Dressing the Self: The Relationship between Self Satisfaction and the Physical Display of Self by Yi-Han Huang A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Auburn University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Communication and Journalism Auburn, Alabama May 09, 2011 Keywords: self, identity, appearance, communication, clothing, comfort Copyright 2011 by Yi-Han Huang Approved by Margaret Fitch-Hauser, Chair, Associate Professor of Communication and Journalism Debra Worthington, Associate Professor of Communication and Journalism Susan Waters, Associate Professor of Communication and Journalism ii Abstract This study was conducted as an attempt to discuss how important some elements of body modifications and supplements are as compared to the comfort level with one?s appearance. This study also looks at what relationships are more important than others when presenting these elements. The results show a significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the physical display of self in most of the time. However, there is no significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the agreement that fragrances reflect personality. It seems like fragrances are still primarily used for sexual attraction rather than self expression. The results also show that significant others and opposite-sex friends are more important than same-sex friends and family when one presenting these elements of self. It seems like sexual attraction is still an important factor in one?s presentation of self. Suggestions for future research in this area are presented. iii Acknowledgments The author would especially like to thank her committee chair Dr. Margaret Fitch-Hauser for her constant help and support in this study. The author could not possibility complete this study without the guidance of Dr. Fitch-Hauser. The author would also like to thank Dr. Debra Worthington and Dr. Susan Waters for their direction and criticism of the survey questionnaire as well as agreeing to be part of the committee. As the author?s best supporters, the author would like to thank Mu-Han Wu and Yu- Hsiang Liao for their constant encouragement and motivation throughout this emotional trial. Also, a big thanks to Ya-Ting Lin for both her emotional support and her help on statistical software. Most importantly, the author would like to thank her family for their never-changing faithful support. iv Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... iii Chapter I. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter II. Review of Literature ................................................................................................... 5 Self-identity in Social Interaction ..................................................................................... 5 The Physical Display of Self........................................................................................... 17 Chapter III. Methods ................................................................................................................... 30 Participants ...................................................................................................................... 30 Procedure ........................................................................................................................ 31 Instrument ....................................................................................................................... 31 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 32 Chapter IV. Results ..................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter V. Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................................................... 68 Limitations and Future Research .................................................................................... 75 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 76 References ................................................................................................................................. 79 Appendix ................................................................................................................................... 82 1 Chapter I. Introduction This study is generated by the author?s special interest in how self-identity is managed through physical appearance in social interaction. In other words, this study attempts to examine the relationship between the presentation of self and the use of body ornaments such as clothing, cosmetics, fragrances, and hair style in everyday interaction. Mead (1934), as the founder of symbolic interactionism, argues that messages are symbolically formed through social interaction and people learn how to interpret these massages in everyday interaction. Following Mead?s concept, Bandura (1986) develops social cognitive theory and argues that people learn how to perform new behaviors and about the consequences of the new behaviors through social observation. Based on Mead?s concept of symbolic interaction and Bandura?s concept of observational learning, it can be concluded that the self-concept is an outcome of social interaction. People learn how to interpret the symbolic messages, internalize them, and develop their own patterns of behaviors. The self-concept consists of various identities which are developed and performed under different social circumstances (Kuhn, 1956). According to Stone (1962), identity is the combinations of how people present themselves and the degree of recognition by other people of the presented identity. An individual can simultaneously have several identities at a time and the self thus is a cumulative result of these various identities (Roach-Higgins and Eicher, 1992). In other words, identity is only one aspect of the whole self-concept. 2 Goffman (1959), as one of the greatest scholars in sociology, develops the concept of presentational self and argues that everyday settings are stages that allow individuals, as actors or actresses, to perform their desired self-images to their audiences. Based on the concept of presentational self, Goffman further argues that successful self-presentation is essential for impression management. If a person is able to perform the desired identity, he/she will be able to make good impression to his/her audiences. Hecht (2005) argues that there are four layers of identity: personal, enactment, relational, and communal. Although each person may have different emphasis on different layers, these four layers of identity simultaneously exist. They interact with each other and cannot be separated. The power of identity is mainly stable and enduring. However, there are times when identities are threatened, and people are forced to negotiate or transformed their identities. Ting-Toomey (2005) argues that identity negotiation is a self-reflective process in which identity is constantly negotiated through social interaction. The ultimate goal is to manage the balance status among various conflicting identities. Communication thus is used as a means to manage the process of identity construction in which identity is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed in social interaction. Of all communication practices, the researcher finds appearance communication most interesting. Before 1962, appearance communication gets little attention from social interactionism scholars. Stone (1962) argues that appearance plays a powerful role in self- development and is at least as important as discourse in self-development. Following Stone?s argument, Negrin (2008) argues that appearance not only is a reflection of a person?s social role and status, but also communicates the messages of who the person thinks he/she is and what the person wants other people to think he/she is. Appearance is becoming more and more important in modern culture to describe a person?s self-concept. 3 Body supplements and modifications are used to enhance physical appearance. Different scholars may use different technical terms such as clothing, dress, or artifact to define these body supplements and modifications, they all agree with the idea that the choices of these body supplements and modifications reflect a person?s perception of the self (Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992; Kaiser, 1997; Leathers, 2007). Functions of these body supplements and modifications in relation to self-identity have been examined by several scholars who agree that self-identity is communicated through the use of body supplements and modifications (Treece, 1959; Ryan, 1966; Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992; Kaiser, 1997; Guy & Banim, 2000; Rubinstein, 2001; Goulding & Saren, 2009). Although these studies show that the use of body supplements and modifications significantly contribute to the development of self, few mention the degree of comfort with the presentation of self and its relationship to the use of body modifications and supplements. This study thus is conducted as an attempt to address the relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the use of body modifications and supplements as a presentation of self. Additionally, the similarities and differences among these body supplements and modifications are not clearly mentioned in the previous literature. Thus, this study addresses the use of body supplements and modifications specifically in four categories: clothing, cosmetics, fragrances, and hair style, to discuss the similarities and differences among them. Finally, since the previous literature suggests that people perform their desired self-image to their audiences in everyday interaction, the author wondered are some audiences more important than others when presenting these four elements of self. This study also examines whether some relationships are more important than others when presenting these elements of self. 4 The thesis is presented in the following order. In chapter 2, a review of literature will be provided. It introduces literature related to self-identity in social interaction and literature related to the physical display of self in social interaction to explain how self-identity is communicated through the use of body supplements and modifications. Chapter 3 presents the method section. It includes the participants, procedure, instrument, and data analysis of this study. Chapter 4 is the results section. It presents the results of the data analysis and will follow the order of research questions. Chapter 5 is the discussion and conclusion section. It includes the discussion and limitations of this study as well as suggestions for future research. 5 Chapter II. Review of Literature The following literature is selected due to its relation with the main issue of this study: the relationship between the presentation of self and the use of body modifications and supplements. The selected literature is reviewed under the two major headlines: (1) self- identity in social interaction, and (2) the physical display of self in social interaction. Self-identity in Social Interaction In order to provide a comprehensive understanding of self-identity and how it gets formed through social interaction, the literature in this section is reviewed in the following order: (1) the concept of social interaction and social cognitive theory as foundations of self in social interaction, (2) definitions and relationships between the self and identity, (3) Goffman?s concept of presentational self as a general outline to explain the self in social interaction, and (4) the process of identity construction in social interaction. Mead (1934) argues that as individuals interact with each other over time, they tend to share meanings for certain terms or actions and thus understand behaviors or events in a particular way. The concept of symbolic interaction explains how messages are symbolically formed and interpreted through social interaction. Following the concept of symbolic interactionism, social cognitive theory (1986) suggests that by observing others, an individual establishes the idea of how new behaviors are performed and the consequences of performing new behaviors. According to Bandura (1986), observational 6 learning involves four processes. First, the attention process ? people pay attention to certain models and their behaviors are affected by those modeled behaviors. Second is the retention process ? people transform and reconstruct information from the modeled behavior into their personal memory codes. Retention represents cognitive construction that involves an active process of reconstructing the modeled information. Third is the behavioral production process in which people translate conceptual information into actual behaviors. Cognitive conceptions are usually not transmitted perfectly on the first attempt. During the behavioral production process, behavioral patterns are established and become perfected by corrective adjustments. Finally, the motivation process focuses on the idea that people do not perform every behavior they learn. People are more likely to perform the behavior that is associated with valued outcomes rather than behavior with unrewarding or punishing effects. People are motivated by the modeled behavior that is associated with successful consequences and unmotivated by the modeled behavior associated with undesirable consequences. Through the observational learning process, individuals develop basic understandings of the modeled behavior and establish their own behavioral patterns. The observational learning process gives individuals the ability to produce, maintain, repair, and transform their realities. Social cognitive theory suggests that the construction of certain messages functions as a guideline for social behaviors. People perform a certain behavior based on their previous experiences. People receive the messages, embrace the ideas, and internalize these concepts into their personal identities through social interaction (Bandura, 1986). Based on the argument of social cognitive theory that behaviors and ideas are internalized into an individual?s self-concept via social interaction, it can be argued that the self-concept is an outcome of social interaction. The concept of self is formed through social interaction. Kuhn 7 (1956) defines the concept of self explaining how it is formed through social interaction. According to Kuhn, self-concept is a perception of who you are as a person. To begin with, Kuhn makes an assumption that an individual makes sense of and acts with objects in an environment through social interaction. The object here is defined as any aspect of an individual?s reality such as a thing, an event, or a city. However, as these objects are presented or defined in a symbolic way, they represent more than objective things. They are social objects and an individual?s reality is the sum of these social objects. Thus, how to name an object is important since it is the way to communicate the object?s meaning. Social interaction does not only involve people interact with other people and social objects, but also with themselves. Self conversation is part of the social interaction; individuals communicate with themselves to make sense of society as well as to decide how to act with others and social objects. Kuhn calls the process a plan of action. An individual?s self-concept is considered as a significant social object which is constructed based on the plan of action towards the individual?s identities, interests, aversions, goals, ideologies, and self-evaluation (Kuhn, 1956). Under Kuhn?s (1956) interpretation of the self, it can be argued that self-concept is not equal to identity. Identity is just one aspect of the whole self-concept. Going along with the concept, Stone (1962) further explains the relationship between the self-concept and identity. Stone states that an individual?s identity is not a substitution of self-concept and defines identity as ?the acknowledgement of his participation or membership in social relations? (p. 23). An individual?s identity is established when he/she is placed as a social object as well as when he/she announces this participation or membership in the social relation. Being placed as a social object indicates that by dressing or acting in a particular way, people are recognized as a specific social object; announcing the participation or membership in a social relation indicates by 8 dressing or acting in a particular way, an individual?s participation or membership in a group, an event, or a relationship is announced. For example, a firefighter wears a uniform to announce his/her identity as a firefighter while others place him/her as a firefighter through the recognition of the uniform. It is the intersection of announcement and placement that makes identity a part of the self (Stone, 1962). Similarly, Roach-Higgins and Eicher (1992) argue that identities are constructed through various social interactions, and the whole concept of self is a cumulative result of these various identities which are communicated through appearance, discourse, body modifications and supplements, and other social objects. An individual can simultaneously have several identities that contribute to the whole concept of self. With the understanding of the relationship between