, 297-351). Washington, 
DC: American Educational Research Association. 
Lohr, L. (1999). Assistance and review: Helping new teachers get started. Teaching & 
Change, 6, 295-313. 
London, H. (2003, March). Creating a new teacher induction program that works. ICP 
online. 
 
 95   
 
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper Row. 
Maynard, T. (2000). Learning to teach or learning to manage the mentor? Mentoring & 
Tutoring: Partnerships in Learning, 8(1), 17-30. 
MacKay, L., & Ralston, E. (1997). Creating better schools: What authentic principals 
do? Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Marso, R., & Pigge, F. (1992). The nature of the differences between 1985 and 1990 
first-year teachers? reports of job entry reality shock. (ERIC Document 
Reproduction Service No. ED 342 743) 
Mezzacappa, D. (2003, March). Teacher attrition sapping urban schools. The 
Philadelphia Enquirer.  
Mills, H., Moore, D., & Keane, W. (2001). Addressing the teacher shortage: A study of 
successful mentoring programs in Oakland County, Michigan. Clearing House, 
74, 124-126. 
Moir, E. (1999). The stages of a teacher?s first year. In M. Scherer (Ed.), A better 
beginning: Supporting and mentoring new teachers (pp. 19-26). Alexandria, VA: 
Association for Supervision and Curriculum. 
Moir, E., & Gless, J. (2001). Quality induction: An investment in teachers. Teacher 
Education Quarterly, 28(1), 109-114. 
Mutchler, S. Pan., Glover, R., & Shapely, K. (2000). Mentoring beginning teachers: 
Lessons from experience in Texas, Policy Research Report. Southwest 
Educational Development Lab. Retrieved June, 2005, from http://www.sedl.org 
 
 96   
 
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (1997). The status of teaching as a 
profession: 1990-91 (NCES 97-104). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 
Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. 
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (1995). America?s teachers ten years 
after ?A Nation at Risk.? Washington, DC: United States Department of 
Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, NCES 95-766. 
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk. Washington, 
DC: United States Department of Education. 
National Commission of Teaching and America?s Future. (1996). What?s matters most: 
Teaching for America?s future. New York. 
National Commission of Teaching and America?s Future and NCTAF State Partners. 
(2002). Unraveling the ?teacher shortage? problem: Teacher retention is the key. 
Washington, DC: Author unknown. 
National Education Association [NEA]. (2000). A better beginning: Helping new 
teachers survive and thrive. Retrieved June, 2005 from 
http://www.nea.org/teachers/research - teachers.html 
Nelson, J. (1996). Vulnerability index: A planting tool for the prevention of classroom 
management problems. Education, 111, 521-525 
O?Bryan, J. (1992). Beginning teacher essay. In K. Ryan (Ed.), The roller coaster year. 
New York: Harper Collins. 
Odell, S. (1987). Teacher induction: Rationale and issues. In D. M. Brooks (Ed), Teacher 
induction: A new beginning (pp. 69-80). Reston, VA: Association of Teacher 
Educators. 
 
 97   
 
Odell, S., Huling, L., & Sweeney, B. (2000). Conceptualizing quality mentoring. In S. J. 
Odell & Huling (Eds.), Quality mentoring for novice teachers (pp. 3-14). 
Indianapolis, IN: Kappa Delta Pi. 
Paese, P. (1990). A review of teacher induction: Are special programs needed for 
beginning physical education teachers? Physical Educator, 47, 159-166. 
Pellicer, L. (1999). Caring Enough to Lead. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Pianta, R. (1997). Adult-child relationship process and early schooling. Early Education 
and Development, 8(1), 11-26. 
Pianta, R. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, 
DC: American Psychological Association. 
Ponticell, J., & Zepeda, S. (1997). First-year teachers at risk: A study of induction at 
three high schools. High School Journal, 81(1), 8-23. 
Portner, H. (1998). Mentoring new teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Public Affairs Research Council of Alabama (PARCA). (2001, October). Turnover 
among 1999 novice teachers. Alabama. 
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc. (2000). A guide to developing teacher induction 
programs. Belmont, MA: Author. 
Riley, R. (1998). The challenge for America: A high quality teacher in every classroom. 
Annual Back-to-School Address of the National Press Club, Washington, DC. 
Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Workplace conditions that effect teacher quality and commitment: 
Implications for teacher induction programs. The Elementary School Journal, 89, 
421-439. 
 