self-concept and identity, the following literature is reviewed to explain the process of identity construction in social interaction. Goffman?s (1959) concept of presentational self is first reviewed as a general outline before illustrating every stages of identity construction. Goffman makes an assumption that an individual by some means is able to make sense of objects and events in everyday life. An individual?s own interpretation of a situation is the individual?s definition of the situation. The definition of a situation can be discussed from two dimensions: a strip and a frame. A strip represents a series of activities while a frame refers to a common understanding of a pattern that is usually used to define the strip. For example, a strip can be opening the printer, selecting a file, connecting the computer with the printer, printing the file, and closing the printer; these activities, on the other hand, may be framed as printing out a file. Frame is the process of identifying, understanding, and determining the meaning of a sequence of activities, in other words, a strip. Frameworks thus are the models which are used for individuals to understand events and situations encountered in their everyday life. Based on the previous assumption, Goffman brings 9 up the concept of face engagement. Face engagement occurs when people focus on the same situation, have a shared understanding of the relationship, and share a mutual definition of the situation. In engaging others, individuals present certain images to each other. Goffman believes that everyday settings are stages and people are the actors who perform certain images to impress their audiences. Whenever an individual comes into a situation, the individual is placed on the stage and he/she thus needs to decide what and how to present him/herself to audiences. Under this interpretation, self image is the product of a particular scene that an individual engages in while social interaction functions as a medium to present the ideal self-image to audiences (Goffman, 1959). The desire for social approval is a significant factor to decide what and how to present him/herself to audiences. As social cognitive theory states, individuals learn how to perform a new behavior as well as the consequences of performing the new behavior through observation in everyday interaction (Bandura, 1986). Individuals tend to perform behavior that will bring positive feedbacks instead of performing behaviors that will cause negative results. They are motivated to perform behaviors that will bring more social approval. Integrating Goffman?s (1959) concept of presentational self with Bandura?s concept of observational learning, it can be argued that people tend to perform certain self-identities that will bring more social approval from their audiences in everyday interactions. Goffman calls the process impression management. If an individual is able to manage his/her identity presentation, he/she will be able to make good impression in front of his/her audiences which in turns achieve his/her need for social approval and emotional balance. On the other hand, impression management will not work if an individual is not able to successfully present the ideal identity. 10 Goffman?s (1959) concept of presentational self and impression management is supported by several recent studies which look at the issue in several different contexts. Schau and Gilly (2003) examine how consumers use self-presentation strategies to communicate and manage the desired self-identity via the digital use of symbols in personal web-pages. The findings indicate as the self-identity is communicated, explored, or accomplished, consumers are often motivated to discover other aspects of self-identities and present them via the medium. In addition, as consumers are more advanced in technology skills as well as exposed to other users? personal web-pages, they are often motivated to improve the contents of their personal web-pages for a better impression management. The findings also show that the reasons that consumers create personal web-pages are similar to the reasons that consumers present their self-identities offline in many aspects such as so self expression and social approval. The internet breaks the physical limitation and gives customers more opportunity to seek feedback beyond their physical social network. In conclusion, the authors argue that the use of a personal web-page is a self-expressive and self-defining consumption behavior. Personal web-page users consume the digital products and services provided by the web-sites and construct as well as manage their self-identities through the use of these products and services (Schau & Gilly, 2003). Trammel and Keshelashvili (2005) also support Goffman?s (1959) concept of presentational self and impression management by examining how self-presentation strategies are used to achieve impression management in a small group of popular blog authors. Some of these blog authors, also known as bloggers, create a unique persona and make themselves a celebrity among these blog authors. The authors find that these popular blog authors show a high level of self- disclosure. Most of them reveal their contact information such as e-mail addresses and phone numbers. Some of these bloggers may only reveal their nicknames instead of real names. 11 However, privacy is not their first concern; instead, the anonymity is an attempt to create and maintain a certain impression to their audiences. The result also shows a high level of self awareness of expected influence. Some popular bloggers use their blogs as a place to make commentary and analysis. However, they present their personal opinions at the same time and use intimate self-disclosure to achieve their attempt of persuading their audiences to identify with their personal opinions. Among all impression management strategies, the authors argue that competence and ingratiation are the two most popular strategies used by these bloggers. They use experts to support their arguments and promote their competence. They tend to praise others instead of being critical. It can be concluded that these popular blog authors? impression management strategies are significantly affected by their audiences. They attempt to appear both competent and likable in front of their audiences. Overall, the study shows these popular blog authors? dependency on their audiences and their desire for social approval. They use certain self-presentation strategies to perform their identities as well as to achieve impression management and the desire for social approval. Similarly, McCullagh (2008) argues that although most bloggers are aware of the potential privacy threats, bloggers still continue in the blogging behaviors. They believe that blogging offers them an unique opportunity to perform as well as manage their identities through self expression and self disclosure. Blogs are used as a medium to develop the self-reflective identity and achieve impression management through blogging social interaction. Some bloggers even have different identities for different blogs to disclose particular types of information to particular audiences (McCullagh, 2008). These recent studies follow Goffman?s (1959) concept of presentational self and impression management and examine how the concept works on blogs. Overall, these studies indicate that 12 blogs are one of the communicative media used to develop as well as manage an individual?s self-identity via self expression. Bloggers are the consumers who consume the digital products and services provided by the web-sites to communicate and manage their self-identities. These studies also address the need for social approval. Bloggers use blogs as the media to achieve their desire for social approval. Some of them even create several blogs to complete the need for social approval for different self-identities. In this thesis, the author also follows the concept of presentational self but examines another communicative medium, physical appearance, to discuss how self-identity is performed and managed through the consumption of various physical ornaments such as clothing, cosmetics, fragrances, and hair style. This thesis further investigates the relationship between each of these physical ornaments and the desire for social approval. One of the most important arguments that Carey (1985) has made is that ?communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed (p. 23)?. Integrating Carey?s argument with Goffman?s (1959) concept of presentational self, it can be stated that social interaction is the stage that allows people to perform their identities in everyday interaction and impression management is achieved during the process of identity construction in which identity is socially produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed through communication in everyday interaction. In other words, impression management will be achieved only when the identity is successfully performed, negotiated, and transformed in social interaction. The following review of literature discusses each stage of identity construction and its relationship to impression management. In the beginning, identity is produced through social interaction. Hecht (2005) proposes the communication theory of identity and examines various aspects of identity. First, Hecht argues that identity is a nexus between individual and society. Communication is used as a means to 13 accomplish the interaction between individual and society whereby identity is produced. In other words, an individual?s identity is produced when the individual socially interacts with the society (i.e. other individuals, social objects) through communication. Several aspects of identity are discussed: the affective aspect such as feelings, the cognitive aspect such as thoughts, the behavioral aspect such as actions, and the spiritual aspect such as a sense of a relationship. Hecht believes that an individual?s sense of identity consists of two dimensions of self: the subjective self refers to the individual?s personal sense of self, and the ascribed self represents what other individuals think about you. Hecht (2005) also suggests that there are four layers of identity that further illustrate how the personal self and the ascribed self interact with each other: personal, enactment, relational, and communal. The personal layer of identity indicates your own sense of yourself within a specific social situation. It is who you think you are and what you think you are like under certain social situations such as going out with a friend, traveling with a boy/girlfriend, or having dinner with families. The enactment layer of identity is other people?s perception of you based on your performance within social situations. The relational layer of identity represents who you are in relation to other people. For example, you could be a son/daughter, a brother/sister, a husband/wife, a friend, or a colleague. The communal layer of identity is how you think of yourself in relation to a certain community. These four layers of identity can not be separated; they interact with each other. For instance, it would be impossible to separate who you think you are from how you manage your relationships with other people. Although each person may have different emphasis on different layers, these four layers simultaneously exist as well as inevitably interact with each other (Hecht, 2005). 14 Although the impact and power of identity is enduring and mainly stable, identity itself is never fixed and always changing. An individual?s identity can be either supported or threatened in everyday interaction. People consistently internalize the behaviors and reactions of others and conversely present their sense of identity by social interaction (Hecht, 2005). When an identity is supported, an individual tends to maintain the presented identity; on the other hand, when an identity is threatened, an individual may choose to either repair or transform the identity. Ting- Toomey (2005) calls the process identity negotiation. Ting-Toomey (2005) argues that identity is an individual?s self-reflective image which is negotiated through social interaction. There are several dimensions of identity. Personal identity represents certain characteristics that individuals generally associate with themselves. Cultural identity refers to an individual?s affiliation to a certain cultural group such as being a member of a particular organization or a member of a particular religion. Ethnic identity is an individual?s affiliation to ancestry or history across generation such as race, region, or language. Ting- Toomey argues that when an individual communicate these identities in a more familiar environment, the individual will feel more secure, consistent, and connected with the interaction. However, when an individual interacts with an unfamiliar environment, the individual will experience insecurity, inconsistency, and anxiety and may lead to the need of transforming his/her identity. Ting-Toomey?s (2005) identity negotiation theory suggests that an individual?s identity is negotiated through social interaction to achieve the balance between these various cultural settings and the individual who is able to shift his/her identities from one cultural setting to another and achieve a comfortable balance as a cultural transformer. Too much emphasis on personal identity may lead to egoism; too much emphasis on cultural or ethnic identity may lead 15 to ethnocentrism; too much change of identity may lead to confusion; too less transformation of identity may lead to lack of resilience. In order to achieve the balance status among conflicting identities, an individual must do these things. First, an individual must be able to understand the importance and differences between these identities. Second, an individual also needs to be consistently aware of new changes of these identities in order to transform his/her identities to new perspectives. Finally, the individual must have basic negotiation skills such as observation, sensitivity, and reframing to negotiate identities between various cultural settings (Ting-Toomey, 2005). Integrating the whole identity construction process, it is an ongoing process and never fixed. Once an identity is produced, challenges occur in the following stages. These challenges may be difficulties of presenting an ideal self-image to audiences. They may also be dilemmas occurred among conflicting identities which makes the negotiation process hard to achieve. Identity management thus becomes an important issue to successfully work through these challenges and achieve the balance status among an individual?s various identities. Imahori and Cupach (2005) propose three dimensions of communication skills and use relational identity as the example to explain how these communication skills work to manage the construction of relational identity. These are intercultural, intracultural, and interpersonal communication. Intercultural communication is used to work through salient cultural differences between partners; intracultural communication is required when general cultural characteristics become salient; and interpersonal communication occurs when partners become concerned about their own personal character differences. The authors identify the desired identity as face and the work that is done to establish the face as facework. An individual?s face can either be supported 16 or threatened within the negotiation of relational identity. Tensions and challenges are mostly occurred in relationships when they are related to cultural identities. Imahori and Cupach (2005) also propose three stages and explain how the three dimensions of communication skills are used in these three stages: trial, enmeshment, and renegotiation. In the trial stage, cultural differences are relatively salient and partners seek what cultural identities they want in this relationship. Intercultural communication plays an important role in this stage to work out the differences between various cultural identities. In the enmeshment stage, a mutual cultural identity is established with shared understanding of each other and the relationship. Intercultural communication is thus less important in this stage; on the other hand, intracultural communication provides the most functions in this stage. Finally, in the renegotiation stage, partners have strong historic patterns as supports to further work out problems initiated by various identities. Cultural differences are no longer salient compared with the first two stages since they are predictable and can be avoided. Thus, interpersonal communication becomes the most important means to work through dilemmas occurred in this stage rather than the other two dimensions of communication. Adequate communication skills enable individuals to successfully manage the whole identity construction process; however, they are not the only requirement. The use of right communicative media is also necessary to manage identity production, negotiation, and transformation. The identity management process will be achieved only with the perfect combination of adequate communication skills and right communicative media. The following section of literature review addresses physical appearance as a communicative medium that constructs and manages self-identities. To be more specific, it discusses how self-identity is 17 produced, maintained, repaired, transformed, and managed through the use of physical ornaments. The literature in this section illustrates that communication is used as a means to manage the process of identity construction whereby identity is socially produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed in everyday interaction. Of all communication practices, the physical display of self is one of the most powerful communicative media when it comes to the development of self- identity. The following section of literature explains the relationship between physical appearance and self-identity as well as the impact of the use of physical display on self-identity. The Physical Display of Self in Social Interaction With the understanding of how self-identity is constructed through communication in social interaction, this section of literature discusses the physical display of self as a nonverbal communicator of self-identity in social interaction. The concept is reviewed in the following order: introduction of the relationship between appearance and the self, clarification of various definitions of technical terms related to appearance, and functions of the physical display of self. Stone (1962), as a believer of social interactionism, examined the relationship between appearance and the self. Before Stone?s study, social interactionism scholars did not perceive appearance as an important communicative component in social interaction. Stone believes that every social interaction can be divided into two analytic processes: appearance and discourse, and indicates that appearance is at least as important as discourse in the development and presentation of the self. Appearance is communicated by various non-verbal symbols such as gestures, clothing, or physical location while discourse is communicated by discourse. In fact, Stone argues that appearance plays a powerful role in the development and presentation of the self in social interaction (Stone, 1962). 18 Following Stone?s (1962) concept, Ryan (1966) argues that the rate of growth on clothing awareness has a significant acceleration for both male and female young adolescents, especially for female adolescents. Clothing is used as a means to show their independency from their families as well as gain peer approval and group acceptance. Interest in the opposite sex is also accelerating and these adolescents are worried about how to be an attractive person. They pay more attention on clothing and use it as a means to attract the opposite-sex. Negrin (2008) also indicates that modern consumer culture places greater emphasis on physical appearance than other qualities in relation to the self-concept. Appearance has increasingly become a central element in describing an individual?s self-concept. The concept of self is mostly defined in aesthetic terms. An individual?s appearance does not only indicate his/her social role and status, but also expresses his/her self-concept. Appearance is more of a reflection of an individual?s self-concept rather than its traditionally given meaning; it is seen as a communicative medium for self-development and self-presentation (Negrin, 2008). Different scholars have their own explanations of appearance. Stone (1962) defines appearance as the ?phase of the social transaction which establishes identifications of the participants? (p. 21). Appearance communication involves how individuals view and evaluate themselves, and an individual?s self-identity is a reflection of others? compliments and imagined judgments of appearance (Stone, 1962). In other words, people constantly negotiate their identities as a reflection of other people?s perceptions of their identities. Kaiser (1997) provides another definition of appearance: ?the total, composite image created by the human body and any modifications, embellishments, or coverings of the body that are visually perceived; a visual context that includes clothing as well as the body? (p. 4). Kaiser argues that appearance is one of the most powerful messages that communicate an individual?s self-identity. It communicates the 19 messages of who you believe you are and what you want other people think you are. Normally an appearance message does not communicate a single meaning. Several possible meanings are associated with an appearance message based on individuals? personal interpretations derived from different life experiences and social situations (Kaiser, 1997). Although scholars have their own preferences of appropriate definitions to explain the relationship between appearance and the self, they all agree that appearance is a powerful nonverbal-communicator of the self. Different historic periods have had their different tastes concerning beauty. Human beings learn the idea of physical attractiveness from social interaction. Body modifications and supplements such as clothes, cosmetics, perfumes, and hair styles are designed to enhance physical attractiveness for both males and females. These body modifications and supplements reflect the aesthetic rules of a culture as well as an individual?s perception of appearance and self identity (Kaiser, 1997). Several technical terms are used by different scholars to describe the physical display of self. Distinctions need to be made to clarify the confusions between these technical terms. Roach-Higgins and Eicher (1992) develop a definition of dress because they believe the term is most-fitted into all social scientific discussions of the physical display of the body. Dress, according to Roach-Higgins and Eicher, refers to any modification or supplement of the body. Body modifications include transformation of hair, skin, nails, muscular/skeleton system, teeth, and breath. Body supplements include enclosures, attachments to body, attachments to body enclosures, and hand-held objects (Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992). Kaiser (1997) discusses the same concept with a different term, clothing. Clothing is defined as ?any tangible or material object connected to the human body?. In other words, it is the object that individuals use to attach to their bodies. Kaiser finds clothing is more appropriate and neutral than dress because 20 dress may lead to a misunderstanding that only female clothing is included in the term. Leathers (2007) uses the term artifact and defines it as ?those thing that humans can wear on their body, do to their bodies, or use as an extensions of their bodies for purposes of exercising conscious control over their personal appearance? (p. 149). According to Leathers, most important social artifacts consist of ?clothing, accent items, hairstyles (as well as hair care and hair treatment), eyeglasses, contact lenses, raincoats, and purses and briefcases? (p. 149). With the understanding of various interpretations of physical appearance, the following literature discusses how these body modifications and supplements function as communicative media for the development of self-identity. Functions of clothing in relation to self-identity have been examined by Treece (1959). Treece argues that an individual?s clothing behavior is a reflection of his/her self identity and clothing behavior is a social psychological process in which clothing functions as a way to respect, realize, express, and adjust the self. Eleven functions are discussed to explain how self- identity and clothing behavior are intimately associated with each other: self expression, self enhancement, self confidence, personality expression, recognition, representation of power, to impress others, group acceptance, group belongingness, rebellion, and moods and feelings (Treece, 1959). Self expression refers to the idea that clothing is used as a means to express an individual?s personal attitude which in turn achieves the individual?s feelings of self respect and self esteem. On the one hand, individuals communicate their personal ideas, values, and feelings with others through clothing behavior; on the other hand, they use clothing to convey certain images that they wish other people to perceive. Clothing expresses what an individual thinks of him/herself as well as what an individual wishes others to think of him/herself. Self enhancement represents 21 the concept that every individual has the desire to enrich his/her self identity, and clothing behavior achieves self enhancement by fulfilling an individual?s need of satisfaction such as compliments, admiration, or attention. An individual may perceive a higher level of self importance in his/her own evaluation by choosing a certain style of clothing. Clothing is used as a means to enhance an individual?s ego and self esteem. Self confidence is the idea that clothing can elevate an individual?s self confidence. Similar to self enhancement, when an individual feels his/her clothing is appropriate and reflects his/her personalities, tensions and nervousness will be minimized and self confidence will be elevated. Appropriate clothing stabilizes an individual?s psychological status which may be beneficial to an individual?s enjoyment of a social event. When an individual experiences a benefit from a certain use of clothing, he/she will keep this clothing behavior and use it later in similar situations (Treece, 1959). Personality expression, the fourth function that clothing serves to self construction, is the idea that an individual?s personality is transmitted to others through clothing behavior. The clothes people wear are the information and the social symbols of their personalities and traits. In addition, an individual?s social success can be achieved through wearing appropriate clothes. Treece (1959) argues that people who dress appropriately are perceived as more successful than people who dress inappropriately. Recognition refers to the concept that clothing is used as a means to gain other?s recognition. People wear specific clothes to gain the attention of someone they attempt to attract. Treece argues that by gaining the attention of others, an individual in turn enhances his/her self esteem and self confidence. Representation of power is the idea that an individual dresses in a certain style that he/she expects may enhance his/her power. Similar to recognition, clothing serves to fulfill an individual?s need for power. However, gaining recognition through clothing behavior is much easier than achieving power. Clothing behavior 22 related to power is much more complex than other clothing functions. It involves more complex social relationships which continuously creates new needs, goals, and demands. The next function that clothing behavior serves is to impress others. Clothing represents a social and economic symbol and certain clothing behaviors can be used to accomplish an individual?s desire to impress others. Through everyday experience, individuals have learned that their desires and needs are satisfied by impressing others and certain clothing behaviors can achieve that goal. People may purchase luxury items because it indicates that they are able to afford them and other people may be impressed by this fact (Treece, 1959). Enhancing group acceptance refers to the idea that clothing is used to fulfill an individual?s need for group acceptance. The school environment is one of the most representative examples that show the relationship between clothing behavior and group acceptance. A student whose clothing is significantly different from other students in class will have a greater chance to be viewed as odd, weird, or unpopular. On the other hand, a student whose clothing behavior is similar to most students in class will have a greater opportunity to be viewed as a well-behaved, appropriate, and popular student. Similar to group acceptance, group belongingness refers to an individual?s desire for social approval. It is the second step right after group acceptance. An individual may feel the desire for group belongingness after fulfilling the need for group acceptance. Clothing is used as a sign indicating group belongingness and the use of a certain type of clothes can symbolically bind an individual to a particular group. Rebellion represents the idea that clothing is used for individuals frustrated by social structures, customs, or environment, to go against those institutions. Clothing is a way for individuals to show their frustration and resistance to those institutions, mostly for minority group of a society. People who have been denied by a society tend have a greater opportunity to show their rebellion 23 through clothing behavior. Moods and feelings, the last function of clothing serves to self development, indicates that an individual?s emotional feelings such as joy, anger, sorrow, or freedom can be conveyed through certain clothing behavior. Clothing behavior is a symbolic process in which emotional feelings are transmitted to other people (Treece, 1959). In general, Treece (1959) believes that clothing behavior is a communication process in which clothes are the symbolic message and people are both the sender and the receiver. These functions by some means are related to each other. The achievement of self enhancement may activate the enhancement of self confidence. At times clothing may not serve these functions since other people?s perception of certain clothes may be different from your own. However, in most of the time, clothing does serve its function of self-development in several aspects. The development of self through the use of clothing is a continuously changing process that individuals construct and reconstruct their values and goals based on their experience over time. Although Treece?s (1959) arguments of clothing functions to self development have been made for a long time, it is still pertinent to the main focus of this study: the use of body modifications and supplements in one?s physical display of self. Additionally, the author finds Treece?s arguments are still supported by later research in many respects. The following review of literature presents more current studies related to the use of body modifications and supplements in one?s physical display of self that still support Treece?s arguments. Ryan (1966) divides self-concept into two aspects: somatic self and social-self. Somatic self refers to ?the self as body or the physical characteristics of the self which are perceived? (p. 82). Clothing contributes to the development of the somatic self because it extends the limitation of the body. Perceptions of the body image can be easily changed when an individual wears different shapes or materials of clothing. Clothing helps to deal with individuals? feelings of 24 satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their own bodies. Social-self refers to ?the sort-of-person-I-am and the self as a member of a group? (p. 83). Clothing functions as a nonverbal communicator for the development of social-self. Different selections of clothing help to identify an individual with different social groups. For example, a person who identifies him/herself as a rocker will have different selections of clothing with a person who identifies him/herself as a business man/woman. Self-concept is never fixed and so is clothing choices. Selections of clothing certainly affect the development of self-concept and in turn the self-concept changes people?s selections of clothing (Ryan, 1966). Treece?s arguments of clothing functions in relation to self development are supported in several aspects. The function of moods and feelings are supported by Ryan?s argument that clothing helps to deal with personal feelings such as satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the body. The function of group acceptance and group belongingness are supported by Ryan?s argument that clothing helps to identify an individual to certain social groups. Treece?s concept of recognition is also supported by the fact that people recognize others as members of certain social groups as well as recognize themselves as members of certain social groups through the choices of clothing. Roach-Higgins and Eicher (1992) propose two functions of dress: alterant of body processes and medium of communication. Dress may act as alterant of body processes in either a positive or negative way. For example, removal of teeth is a body modification which may put health at risk. On the other hand, wearing woolen gloves is a body supplement which protects the body from extreme environment. The second function which is more related to the main focus of this literature review as well as Treece?s (1959) arguments is that dress can be a communicator of identity. Roach-Higgins & Eicher believe that dress as a non-verbal communicator has a higher priority over discourse since dress acts as stages for the following verbal discourse. As 25 mentioned earlier, social interactionism argues that an individual?s identity is communicated as the individual?s social position is announced to both the wearer and other observers. Following the concept, Roach-Higgins & Eicher support Treece?s concepts by arguing that dress is a communicator of identity when the