 98   
 
Rosenshine, B. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of intervention 
studies. Review of Educational Research, 66(2), 181-221. 
Rosenshine, B. (1986). Synthesis of research on explicit teaching. Educational 
Leadership, 43(7), 60-69. 
Rushland, S. (2001). Factors influencing the turnover and retention of Minnesota?s 
secondary career and technical education teachers. Paper presented at the Annual 
Meeting of the Association for Career and Technical Education. New Orleans, 
LA. 
Ryan, K. (1986). The induction of new teachers; Fastback No. 237. Bloomington, IN: Phi 
Delta Kappan Educational Foundation. 
Sagor, R., & Barnett, B. (1994). The TOE principal: A transformed leader (Vol. 4). 
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Saunders, S., & Pettinger, K. (1995). Prospective mentors? views on partnership in 
secondary teacher training. British Educational Research Journal, 21, 199-219. 
Schlechty, P. (1985). A framework for evaluating induction into teaching. Journal of 
 Teacher Education, 36(1), 37-41. 
Schlechty, P. & Vance, V. (1983). Recruitment, selection, and retention: The shape of the 
teaching force. Elementary School Journal, 83(4), 469-480. 
Sergiovanni, T. (1995). Small schools, great expectations. Educational Leadership, 53(3), 
48-52. 
Sergiovanni, T., & Carver, F. (1980). The new school executive: A theory of 
administration (2
nd
 ed.). New York: Harper and Rowe. 
 
 99   
 
Shulman, J., & Colbert, J. (Eds.). (1987). The mentor teacher casebook. San Francisco: 
Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development. 
Simmons, B. (2002). Navigating the first year of teaching. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 38(4), 
160-164. 
Smith, B. (2000). Emerging themes in problems experienced by student teachers: A 
framework for analysis. College Student Journal, 34(4), 633-640. 
Smylie, M., & Conyers, J. (1991). Changing conceptions of teaching influence the future 
of staff development. Journal of Staff Development, 12(1), 12-16. 
Snyder, T., Hoffman, C., & Geddes, C. (1997). The digest of education statistics. 
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. 
Southern Regional Education Board. (2002, March). Quality teachers: Can incentive 
policies make a difference? Southern Regional Education Board. 
Stansbury, K. (2001). What new teachers need. Leadership, 30(3), 18-21. 
State Board of Educator Certification. (2001). Texas beginning educator support system 
(Executive Summary of Findings from the Pilot Year, 1999-2000). Austin, TX: 
Charles A. Dana Center. 
State of Michigan Department of Education. (1994). Guidelines and recommendations for 
the new teacher induction/mentoring process in Michigan. Effective Induction and 
Mentoring Programs, Convened by the State Department of Education and the 
Michigan Deans? Council and the Association of Teacher Educators. 
Stephens, M., & Moskowitz, J. (1997). From students of teaching to teachers of students: 
Teacher induction around the pacific rim. Chapter (2) Teacher Induction Policy & 
Practice Among APEC Members: Results of the Exploratory Survey. 
 
 100   
 
Sweeney, B. (2001). Frequently asked questions and answers about mentoring/induction 
programs.  
Thompson, C., & Zeuli, J. (1999). The frame and tapestry: Standards-based reform and 
professional development. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching 
as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice (pp. 341-375). San 
Francisco: Jossey-Bass 
Tickle, L. (1991). New teachers and the emotions of learning teaching. Cambridge 
Journal of Education, 21, 319-329. 
Trotter, Y. (2006). Adult learning theories: Impacting professional development 
programs. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 72(2), 8-13. 
Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and 
measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202-248. 
U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Eliminating barriers to improving teaching. 
Washington, DC: Author. 
U.S. Department of Education. (1999). A talented, dedicated and well-prepared teacher 
in every classroom. Washington, DC: Author. 
U.S. Department of Education (1995). From students of teaching to teachers of students. 
Cross National Case Studies of Teacher Induction Programs and the Induction 
Practices by the Educational Forum of APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic 
Cooperation) and the Pelavian Research Institute. 
Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational 
Research, 54(2), 143-178. 
 
 101   
 
Villani, S. (2002). Mentoring programs for new teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin 
Press. 
Weiss, E., & Weiss, S. (1999). Beginning teacher induction. Washington, DC: U.S. 
Department of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 436-
487). 
Wilkinson, G. (1994). Support for individualizing teacher induction. Action in Teacher 
Education, 16(2), 52-61. 
Wilson, S., & Berne, J. (1999). Teacher learning and acquisition of professional 
knowledge: An examination of research on contemporary professional 
development. In A Iran-Nejad & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Review of Research in 
Education (Vol. 24, pp. 173-209). Washington, DC: American Educational 
Research Association. 
Wilson, S., Floden, R., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2001). Teacher preparation research: 
Current knowledge, gaps, and recommendations. Seattle, WA: University of 
Washington, Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy. 
Wong, H. (2004, May). It takes much more than mentors to help new teachers. Retrieved 
July 2005 from http://www.EducationNews.org. 
Wong, H. (2002). Induction: the best form of professional development. Educational 
Leadership, 59(6), 52-54. 
Wood, A. (1999). How can new teachers become the BEST. In M. Scherer (Ed.), A better 
beginning: Supporting and mentoring new teachers (pp. 116 ?123). Alexandria, 
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum.  
 