dress announces the wearer?s social position to both the wearer and other observers. Although some identities are born in nature such as race and sex, individuals develop their unique and personal identities through certain selections of dress (Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992). Similarly, Kaiser (1997) follows Treece?s concepts by stating that clothing is used to manage the self and present a certain, mostly positive, image to other people. Individuals realize, define, and interpret self-images through the recognition of clothing. Guy and Banim (2000) examine the relationship between women?s clothing use and self- identity. Guy and Banim identify self-identity in relation to clothing use from three perspectives: the women I want to be, the women I fear I could be, and the women I am most of the time. Treece?s (1959) arguments of clothing functions in relation to self development are supported in the discussion of these three aspects of self-identity. In the first dimension, women choose certain dress to perform the desired self image. Some may dress to make a good impression while others may dress to show their collections of clothes as well as their skills in using them. Guy and Banim indicate that the most useful and favorite dress or accessories are items that women feel confident in and get most admiration with. The second dimension, the women I fear I could be, can be ?the women I don?t want to be, the women I want to hide from others or, at its worst, the women I fear I really am? (p. 319). Some women may feel disappointed about a certain use of dress since it fails to convey the ideal image and leads to undesired identities while others may recognize a certain use of dress as a failure since it does not function to hide her body flaws. In the third dimension, the women I am most of the time, women have only little intention 26 to expend effort in the use of dress and tend to choose dress that achieves satisfactory, not desired image. Women may dress to fit the changes of their bodies or images. The women I am most of the time is a complex process in which body and identity are consistently negotiated through the use of dress. In conclusion, Guy and Banim argue that the relationship between dress and self is an on-going process which self image is consistently created, identified, revealed, and concealed through the use of dress. Conflicts between physical body shape and the desired self image or conflicts between various self identities are constantly negotiated through the use of dress. The process requires basic skills such as knowledge about the self, clothing situation and strategy, or matching skills. When the use of dress is not appreciated or admired, women tend to contribute it to their effortless work instead of their inability to present the perfect image. The measure of the success of the presented image somehow relies on the women?s own sense of powerfulness and control in the situation (Guy & Banim, 2000). Rubinstein (2001) argues that dress is a nexus between the self and society. An individual can integrate his or her self-identity with the society through certain clothing choices. Rubinstein states four motives to explain why dress is used. These motives in some respects follow and reflect Treece?s (1959) arguments of clothing functions. First, dress is used as a validation of self-identity. Self-identity is discussed from several aspects to explain how it is validated through the use of dress: individuals may dress in certain ways to meet with the changes of culture; individuals may choose certain outfits for pragmatic reasons such as wearing sport attires for activities in which pragmatism is the critical element for the individuals? self identities; dress are sometimes selected to show the openness to interaction such as choosing bright color may invite more communication or wearing backless dresses may invite more sexual admiration; dress may sometime be selected to show taste, status, or profession and thus enhance the individual?s own 27 sense of importance; certain dressing choice may communicate certain personality or characteristics; individuals may wear clothes that are fitted into moral standards to show their decency; or some individuals may see dress as a way to express their artistic thoughts. Second, dress is used to protect the personal self from unwanted public attention. Individuals may make themselves invisible by choosing common, ordinary, and undesired dress as well as create distance by wearing sunglasses or listen to their iPods. Third, individuals may have the ideal images and dress is used to pursue them. Fourth, personal values such as life styles are conveyed through the consumption behavior. Rubinstein indicates that dresses that better reflect individuals? personal values are mostly selected by individuals with high social status, high education, great income, or great psychological maturity (Rubinstein, 2001). Goulding and Saren (2009) examine how gender identity is performed through certain choices of dress in gothic subculture. The results indicate that the Goths tend to extreme their physical appearance, either skinny or large, to achieve their uniqueness as well as challenge the main culture. The Goths put considerable efforts on selecting costumes and having make-up to complete their ultimate looks or the desired identities. Gender identity is one of the most desired identities performed through gothic looks. Not only female but also male Goths highlight their feminine sides to perform their gender identities. These male Goths feel that the feminine gothic looks allow them to express the real self depressed by the main culture. They wear excessive make-up and dress in feminine costumes which are unacceptable in normal social norms to perform their gender identity (Goulding & Saren, 2009). These results support Treece?s (1959) arguments in several ways. Treece?s concept of self expression is supported by the fact that Goths express their real self through the gothic looks. Treece?s concept of recognition is also supported by the fact that people recognize these Goths and these Goths recognize themselves as 28 Goths through their gothic looks. The argument that Goths tend to dress in an extreme way to show their uniqueness supports Treece?s concept of personality expression. Finally, the argument that the gothic look is a way for these Goths to challenge the social norms of the main culture supports Treece?s concept of rebellion. In summary, this previous literature suggests that scholars may prefer different definitions of body modifications and supplements, but they all agree that self-identity is socially communicated through the use of these body modifications and supplements, dress, or clothing. The process is never fixed. The self is always negotiated within various contradicting identities and clothing is one of the most powerful media used to achieve the comfortable balance. Although studies have been done to discuss the functions of body modifications and supplements to the development of self, the relationship between these elements and degree of comfort with appearance does not get much attention. Additionally, most studies discuss body modifications and supplements or clothing as a general concept. Few discuss specific elements of these body modifications and supplements such as cosmetics or fragrances. This study thus looks at some of these elements (e.g. clothing, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances) to test how important these elements are as compared to the comfort level with one?s appearance. As mentioned earlier, people perform their desired self-image to their audiences in everyday interaction. Desire for social approval plays an important role in one?s presentation of self. This study also looks at the relationship between the desire for social approval and the presentation of self to see whether some relationships (e.g. significant other, opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family) are more important than others when presenting these elements. The following are the research questions: 29 RQ1: Do those comfortable with their appearance think their presentation of self (e.g. clothing, hair style, cosmetics, and fragrances) reflects their personality? RQ2: What is the relationship between level of satisfaction with one?s appearance and key aspects of one?s self presentation? RQ3: Are some relationships (e.g. significant other, opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family) more important than others in presenting elements of the self? 30 Chapter III. Methods This chapter presents the methodology used to test the research questions discussed in the previous chapter in the following order: participants, procedure, instruments, and data analysis. The participants section discusses who are the participants and why are they selected as the subjects of this thesis. The procedure section explains how the questionnaire is given to participants. The instrument section discusses the development of questionnaire and the data analysis section introduces how these collected data will be statistically analyzed. Participants Participants in this study were students at a large southeastern university. Students learned about this study from instructors of communication classes and the researcher?s thesis advisor. All participations were voluntary and no participants receive extra credit for taking the survey. The researcher collected a total of 118 responses and 92 were deemed to be valid. The rest 26 responses are invalid for several reasons: some skipped questions, others selected dual answers for multiple-choice questions, and one respondent selected the same response for all items. Of the 92 valid responses, thirty-four (37%) were male and fifty-eight (63%) were female. Three (3.26%) freshman, twelve (13.04%) sophomore, twenty-three (25%) junior, twenty-three (25%) senior, and thirty-one (33.7%) graduate school students completed the survey. For the age distribution, there are seventy-four (80.44%) responses from age nineteen to twenty-four, fifteen (16.3%) responses from age twenty-five to thirty, and three (3.26%) responses above thirty years 31 old. There were forty-six (50%) white American including twenty-six reporting white/Caucasian, nineteen reporting European American, and one reporting Scottish American, seven (7.61%) African American, six (6.52%) Asian American, two (2.17%) Hispanic American, one Native American (1.09%), eleven Asian (11.96%) and nineteen (20.65%) responses of others. Procedure The survey questionnaire was posted on a free online survey web-site, surveymonkey.com. College students were invited to the survey web-site in two ways. Instructors of communication classes at a large southeastern university emailed the invitation to participate in the study along with the link to the survey. Additionally, the thesis advisor posted the link at her Twitter site. All participations were voluntary and anonymous. The privacy setting of the on-line survey was changed by the researcher to make sure no IP addresses could be traced. The questionnaire began with information about this study (i.e. main purpose) to encourage participations. Respondents were given the option to withdraw from the survey at any time by simply not hitting the submit button at the end of the on-line survey. Instrument A questionnaire designed to address the research questions presented in chapter two was developed and posted in surveymonkey.com. The survey was divided into three sections. Section one asked for standard demographic information. This section asked respondents to report their sex, age, graduate level, and ethnicity. Section two asked for level of agreement with several statements related to the use of body modifications and supplements in one?s presentation of self. For example, survey question five asked respondents to report their level of agreement with the statement: I believe my hair style reflects my personality. Survey question twenty-two asked respondents to report their level of agreement with the statement: it is important for me to know 32 if other people appreciate my cosmetics. Section three consisted of a series of multiple choice questions to examine whether some relationships are more important than others when presenting these elements. For example, survey question fifty-nine asked respondents who they want to like their clothes the most. Survey question sixty-four asked respondents whose opinion counts the most when deciding what fragrances to wear. These survey questions were designed by both the researcher and the researcher?s thesis advisor. Based on the arguments of the previous literature that the use of body modifications and supplements serve several functions to one?s presentation of self, these questions were designed to test if some elements (e.g. clothing, hair style, cosmetics, and fragrances) serve these functions. For example, survey question sixteen asked respondents to report their level of agreement with the statement that my cosmetics makes me more attractive. It was designed to test if the use of cosmetics serves the function of enhancing self confidence. Additionally, to test what relationships are more important than others when presenting elements of self, the researcher provided six choices of relationships from which respondents could select: father, mother, opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, significant other, and others. Data Analysis This section will present data analysis used to address each research question. RQ1: Do those comfortable with their appearance think their presentation of self reflects their personalities? Five questions were analyzed to address this research question. Question one asked respondents to rate their degree of comfort with their appearance. Question four, five, fifteen, and twenty-four asked respondents to report to what extent that their clothes, hair style, 33 cosmetics, and fragrances reflect their personality. Linear regression was used to test whether the result of question one predicted the results of question four, five, fifteen, and twenty-four. RQ2: What is the relationship between level of satisfaction with one?s appearance and key aspects of one?s self presentation? Three series of questions were analyzed to test this research question. The first series of questions were designed to test how important these elements of self are to being comfortable with appearance. Question ten to thirteen asked respondents to report their level of agreement with the statements: as long as my clothing/hair/face/body is clean, nothing else about it matters. Linear regression was used to test if the degree of comfort with appearance predicts the results of these questions. The second series of question were designed to test the relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the degree of importance of others? perceptions. Questions two, eight, nine, twenty-two, and thirty-one asked respondents to report how important others? perceptions are to their presentation of self. Linear regression was used to test whether the degree of comfort predicts the importance of others? perceptions on one?s appearance, clothing, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. The third series of questions were designed to test the relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the presentation of the four elements. Linear regression was used to test if the degree of comfort predicts the degree of perceived compliments, enhancement of group acceptance, and self satisfaction achieved by these elements. The regression analysis was also used to test if the usage frequency of these elements predicts the degree of perceived attractiveness, compliments, and enhancement of group acceptance achieved by these elements. 34 RQ3: Are some relationships more important than others in presenting elements of the self? Three series of questions were designed to test this research question. The first series of questions asked respondents to report how important it is that they should have a great presentation of these four elements when hanging out with opposite-sex friends; same-sex friends; significant other; and family. Statistical mean was used to determine what relationships are more important than others. The second series of questions asked respondents who they want to like their clothing, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. Statistical mean was also used to determine what relationships are more important than other when one needs social approval. The third series of questions asked respondents who they ask for advice about their clothing, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. Once again, statistical mean was used to determine what relationships were more important than others when one needs for advice about presenting these elements. The data includes both nominal and interval level data. Interval level data are used to examine both research question one and two. Nominal data are used to examine research question three as well as discuss population distributions. More detail will be thoroughly discussed in the results in next chapter. The entire survey questionnaire can be found in appendix A. This chapter presented the research methods chosen in this thesis. A survey questionnaire was used because of the consistent nature of questions and responses that give the data more reliability and validity. The subjects were selected using convenience sampling and multiple regression analysis was used to analyze research question one and two. Statistical mean was used 35 to analyze research question three. Chapter four will focus on the results of these analyses and chapter five will address discussions as well as the study?s limitations. 36 Chapter IV. Results This chapter examines the results of the survey questionnaire discussed in chapter three. First, questions designed to test the relationship between comfort with appearance and personality expression are analyzed for research question one. Second, questions designed to test the relationship between level of satisfaction with appearance and several aspects of self presentation are analyzed for research question two. Finally, questions designed to test what relationships are the most important in presenting some elements of self are analyzed in response to research question three. These analyses provide basis for the discussions and conclusions in the next chapter. RQ1: Do those comfortable with their appearance think their presentation of self reflects their personality? Five questions were designed to test this research question. Question one was designed to test the degree of comfort with appearance. Question four, five, fifteen, and twenty four were designed to test whether respondents agree that their clothing styles, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances reflect their personalities. Linear regression was used to test if the degree of comfort with appearance predicts the degree of how people agree that their self presentation reflects their personality. Question one asked respondents to rate their comfort of appearance. The result shows 25% of respondents reported being strongly comfortable, 58.7% comfortable, 13.04% neither 37 comfortable nor uncomfortable, 3.26% uncomfortable, and none of the respondents reported being strongly uncomfortable with their appearance. Question four asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my clothes reflect my personality. The result shows 26.09% of respondents strongly agree, 54.35% agree, 13.04% neither agree nor disagree, 6.52% disagree, and none of the respondents strongly disagree that their clothes reflect their personality. The result of the regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the degree of how people agree that their clothing styles reflect their personality [F(1,90) = 740.87, R2= .892, p ? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.07 in the degree of agreement that clothing styles reflect personality. Question five asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my hair style reflects my personality. The result shows 17.39% of respondents strongly agree, 48.91% agree, 28.26% neither agree nor disagree, 5.44% disagree, and none of the respondents strongly disagree that their hair styles reflect their personality. Linear regression was used to test the degree of comfort with appearance predicts the degree of agreement that hair styles reflect personality. The result of the regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the degree of agreement that hair styles reflect personality [F(1,90) = 204.43, R2= .694, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .921 in the degree in level of agreement that hair styles reflect personality. Question fifteen asked only respondents who wear cosmetics to rate how they believe their cosmetics reflect their personalities. Of the 92 subjects, 64 of them report having worn cosmetics at least one time. The result shows 7.81% of these respondents strongly agree, 45.31% agree, 38 31.25% neither agree nor disagree, 14.06% disagree, and 1.56% strongly disagree that their cosmetics reflect their personality. Data analysis showed a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the degree of agreement that cosmetics reflect personality [F(1,62) = 108.43, R2= .636, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.115 in the degree of agreement that cosmetics reflect personality. Question 24 asked respondents who reported using fragrances to rate how they believe their fragrances reflect their personalities. Of the 92 subjects, 73 reported having used fragrances. The result shows 10.96% of respondents strongly agree, 41.09% agree, 21.92% neither agree nor disagree, 20.55% disagree, and 5.48% strongly disagree that their fragrances reflect their personalities. Data analysis revealed no significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the degree of agreement that fragrances reflect personality [F(1,71) = 2.445, R2= .033, p=.122]. In summary, most of these analyses show that the degree of comfort with appearance are predictive of the extent to which respondents think their self presentation reflects some aspects of their personalities. The only exception is in the area of fragrances. Other than wearing fragrances, the analyses show that the greater the degree of comfort with appearance, the greater the level of agreement that self presentation reflects personality, and vice versa. To further illustrate the contrast between those who report being more comfortable with their appearance and those who report being less comfortable, the data was divided into two categories. The first category is more comfortable. This category consists of the combination of very comfortable and comfortable responses. The second category is the less comfortable. This category is a combination of the neutral responses and the uncomfortable. No respondent 39 reported being very uncomfortable with appearance. Although it seems like the two categories are equally distributed that each one has two levels of satisfaction, category one has a total of 77 responses while category two has only 15 responses. We should keep in mind that the striking number differences between these two categories may lead to statistical errors. For example, the regression analysis shows that the higher the degree of comfort with appearance, the more one agrees that his/her hair style reflects his/her personality. However, table one shows that 53% of respondents less comfortable with appearance agree that their hair styles reflect their personality while only 48% of respondents more comfortable with appearance agree with that statement. Although it appears that more than half of respondents from category two agree with the statement, the actual number is eight. Eight is relatively a small number compared to the total 92 responses. We should still mostly rely on regression analysis to test the relationship between degree of comfort and level of agreement that elements of self presentation reflect personality. The division of two categories is only used as further illustration of the actual contrast between those more comfortable and less comfortable with appearance as well as various elements of self presentation. Table 1 presents the percentage of responses in each survey questions in the two categories to illustrate the actual contrast. Table 1: Questions 4, 5, 15, and 24: level of agreement by degree of comfort. ___________________________________________________________________________ Group More Comfortable w/Appearance Less Comfortable w/Appearance Question 4: my clothes reflect my personality. (Mean= 2, SD= 0.81) Strongly Agree 24.7% (19) 33.33% (5) Agree 58.4% (45) 33.33% (5) 40 Neutral 13% (10) 13.33% (2) Disagree 3.9% (3) 20% (3) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 5: my hair styles reflect my personality. (Mean= 2.22, SD= 0.8) Strongly Agree 18.18% (14) 13.33% (2) Agree 48.05% (37) 53.33% (8) Neutral 28.57% (22) 26.67% (4) Disagree 5.2% (4) 6.67% (1) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 15: my cosmetics reflect my personality. (Mean= 2.56, SD= 0.89) Strongly Agree 8.93% (5) 0% (0) Agree 50% (28) 12.5% (1) Neutral 30.36% (17) 37.5% (3) Disagree 8.93% (5) 50% (4) Strongly Disagree 1.78% (1) 0% (0) Question 24: my fragrances reflect my personality. (Mean= 2.68, SD= 1.09) Strongly Agree 11.48% (7) 8.33% (1) Agree 39.34% (24) 50% (6) Neutral 21.31% (13) 25% (3) Disagree 22.95% (14) 8.33% (1) Strongly Disagree 4.92% (3) 8.33% (1) ___________________________________________________________________________ 41 RQ2: What is the relationship between level of satisfaction with one?s appearance and key aspects of one?s self presentation? The presentation of self is examined from four aspects: clothing styles, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. Several questions were designed to test the relationship between level of satisfaction with appearance and these aspects of self presentation. First, how important these aspects are to being comfortable with one?s appearance is examined. Although it may not directly address this research question, it is examined as an indicator for further discussion. Next, relationship between the degree of comfort and the level of importance of others? perceptions is also examined. Finally, several questions designed based on the four aspects of self presentation are used to test this research question. Question 10-13 examine how important clothing and hair styles as well as cosmetics and fragrances are to being comfortable with one?s appearance. Table two shows the level of agreement with these statements by degree of comfort. Table 2: Question 10-13 ? The level of agreement by degree of comfort ___________________________________________________________________________ Group More Comfortable w/Appearance Less Comfortable w/Appearance Question 10: as long as my clothes are clean and neat, nothing else about my clothes matters. (Mean= 3.24, SD= 1.11) Strongly Agree 6.49% (5) 13.33% (2) Agree 20.78% (16) 20% (3) Neutral 15.58% (12) 46.67% (4) Disagree 48.05% (37) 13.33% (3) 42 Strongly Disagree 9.1% (7) 6.67% (3) Question 11: as long as my body is clean, I don?t feel the need to use fragrances. (Mean= 2.79, SD= 1.16) Strongly Agree 11.68% (9) 20% (3) Agree 32.47% (25) 33.33% (5) Neutral 22.08% (17) 33.33% (5) Disagree 24.68% (19) 13.34% (2) Strongly Disagree 9.09% (7) 0% (0) Question 12: as long as my face is clean, I don?t feel I have to wear cosmetics. (Mean= 2.82, SD= 1.33) Strongly Agree 20.78% (16) 20% (3) Agree 19.48% (15) 46.67% (7) Neutral 23.37% (18) 6.66% (1) Disagree 22.08% (17) 26.67% (4) Strongly Disagree 14.29% (11) 0% (0) Question 13: having clean hair is more important to me than how my hair is styled. (Mean= 2.29, SD= 0.96) Strongly Agree 19.48% (15) 20% (3) Agree 45.45% (35) 46.67% (7) Neutral 20.78% (16) 26.67% (4) Disagree 12.99% (10) 6.66% (1) Strongly Disagree 1.3% (1) 0% (0) ___________________________________________________________________________ 43 In summary, the results from question ten to question thirteen show that the group more comfortable with appearance shows lower level of agreement with all these statements than the group less comfortable with appearance does. In other words, all these key aspects of self presentation (i.e. clothing styles, cosmetics usage, fragrances usage, and hair styles) are more important to respondents more comfortable with appearance than respondents less comfortable with appearance. The results also show that among all these aspects of self presentation, clothing styles are the most important element for both respondents more comfortable as well as less comfortable with appearance. Next, the relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the importance of other people?s perceptions is examined. Survey questions two, eight, nine, twenty two, and thirty one asked about respondents? attitudes toward how other perceive them. Linear regression was used to test how the degree of comfort predicts the importance of other people?s perceptions on appearance, clothing styles, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. For overall appearance, the analysis shows a significant relationship between degree of comfort and importance of others? perceptions of my appearance [F(1,90) = 196.82, R2= .703, p ? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.262 in importance of others? perceptions of appearance. For clothing styles, the analysis shows that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort and importance of others? perceptions on my clothing style [F(1,90) = 163.07, R2= .644, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.212 in importance of others? perceptions of clothing styles. For hair styles, the analysis shows that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort and importance of others? perceptions of my hair style [F(1,90) = 169.13, R2= .653, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is 44 a corresponding increase of 1.176 in importance of others? perceptions. For cosmetics, the analysis shows that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort and importance of others? perceptions of my cosmetics [F(1,62) = 149.26, R2= .707, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.307 in importance of others? perceptions. Finally, for fragrances, the analysis shows that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort and importance of others? perceptions of my fragrances [F(1,71) = 294.61, R2= .806, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.299 in importance of others? perceptions. In summary, the above analyses show that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the importance of others? perceptions of my appearance, clothing styles, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. The more respondents feel comfortable with their appearance, the more they feel other people?s perceptions of them are important, and vice versa. Several questions were designed to examine the relationships between level of satisfaction and self presentation of clothing styles. Question thirty-two to thirty-five were designed to examine the perceived compliments, question forty was designed to examine the perceived enhancement of group acceptance, and question forty-two was designed to examine the perceived self satisfaction accomplished by self presentation of clothing styles. Linear regression was used to test if the degree of comfort predicts the perceived compliments, perceived enhancement of group acceptance, and perceived self-satisfaction achieved by clothing presentation. Question thirty-two asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: most of my opposite-sex friends appreciate my clothing styles on me. The regression analysis shows that 45 there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the degree of perceived compliments of clothing styles from opposite-sex friends [F(1,90) = 217.99, R2= .708, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .941 in perceived compliments. Question thirty-three asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: most of my same-sex friends appreciate my clothing styles on me. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the perceived compliments of clothing styles from same-sex friends [F(1,90) = 222.79, R2= .712, p ? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .917 in the perceived compliments. Question thirty-four asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my significant other appreciates my clothing styles on me. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the perceived compliments of clothing styles from significant other [F(1,90) = 281.002, R2= .757, p ? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .93 in the perceived compliments. Question thirty-five asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my family appreciates my clothing styles on me. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived compliments of clothing styles from family [F(1,90) = 9.597, R2= .786, p? .003]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.421 in perceived compliments. 46 Question forty asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: the clothes I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived enhancement of group acceptance [F(1,90) = 329.78, R2= .786, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.143 in perceived enhancement of group acceptance. Question forty-two asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: I generally dress nicer than those around me. Linear regression is used to test if, and how, the degree of comfort influences the perceived self-satisfaction. The result of the regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived self-satisfaction [F(1,90) = 265.37, R2= .747, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.15 in perceived self- satisfaction. In summary, the above analyses show that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and perceived satisfaction with clothing presentation. The more respondents feel comfortable with their appearance, the more they are satisfied with their self presentation of clothing styles, and vice versa. To illustrate the actual contrast, table three shows the level of agreement with these statements by degree of comfort. Table 3: Question 32 ? 