 102   
 
Zepeda, S., & Ponticell, J. (1998). At cross-purposes: What do teachers need, want, and 
get from supervision? Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 14(1), 68-88. 
  
 
 
 103   
 
APPENDICES 
 
 104   
 
APPENDIX A 
PERMISSION TO USE SURVEY FROM DR. JEAN FLANAGAN-JOEST
 
 105   
 
 
 
 106   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX B 
RESEARCH PROTOCOL REVIEW FORM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 107   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 108   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX C 
INFORMATION SHEET 
 
 109   
 
 
 
 110   
 
 
 
 
 111   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX D 
SURVEY INSTRUMENT 
 
 112   
 
High School Principal Questionnaire 
 
 
Part I: Please complete the following demographic portion of the questionnaire. 
 
Gender:  ________ Male  _________ Female 
 
Age:  ________ 21-30 ________ 31-40 ________ 41-50 ________ 51-60 _________ 61+ 
 
Highest Degree: ________ M.S./M.A/M.Ed ________ Ed.S  _________ Ph.D  _________ Ed.D 
 
Ethnicity:  ________ Caucasian  ________ African-American  _________ 
Hispanic  _________ Other 
 
School Size: ________ 0-400 ________ 401-800  ________ 801-1200 ________ 1201+ 
 
Years Experience ________ 0-5 ________ 6-10  _________ 11-15 ________16-20 ________ 21+ 
as a High School 
Principal 
 
Percentage of students receiving Free/Reduced lunches: __________% 
 
Part II: Please choose the response for each item that most indicates your level of agreement with the 
statements below. 
 
1- Strongly Disagree (SD) 
2- Disagree (D) 
3- Neither Agree or Disagree (NAD) 
4- Agree (A) 
5- Strongly Agree (SA) 
 
In general, our Induction Support Program has helped the novice teacher(s) to effectively: 
 
Please circle your response 
 
Classroom Management SD D NAD  A S A 
    
1. Establish classroom organization 1 2 3 4 5 
 
2. Improve behavior management practices 1 2 3 4 5 
 
3. Manage classroom procedures 1 2 3 4 5 
 
4. Motivate students to learn 1 2 3 4 5 
 
5. Establish realistic expectations of student behavior 1 2 3 4 5 
 
6. Organize the classroom environment 1 2 3 4 5 
 
Instructional Planning 
 
7. Understand more about curriculum and developing 1 2 3 4 5  
 lesson plans 
 
8. Obtain instructional materials and resources 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 113   
 
 SD D NAD  A S A 
 
9. Strengthen subject-matter knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 
 
10. Organize, sequence, and present lessons 1 2 3 4 5 
 
Teaching Strategies 
 
11. Use a variety of teaching methods and strategies 1 2 3 4 5 
 
12. Use innovative teaching practices 1 2 3 4 5 
 
13. Use grouping strategies for effective instruction 1  2 3 4 5 
 
14. Facilitate group discussions 1 2 3 4 5 
 
15. Use effective questioning techniques 1 2 3 4 5  
 
16. Use technology in teaching 1 2 3 4 5 
 
Student Assessment 
 
17. Use student assessment data to guide instructional planning 1 2 3 4 5 
 
18. Diagnose student needs 1 2 3 4 5 
 
19. Individualize instruction according to student needs 1 2 3 4 5 
 
20. Assist students with special needs 1 2 3 4 5 
 
21. Administer standardized tests 1 2 3 4 5 
 
22. Understand special services for students provided by  1 2 3 4 5 
 the school/district 
 
Understanding the Environment 
 
23. Understand the culture of the district and school 1 2 3 4 5 
 
24. Understand the school community 1 2 3 4 5 
 
Professional Expectations 
 
25. Understand what was expected as a teacher 1 2 3 4 5 
 
26. Handle job related stress 1 2 3 4 5 
 
27. Receive informal feedback on their teaching 1 2 3 4 5 
 
28. Obtain time to confer with their mentor 1 2 3 4 5 
 
29. Receive support to develop their own teaching style 1 2 3 4 5 
 
30. Learn how to communicate with parents 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 
 114   
 
 SD D NAD  A S A 
 
31. Access appropriate professional development opportunities 1 2 3 4 5 
 
32. Work collaboratively with other teachers 1 2 3 4 5 
 
33. Network and share with other novice teachers 1 2 3 4 5 
 
34. Complete administrative paperwork 1 2 3 4 5 
 
35. Understand the teacher evaluation process 1 2 3 4 5 
 
36. Understand their legal rights and responsibilities 1 2 3 4 5  
 as a teacher 
 
Part III: Please respond to the following items: 
 
37. How many years do novice teachers participate in your teacher induction program? Please circle the 
appropriate choice. 
 
 1 2 3 4+ 
 
 
38. What are the most valuable aspects of your teacher induction program? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Thank You for your cooperation in completing this survey!