35, 40, and 42: the level of agreement by degree of comfort. ___________________________________________________________________________ Group More Comfortable w/Appearance Less Comfortable w/Appearance 47 Question 32: most of my opposite-sex friends appreciate my clothing styles on me. (Mean= 2.2, SD= 0.8) Strongly Agree 16.88% (13) 6.67% (1) Agree 53.25% (41) 73.32% (11) Neutral 27.27% (21) 6.67% (1) Disagree 1.3% (1) 6.67% (1) Strongly Disagree 1.3% (1) 6.67% (1) Question 33: most of my same-sex friends appreciate my clothing styles on me. (Mean= 2.17, SD= 0.78) Strongly Agree 19.48% (15) 6.67% (1) Agree 49.35% (38) 66.66% (10) Neutral 29.87% (23) 13.33% (2) Disagree 1.3% (1) 6.67% (1) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 6.67% (1) Question 34: my significant other appreciates my clothing styles on me. (Mean= 2.09, SD= 0.77) Strongly Agree 24.68% (19) 13.33% (2) Agree 49.35% (38) 40% (6) Neutral 23.37% (18) 46.67% (7) Disagree 2.6% (2) 0% (0) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 35: my family appreciates my clothing styles on me. (Mean= 2.15, SD= 0.65) Strongly Agree 11.69% (9) 6.67% (1) Agree 67.53% (52) 60% (9) 48 Neutral 19.48% (15) 20% (3) Disagree 1.3% (1) 13.33% (2) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 40: the clothes I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. (Mean= 2.88, SD= 0.92) Strongly Agree 6.49% (5) 13.33% (2) Agree 24.68% (19) 13.33% (2) Neutral 45.45% (35) 53.34% (8) Disagree 19.48% (15) 20% (3) Strongly Disagree 3.9% (3) 0% (0) Question 42: I generally dress nicer than those around me. (Mean= 2.95, SD= 0.95) Strongly Agree 5.2% (4) 13.33% (2) Agree 24.68% (19) 20% (3) Neutral 45.45% (35) 26.67% (4) Disagree 23.37% (18) 20% (3) Strongly Disagree 1.3% (1) 20% (3) ___________________________________________________________________________ To examine the relationships between level of satisfaction and self presentation of hair styles, question thirty-six to thirty-nine were designed to examine the perceived compliments and question forty-one was designed to examine the perceived enhancement of group acceptance. Linear regression was used to test how the degree of comfort predicts self presentation of hair styles. 49 Question thirty-six asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: most of my opposite-sex friends like the way I usually wear my hair. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived compliments [F(1,90) = 127.701, R2= .587, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .739 in perceived compliments. Question thirty-seven asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: most of my same-sex friends like the way I usually wear my hair. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived compliments [F(1,90) = 144.78, R2= .617, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .777 in perceived compliments. Question thirty-eight asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my significant other likes the way I usually wear my hair. The regression analysis shows there is no significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived compliments [F(1,90) = 3.67 R2= .039, p=.058]. Question thirty-nine asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my family likes the way I usually wear my hair. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived compliments [F(1,90) = 201.42, R2= .691, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of .853 in perceived compliments. Question forty-one asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: the hair style I wear to school helps me to fit into the class better. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and perceived enhancement of group acceptance [F(1,90) = 318.21, R2= .786, p? .001]. For every one unit 50 increase in degree of comfort, there is a corresponding increase of 1.032 in perceived enhancement of group acceptance. In summary, the above analyses show that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and perceived satisfaction with presentation of hair styles. The more respondents feel comfortable with their appearance, the more they are satisfied with their self presentation of hair styles, and vice versa. Table four shows the level of agreement with these statements by degree of comfort as an illustration for actual contrast. Table 4: Question 36-39, and 41: level of agreement by degree of comfort. ___________________________________________________________________________ Group More Comfortable w/Appearance Less Comfortable w/Appearance Question 36: most of my opposite-sex friends like the way I usually wear my hair. (Mean= 2.3, SD= 0.69) Strongly Agree 9.09% (7) 6.67% (1) Agree 53.25% (41) 73.33% (11) Neutral 32.47% (25) 20% (3) Disagree 5.9% (4) 0% (0) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 37: most of my same-sex friends like the way I usually wear my hair. (Mean= 2.26, SD= 0.71) Strongly Agree 13% (10) 6.66% (1) Agree 50.6% (39) 66.67% (10) Neutral 32.5% (25) 26.67% (4) 51 Disagree 3.9% (3) 0% (0) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 38: my significant other likes the way I usually wear my hair. (Mean= 2.2, SD= 0.76) Strongly Agree 18.18% (14) 6.67% (1) Agree 54.55% (42) 40% (6) Neutral 22.08% (17) 53.33% (8) Disagree 5.19% (4) 0% (0) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 39: my family likes the way I usually wear my hair. (Mean= 2.17, SD= 0.74) Strongly Agree 14.29% (11) 6.67% (1) Agree 59.74% (46) 73.33% (11) Neutral 22.08% (17) 13.33% (2) Disagree 3.89% (3) 0% (0) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 6.67% (1) Question 41: the hair style I wear to school helps me to fit into the class better. (Mean= 3.04, SD= 0.84) Strongly Agree 1.3% (1) 13.33% (2) Agree 18.18% (14) 13.33% (2) Neutral 57.14% (44) 53.34% (8) Disagree 18.18% (14) 13.33% (2) Strongly Disagree 5.2% (4) 6.67% (1) ___________________________________________________________________________ 52 Several questions were designed to examine the relationship between level of satisfaction and self presentation of fragrances. Level of satisfaction with fragrances was examined from three aspects: question twenty-five tests perceived attractiveness, question twenty-six to question twenty-nine test perceived compliments, and question thirty tests perceived enhancement of group acceptance. The frequency of fragrances usage was examined by question twenty-three. Linear regression was used to test how the usage frequency predicts the level of satisfaction with fragrances. Question twenty-three asked respondents to report how often they usually wear fragrances compared to other people. Eight point seven percent of respondents reported that they wear fragrances more often than others; 31.52% reported that they wear fragrances as much as often as others; 39.13% reported that they wear fragrances less often than others; and 20.65% reported that they have never used fragrances. Question twenty-five asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my fragrances make me more attractive. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and perceived attractiveness [F(1,71) = 146.49, R2= .674, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.17 in perceived attractiveness. Question twenty-six asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: most of my opposite-sex friends appreciate the fragrances I choose. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and perceived compliments [F(1,71) = 116.92, R2= .622, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of .741 in perceived compliments. 53 Question twenty-seven asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: most of my same-sex friends appreciate the fragrances I choose. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and perceived compliments [F(1,71) = 135.37, R2= .656, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of .824 in perceived compliments. Question twenty-eight asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my significant other appreciates the fragrances I choose. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and perceived compliments [F(1,71) = 68.73, R2= .492, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of .791 in perceived compliments. Question twenty-nine asked respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: my family appreciates the fragrances I choose. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and perceived compliments [F(1,71) = 330.78, R2= .823, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.07 in perceived compliments. Question thirty was designed to test perceived group acceptance by asking respondents to rate their agreement of the statement: the fragrances I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and perceived enhancement of group acceptance [F(1,71) = 198.45, R2= .737, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.187 in perceived enhancement of group acceptance. In summary, the above analyses show that there is a significant relationship between the frequency of fragrances usage and the level of satisfaction with fragrances. The higher the usage 54 frequency is, the higher the level of satisfaction will be, and vice versa. To further illustrate the contrast between those who report having higher usage frequency and those who report having lower usage frequency, the data was divided into two categories. The first category is higher usage frequency. This category consists of the combination of using fragrances more often than others and as much often as others. The second category is lower usage frequency. This category consists of using fragrances less often than others. Table five presents the percentage of responses in each question in the two categories to illustrate the actual contrast. Table 5: Question 25-30: level of agreement by the frequency of fragrances usage. ___________________________________________________________________________ Group Higher Usage Frequency Lower Usage Frequency Question 25: my fragrances make me more attractive. (Mean= 2.75, SD= 0.97) Strongly Agree 10.81% (4) 0% (0) Agree 43.24% (16) 38.9% (14) Neutral 27.03% (10) 33.33% (12) Disagree 18.92% (7) 19.44% (7) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 8.33% (3) Question 26: most of my opposite-sex friends appreciate the fragrances I choose. (Mean= 2.19, SD= 0.64) Strongly Agree 16.2% (6) 5.56% (2) Agree 67.6% (25) 52.78% (19) Neutral 16.2% (6) 38.9% (14) Disagree 0% (0) 2.78% (1) 55 Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 27: most of my same-sex friends appreciate the fragrances I choose. (Mean= 2.34, SD= 0.69) Strongly Agree 13.51% (5) 2.78% (1) Agree 56.76% (2) 50% (18) Neutral 27.03% (10) 41.67% (15) Disagree 2.7% (1) 5.55% (2) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) Question 28: my significant other appreciates the fragrances I choose. (Mean= 2.1, SD= 0.77) Strongly Agree 29.73% (11) 8.33% (3) Agree 59.46% (22) 52.78% (19) Neutral 8.11% (3) 36.11% (13) Disagree 2.7% (1) 0% (0) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 2.78% (1) Question 29: my family appreciates the fragrances I choose. (Mean= 2.48, SD= 0.8) Strongly Agree 13.51% (5) 5.56% (2) Agree 45.95% (17) 36.11% (13) Neutral 37.84% (14) 47.22% (17) Disagree 2.7% (1) 8.33% (3) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 2.78% (1) Question 30: the fragrances I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. (Mean= 3.41, SD= 0.94) Strongly Agree 5.41% (2) 0% (0) 56 Agree 13.51% (5) 5.56% (2) Neutral 45.95% (17) 44.44% (16) Disagree 24.32% (9) 33.33% (12) Strongly Disagree 10.81% (4) 16.67% (6) ___________________________________________________________________________ Several questions were designed to examine the relationship between cosmetics presentation and level of satisfaction with cosmetics. The frequency of cosmetics usage was examined by question fourteen. Level of satisfaction with cosmetics was examined from three aspects: question sixteen was designed to test perceived attractiveness, question seventeen to question twenty were designed to test perceived compliments, and question twenty-one was designed to test perceived enhancement of group acceptance. Linear regression was used to test how the frequency of cosmetics usage predicts the level of satisfaction with cosmetics. Question fourteen asked respondents to report how often they wear cosmetics compared to other people. 5.44% of respondents reported that they wear cosmetics more often than others; 30.43% reported that they wear cosmetics as much often as others; 33.7% reported that they wear cosmetics less often than others; and 30.43% reported that they have never used cosmetics. Question sixteen asked respondents to rate their agreement with the statement: my cosmetics make me more attractive. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of cosmetics usage and perceived attractiveness [F(1,62) = 69.87, R2= .530, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of fragrances usage, there is a corresponding increase of .877 in perceived attractiveness. Question seventeen asked respondents to rate their agreement with the statement: most of my opposite-sex friends complement me about how I use cosmetics. The regression analysis shows 57 that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of cosmetics usage and perceived compliments [F(1,62) = 97.64, R2= .612, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of cosmetics usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.115 in perceived compliments. Question eighteen asked respondents to rate their agreement with the statement: most of my same-sex friends complement me about how I use cosmetics. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of cosmetics usage and perceived compliments [F(1,62) = 151.03, R2= .709, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of cosmetics usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.356 in perceived compliments. Question nineteen asked respondents to rate their agreement with the statement: my significant other compliments me about how I use cosmetics. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of cosmetics usage and perceived compliments [F(1,62) = 93.30, R2= .601, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of cosmetics usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.127 in perceived compliments. Question twenty asked respondents to rate their agreement with the statement: my family compliments me about how I use cosmetics. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of cosmetics usage and perceived compliments [F(1,62) = 66.68, R2= .517, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of cosmetics usage, there is a corresponding increase of .961 in perceived compliments. Question twenty-one was designed to test perceived enhancement of group acceptance by asking respondents to rate their agreement with the statement: the cosmetics I wear to school 58 help me to fit into the class better. The regression analysis shows that there is a positively significant relationship between the frequency of cosmetics usage and perceived compliments [F(1,62) = 242.96, R2= .797, p? .001]. For every one unit increase in frequency of cosmetics usage, there is a corresponding increase of 1.402 in perceived compliments. In summary, the above analyses show that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and perceived satisfaction with cosmetics presentation. The more respondents feel comfortable with their appearance, the more they are satisfied with their self presentation of cosmetics and vice versa. The analyses for research question two indicate that there is a significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and perceived satisfaction with all aspects of self presentation. The more respondents feel comfortable with their appearance, the more they are satisfied with all these key aspects of self presentation. To further illustrate the actual contrast, table six presents the level of agreement with these statements by frequency of cosmetics usage. Table 6: Questions 16-21: level of agreement by frequency of cosmetics usage. ___________________________________________________________________________ Group Higher Usage Frequency Lower Usage Frequency Question 16: my cosmetics make me more attractive. (Mean= 2.22, SD= 0.77) Strongly Agree 24.2% (8) 3.2% (1) Agree 60.6% (20) 51.6% (16) Neutral 15.2% (5) 32.3% (10) Disagree 0% (0) 12.9% (4) Strongly Disagree 0% (0) 0% (0) 59 Question 17: most of my opposite-sex friends complement me about how I use cosmetics. (Mean= 2.06, SD= 0.9) Strongly Agree 6.1% (2) 3.23% (1) Agree 15.15% (5) 22.58% (7) Neutral 45.45% (15) 48.39% (15) Disagree 30.3% (10) 19.35% (6) Strongly Disagree 3.0% (1) 6.45% (2) Question 18: most of my same-sex friends complement me about how I use cosmetics. (Mean= 2.75, SD= 1.02) Strongly Agree 6.06% (2) 6.45% (2) Agree 42.43% (14) 41.94% (13) Neutral 27.27% (9) 29.03% (9) Disagree 18.18% (6) 16.13% (5) Strongly Disagree 6.06% (2) 6.45% (2) Question 19: my significant other compliments me about how I use cosmetics. (Mean= 2.86, SD= 0.92) Strongly Agree 9.1% (3) 3.2% (1) Agree 27.27% (9) 22.58% (7) Neutral 45.45% 48.39% (15) Disagree 15.15% 16.13% (5) Strongly Disagree 3.03% 6.5% (2) Question 20: my family compliments me about how I use cosmetics. (Mean= 2.91, SD= 0.85) Strongly Agree 0% (0) 3.2% (1) 60 Agree 36.36% (12) 25.8% (8) Neutral 48.49% (16) 45.15% (14) Disagree 12.12% (4) 19.35% (6) Strongly Disagree 3.03% (1) 6.5% (2) Question 21: the cosmetics I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. (Mean= 2.26, SD= 1) Strongly Agree 6.06% (2) 0% (0) Agree 30.3% (10) 3.2% (1) Neutral 21.21% (7) 41.9% (13) Disagree 27.28% (9) 48.4% (15) Strongly Disagree 15.15% (5) 6.5% (2) ___________________________________________________________________________ RQ3: Are some relationships more important than others in presenting elements of the self? This research question was examined by several questions. Questions forty-three to forty- six, fifty-nine, and sixty-three were designed to test whether some relationships are more important than others in clothing presentation. Questions fifty-five to fifty-eight, sixty-two, and sixty-six address hair presentation. Questions fifty-one to fifty-four, sixty-one, and sixty-five address cosmetics presentation. Finally, questions forty-seven to fifty, sixty, and sixty -four address fragrances presentation. To examine which relationships are more important than others in presenting one?s clothing styles, questions forty-three to forty-six asked respondents to rate how important it is that they wear nice clothes when hanging out with their opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, significant other, and family. 61 The result of question forty-three shows 19.57% of respondents strongly agree, 47.83% agree, 23.91% neither agree nor disagree, 8.69% disagree, and no respondents strongly disagree that they should wear nice clothes when they hang out with their opposite-sex friends. The mean response was 2.22 based on the one to five rating system with one being the highest agreement and five being the lowest agreement. The result of question forty-four shows 10.87% of respondents strongly agree, 40.22% agree, 29.35% neither agree nor disagree, 16.3% disagree, and 3.26% strongly disagree that they should wear nice clothes when they hang out with their same-sex friends. The average response to this question was 2.61. The result of question forty-five shows 25% of respondents strongly agree, 46.74% agree, 19.56% neither agree nor disagree, 7.61% disagree, and only 1.09% strongly disagree that they should wear nice clothes when they hang out with their significant others. The average score was 2.13. The result of question forty-six shows 4.35% of respondents strongly agree, 39.13% agree, 38.04% neither agree nor disagree, 13.04% disagree, and 5.44% strongly disagree that they should wear nice clothes when they hang out with their families. The average score was 2.76. The above results from forty-three to forty-six show that significant other is the most important relationship followed by opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family to respondents feeling that they should wear nice clothes to hang out with. Question fifty-nine asked respondents to report who they want to like their clothes the most. None of the respondents reported father; 7.61% reported mother; 28.26% reported opposite-sex friends; 18.48% reported same-sex friends; 41.3% reported significant other; and 4.35% reported others. 62 Question sixty-three asked respondents to report whose opinion counts most when they decide what clothing to wear. 1.09% of respondents reported father; 6.52% reported mother; 19.56% reported opposite-sex friends; 26.09% reported same-sex friends; 39.13% reported significant other; and 7.61% reported family. In summary, the above results from questions designed to address clothing presentation show that significant other and opposite-sex friends are the two most important relationships to respondents feeling that they should wear nice clothes to hang out with and wanting their clothing styles to be liked. Significant other and same-sex friend are the two most important relationships to respondents that they ask for advice about clothing styles. Family is the least important relationship in all these aspects. To examine what relationships are most important in presenting one?s hair styles, questions fifty-five to fifty-eight asked respondents to rate how they feel about the importance of having nice hair styles when they hang out with their opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, significant other, and family. The result of question fifty-five shows 16.3% of respondents strongly agree, 44.57% agree, 27.17% neither agree nor disagree, 10.87% disagree, and 1.09% strongly disagree that they should have nice hair styles when they hang out with their opposite-sex friends. The average response to this item was 2.36. The result of question fifty-six shows 9.78% of respondents strongly agree, 38.05% agree, 35.87% neither agree nor disagree, 13.04% disagree, and 3.26% strongly disagree that they should have nice hair styles when they hang out with their same-sex friends. The average was 2.62. 63 The result of question fifty-seven shows 16.3% of respondents strongly agree, 43.48% agree, 29.35% neither agree nor disagree, 10.97% disagree, and none of the respondents strongly disagree that they should have nice hair styles when they hang out with their significant others. The average response was 2.35. The result of question fifty eight shows 8.7% of respondents strongly agree, 23.91% agree, 50% neither agree nor disagree, 13.04% disagree, and 4.35% strongly disagree that they should have nice hair styles when they hang out with their families. The average response was 2.80. The above results from fifty-five to fifty-eight show the same pattern as the results of questions designed to test clothing presentation. The most important relationship to respondents feeling that they should have nice hair styles to hang out with is significant other followed by opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family. Question sixty-two asked respondents to report who they want to appreciate their hair styles the most. No respondent reported father; 5.44% reported mother; 19.57% reported opposite-sex friends; 18.47% reported same-sex friends; 46.74% reported significant other; and 9.78% reported others. Question sixty-six asked respondents to report whose opinion counts most when they deciding what hairstyle to wear. 1.1% of respondents reported father; 3.3% reported mother; 19.78% reported opposite-sex friends; 25.27% reported same-sex friends; 37.36% reported significant other; and 13.19% reported others. In summary, the above results from questions designed to address hair presentation are identical with the results from questions designed to address clothing presentation. Once again, significant other and opposite-sex friend are the two most important relationships when deciding they need nice hair styles and wanting their hair styles to be liked. Significant other and same- 64 sex friend are the two most important relationships when they need advice about hair styles. Family is still the least important relationship in all these aspects. To examine what relationships are more important than others in presenting one?s cosmetics, questions fifty-one to fifty-four asked respondents to rate the degree of agreement that they should wear cosmetics when they hang out with their opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, significant other, and family. The result of question fifty-one shows 17.39% of respondent strongly agree, 26.09% agree, 35.87% neither agree nor disagree, 14.13% disagree, and 6.52% strongly disagree that they should wear cosmetics when they hang out with their opposite-sex friends. The average responses was 2.66. The result of question fifty-two shows 13.04% of respondents strongly agree, 26.09% agree, 39.13% neither agree nor disagree, 15.22% disagree, and 6.52% strongly disagree that they should wear cosmetics when they hang out with their same-sex friends. The average response was 2.76. The result of question fifty-three shows 18.49% of respondents strongly agree, 23.91% agree, 38.04% neither agree nor disagree, 13.04% disagree, and 6.52% strongly disagree that they should wear cosmetics when they hang out with their significant others. The average was 2.65. The result of question fifty four shows 8.7% of respondent strongly agree, 13.04% agree, 47.82% neither agree nor disagree, 21.74% disagree, and 8.7% strongly disagree that they should wear cosmetics when they hang out with their families. The average score based on the rating system from one to five with one being the highest agreement and five being the lowest agreement, question fifty four has a score of 3.09. 65 The above results from fifty-one to fifty-four once again showed the same pattern as results of clothing and hair presentation. Significant others are the most important group in determining whether to wear cosmetics. They were followed by opposite-sex friends and same-sex friends. The least important group was family. Question sixty-one asked respondents to report who they want to appreciate how they wear cosmetics the most. No respondent reported father; 7.61% reported mother; 20.65% reported opposite-sex friends; 16.30% reported same-sex friends; 40.22% reported significant other; and 15.22% reported others. Question sixty-five asked respondents to report whose opinion about the cosmetics they use counts the most. No respondent reported father; 11% reported mother; 17.58% reported opposite- sex friends; 27.47% reported same-sex friends; 28.57% reported significant other; and 15.38% reported others. In summary, the above results from questions designed to address cosmetics presentation show that significant other and opposite-sex friend are the two most important relationships that respondents decide whether to wear cosmetics and want their cosmetics to be complimented. Significant other and same-sex friend are the two most important relationships that respondents ask for advice about cosmetics. Family is the least important relationship in all these aspects. To examine what relationships are most important in presenting one?s fragrances, question forty-seven to fifty asked respondents to rate their agreement with whether they should wear fragrances when hanging out with their opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, significant other, and family. The result of question forty-seven shows 11.96% of respondents strongly agree, 28.26% agree, 35.87% neither agree nor disagree, 17.39% disagree, and 6.52% strongly disagree that 66 they should wear fragrances when they hang out with their opposite-sex friends. The average response was 2.78. The result of question forty-eight shows 7.61% of respondents strongly agree, 14.13% agree, 51.09% neither agree nor disagree, 19.56% disagree, and 7.61% strongly disagree that they should wear fragrances when they hang out with their same-sex friends. The average response was 3.05. The result of question forty-nine shows 13.04% of respondents strongly agree, 32.61% agree, 33.7% neither agree nor disagree, 16.3% disagree, and 4.35% strongly disagree that they should wear fragrances when they hang out with their significant others. The average response was 2.66. The result of question fifty shows 6.52% of respondents strongly agree, 13.04% agree, 47.83% neither agree nor disagree, 23.91% disagree, and 8.7% strongly disagree that they should wear fragrances when they hang out with their families. The average response was 3.15. The above results from questions forty-seven to fifty are consistent with the previous results in this study. When deciding whether to wear fragrances, significant others are the most important group followed by opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family. Question sixty asked respondents to report who they want to appreciate their fragrances the most. No respondent reported father; 2.17% reported mother; 29.35% reported opposite-sex friends; 7.61% reported same-sex friends; 56.52% reported significant other; and 4.35% reported others. Question sixty-four asked respondents to report whose opinion counts most when they deciding what fragrance to wear. No respondent reported father; 4.35% reported mother; 19.57% 67 reported opposite-sex friends; 13.04% reported same-sex friends; 52.17% reported significant other; and 10.87% reported others. In summary, the above results from questions designed to address fragrances presentation show that significant other and opposite-sex friend are the two most important relationships that respondents feel that they should wear nice clothes to hang out with, want their clothing styles to be liked, and tend to ask for advice. Family is the least important relationship in all these aspects. One result of note is that respondents asks opposite-sex friends for advice about fragrances rather than same-sex friends but reverse the order when seeking advice about clothing styles, hair styles, and cosmetics. The above analyses show that significant others are the most important and family is the least important relationship in all aspects. When it comes to the need to dress nice and the desire to be liked, opposite-sex friends are more important than same-sex friends. However, when it comes to asking for advice, same-sex friends are more important than opposite-sex friends. The only exception is asking advice about fragrances when the opinions of opposite-sex friends are more important than same-sex friends. In this chapter, the results of the survey questionnaire were presented according to the order of the three research questions. The next chapter will discuss the conclusions and implications of these results. Suggestions for future research will also be provided. 68 Chapter V. Discussion and Conclusion Based on the review of literature, three research questions were presented to explore the relationship between one?s level of satisfaction and elements of self presentation. The previous chapter reports the results of the survey questionnaire developed to test the three research questions. This chapter discusses the results of the survey questionnaire and the discussion will follow the order of these research questions. The limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are also included. RQ1: Do those comfortable with their appearance think their presentation of self reflects their personality? Subjects were asked to rate their degree of comfort with appearance and report their agreement with that presentation of self reflects personality. The results show that the more they feel comfortable with appearance, the more they think their clothing, hair styles, and cosmetics reflect their personality. However, when it comes to wearing fragrances, there is no significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the level of agreement that fragrances reflect personality. Of the 77 respondents more comfortable with their appearance, only less than 4%, 6%, and 11% disagree or strongly disagree that their clothing styles, hair styles, and cosmetics reflect their personality respectively. However, more than 27% disagree or strongly disagree that their fragrances reflect their personality. The findings are not surprising in light of research that indicates personality expression is one of the functions that body modifications and supplements serve in the presentation of self 69 (Treece, 1959). If one hope one?s personality be expressed through the use of body modifications and supplements, we would expect the relationship between level of satisfaction with appearance and the function of personality expression to be more significant. If one does not expect these body modifications and supplements express one?s personality, the relationship between level of satisfaction with appearance and the function of personality expression should be less significant. In other words, the more one cares about the function of personality expression, the more one?s level of satisfaction with appearance is influenced by how well does the function work, and vice versa. The significant relationships between degree of comfort with appearance and presentation of clothing styles, hair styles, and cosmetics show that personality expression is one of the functions that subjects expected to have in presenting these elements of self. However, when it comes to the use of fragrances, personality expression is not one of the functions that it serves. The historical changes of the use and meaning of fragrances are examined by DeLong and Bye in 1990. They suggest that in the eighteenth century, fragrances were primarily used for sexual attraction and to cover undesired odors. As the society and the technology changed, fragrances were used not only for sexual attraction, but also as a means to express several aspects of one?s self such as a romantic relationship, independence, or casual occasion. The use and meaning of fragrances are extended through the historical changes that fragrances thus are not used only for sexual attraction but also as a means to express the self. However, the results in this study show that personality expression is not the primary reason that people use fragrances. Compared with the other three elements of self, self expression is still relatively less important in the use of fragrances. It can be assumed that sexual attraction is still the primary reason that one uses fragrances rather than self expression. Roberts et al. (2009) examine the relationship between the use of fragrances and the extent of influences on person perception. This research 70 suggests that the use of fragrances increases one?s self-confidence and perceived attractiveness by the opposite-sex. The research also indicates that fragrances perform these effects on the basis of visual nonverbal behavior, even without actual odor cues. These findings support the previous assumption by suggesting that fragrances are powerful nonverbal media used for sexual attraction. In summary, the finding of research question one indicates that fragrances do not serve the function of self expression as strong as the other three elements. The previous literature suggests that sexual attraction may still be the primary function of fragrances rather than self expression. RQ2: What is the relationship between level of satisfaction with one?s appearance and key aspects of one?s self-presentation? Subjects were asked to rate how important these four elements are to their presentation of self. The results show that the more one feels comfortable with appearance, the more one thinks that clothing styles, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances are important to one?s presentation of self. The less one feels comfortable with appearance, the less one thinks these elements of self are important to one?s self presentation. There was no difference among the four elements of self. The results lead to the conclusion that the level of satisfaction with appearance is strongly related to the importance of these elements of self. According to Imahori and Cupach (2005), adequate communication skills are crucial for one?s presentation of self. One must be able to use these body modifications and supplements successfully to have a desired presentation of self. If one is not able to use these elements successfully, it will lead to an undesirable presentation of self. The ability to use these elements is learned through everyday interaction. As one become more capable of using certain elements to present the self, it is more likely that one will have higher level of satisfaction with appearance 71 which in turn may lead to the preference of using certain elements for future presentation of self. On the other hand, if one is less capable of using certain elements to present the self, it may lead to an undesired presentation which in turn may decrease one?s preference of using these elements to present the self. Therefore, the more one feels comfortable with appearance, the more one thinks these body modifications and supplements are important to one?s presentation of self since one has adequate ability to perform the self through these elements. Subjects were also asked to report how important others? perceptions are to their presentation of self. The results show that the more one feels comfortable with appearance, the more important others? perceptions of their presentation of clothing styles, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances, and vice versa. All four elements of self were important when one concerns about the perception of others. Enhancement of social approval is another important function that body modifications and supplements serve in the presentation of self (Treece, 1959). The more important that one thinks others? perceptions are to one?s presentation of self, the more one needs social approval, and vice versa. This positively significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the importance of others? perceptions indicates that the degree of comfort with appearance is highly related to one?s desire for social approval. It shows that the more one feels comfortable with appearance, the more one needs social approval; the less one feels comfortable with appearance, the less one needs social approval. Finally, the subjects were asked to report their level of satisfaction with their presentation of these elements of self. The results show that the more one feels comfortable with appearance, the more one feels satisfied with his/her presentation of these elements. This significant relationship between degree of comfort with appearance and the level of satisfaction with 72 presentation of these elements once again supports Kaiser (1997)?s argument that body modifications and supplements are crucial to one?s physical display of self. The results also show that there is a significant relationship between usage frequency and level of satisfaction. The more one uses certain elements to present the self, the more one feels satisfied with the presentation of these elements, and vice versa. This finding can also be explained by the concept of adequate communication skills mentioned earlier (Imahori & Cupach, 2005). The more one uses certain elements to present the self, the more one is skilled of using these elements which in turn leads to higher level of satisfaction with the presentation of self. The less one uses certain elements to present the self, the less one is experienced of using these elements which in turn leads to lower level of satisfaction with the presentation of self. This significant relationship between usage frequency and level of satisfaction with presentation of self shows the importance of adequate nonverbal communication skills in the presentation of self. RQ3: Are some relationships more important than others in presenting elements of the self? The importance of relationship is examined by three series of questions. First, subjects were asked to report their agreement with that they should wear nice clothes/have a nice hair style/wear cosmetics/wear fragrances when hanging out with their significant other; opposite-sex friends; same-sex friends; and family. Subjects were also asked to report who they want to like them when presenting their clothing styles; hair styles; cosmetics; and fragrances. Finally, subjects were asked to report who they ask for advice about their clothing styles; hair styles; cosmetics; and fragrances. When asking subjects to report who they think they should dress nice when hanging out with them, all the four presentation of self show the same order that significant other is the most 73 important relationship followed by opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family. When reporting who they want to like their clothing, hair, cosmetics, and fragrances, the results are identical with the previous result that significant other is the most important relationship followed by opposite-sex friends, same-sex friends, and family. However, when reporting whose advice counts the most, only the presentation of fragrances shows the same order as the previous results. The presentation of clothing, hair style, and cosmetics show a reverse order of opposite- sex and same-sex friends; significant other is still the most and family is still the least important relationship. Three conclusions can be drawn from the results. First is that significant others are always the most and families are always the least important relationship when deciding the need to dress nice, seeking for compliments, and asking for advice. This conclusion can be supported by Ryan?s (1966) argument that body modifications and supplements are used for young adolescents to show their independency from family, gain social approval, and attract the opposite-sex. Young adolescents around age fifteen to twenty are eager to break away from their families to show their independency. However, they are still insecure and anxious for the outside help. Thus they turn to their friends for social approval to ease the lack of security. Additionally, interest in the opposite-sex is significantly increasing and these young adolescents pay more attention on how to be more attractive. Although the subjects of this study are college students and most of them are around age nineteen to thirty, the results are still similar to Ryan?s arguments. This finding indicates that peer approval and interest in the opposite-sex are still more important than family in the use of body modifications and supplements for young adults around age nineteen to thirty. 74 Second is the difference between same-sex friends and opposite-sex friends. When it comes to the need to dress nice and the desire for social approval, opposite-sex friends are more important than same-sex friends. However, in most of the time, same-sex friends are more important than opposite-sex friends when one needs advice about one?s presentation of self expect the use of fragrances. This finding also supports Ryan (1966)?s argument that there is a significant increase in the interest in the opposite-sex. Respondents show higher intention to dress nice and need for compliments in front of their opposite-sex rather than same-sex friends. Although the results indicate that respondents ask same-sex for advice rather than opposite-sex friends, it only implies that they believe more in their same-sex friends? opinions about dressing styles. It does not deny the fact that they want compliments and have more intention to dress nice when hanging out with their opposite-sex friends rather than same-sex friends. Additionally, as mentioned earlier, significant other is the most important relationship. It is clear that to attract the opposite-sex is one of the most important elements in the presentation of body modifications and supplements. Third is the difference between the presentation of fragrances and the other three elements of presentation. Respondents ask opposite-sex friends rather than same-sex friends for advice about fragrances, but they ask advice about the other three elements in a reverse order. This difference is similar to the results of research question one that the presentation of fragrance is the only one element that differs from the other three. Although the reason for this difference is not directly examined in this study, the data in response to research question one can shed some light on the results. The finding of research question one personality expression is not the primary reason that one uses fragrances. Previous literature has shown that sexual attraction may be the most important factor in the use of fragrances. This finding indicates that respondents ask 75 opposite-sex friends for advice about fragrances rather than same-sex friends. It in some respects supports the previous literature that fragrances are used for sexual attraction. Based on these findings, this difference between fragrances and the other three elements may indicate that fragrances are used to attract the opposite-sex more often than the other three elements. Limitations and Future Research While the results of this study shed future light on the nonverbal presentation of self, it also raises some interesting questions. First, the findings of this study show a difference between fragrances and the other three elements of self presentation. However, this study does not actually address the reason for this difference. Future research may want to look at how and why fragrances are different from the other elements of self. Second, researchers may also want to more fully explore the categories of the ways we present self to the world. For example, the category of clothing could be divided into apparels, bags, shoes, or hats. The category of hair styles may be divided into color, length, or accessories. Finally, this study examines the relationship between the level of satisfaction and self presentation based on four elements of self. In the future, researchers may examine the same issue from a demographic approach such as age, sex, ethnicity, or graduate level. This study also has its limitations. First is the response rate. The researcher collected a total of 118 responses but only 92 are valid. The response rate is 78%. The number of questions may be a possible reason of the low response rate. The survey questionnaire consists of 70 questions including 4 general demographic questions and 66 multiple choice questions. Additionally, the researcher did not provide extra credit for taking the survey. Respondents may think there are too many questions for a survey with no extra credit and decide to quit the survey. Another limitation is the size of the sample. Due to the low response rate, this study had only 92 76 valid responses. It is a relatively small sample size compared to the scope of this study. Although the size of the sample may limit the possibility that the results actually represent the reality, this study still discovers some interesting insights worth for future research. Finally is the interpretation of some survey questions, especially questions designed to test the use of cosmetics. Although the survey did provide a clear definition of cosmetics which include not only makeup or skin cream but also masculine products such as aftershave lotions, there is still a high possibility that male subjects who do use aftershave lotions reported that they have never used cosmetics. One possible reason is that subjects may take the survey without reading the definition part and misinterpret the term. Another possible reason is that even they do read the definition of cosmetics provided by the researcher, they may still interpret cosmetics as a feminine term and are not willing to report that they use cosmetics. Conclusion According to scholars, the concept of self is developed in social interaction. As people interact with each other over time, they share mutual understanding of messages and behaviors (Mead, 1934). Mutual understanding allows individuals to learn the meaning and consequence of performing certain behaviors. People tend to perform behaviors that will bring positive results rather than behaviors with negative consequences. Based on their experiences in everyday social interaction, individuals receive and internalize these messages into their own self-concept and establish their personal guidelines (Bandura, 1986). Identity, on the other hand, is only one aspect of the whole self-concept (Stone, 1962). An individual can have several identities at the same time and the self is a cumulative result of these identities (Roach-Higgins & Eicher, 1992). Everyday settings are stages and people are the performers presenting themselves (Goffman, 1959). People tend to perform the desired identity to impress their audiences. The 77 process is called impression management. Although the power of identity is mainly stable, identity itself is never fixed (Hecht, 2005). Identity can either be supported or threatened in everyday interaction (Ting-Toomey, 2005). It is negotiated in social interaction to achieve the balance status among various conflicting identities. To perform a successful impression management, an individual must have adequate communication skills to not only perform desired self-image, but also negotiate the conflict among various identities to achieve the balance status of self (Imahori & Cupach, 2005). Appearance is one of the most powerful media to perform the desired identity (Stone, 1962; Kaiser, 1997; Negrin, 2008). Appearance includes various nonverbal symbols such as gesture, physical distance, and body modifications and supplements. Among all these nonverbal symbols, this study looks specifically at body modifications and supplements and discusses the relationship between the balance status of self and these body modifications and supplements. In addition, desire for social approval is a critical motive for one?s presentation of self. This study also looks at what relationships are more important than others in the physical display of self. Three research questions have been conduct to examine the relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the elements self including clothing, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances. An on-line survey questionnaire was designed to address the three research questions. The subjects are college students including both undergraduate and graduate students. Regression analysis and statistical mean were used to analyze the data. The results show a significant relationship between the degree of comfort with appearance and the physical display of self in most of the time. The more one feels comfortable with appearance, the more clothing, hair styles, cosmetics, and fragrances are important to one?s presentation of self. However, there is no significant relationship between degree of comfort with 78 appearance and the agreement that fragrances reflect personality. Although previous studies show that the use and meaning of fragrances are extended through the historical changes that fragrances are not used only for sexual attraction but also as a means to express the self, it seems like fragrances are still primarily used for sexual attraction rather than self expression. The results also show that significant others and opposite-sex friends are the two most important relationships in one?s presentation of self. Family, on the other hand, is the least important relationship when one presenting these elements of self. It seems like sexual attraction is still an important reason in one?s presentation of self. 79 References Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Carey, J. (1985). Communication as culture: essays on media and society. Boston: Unwin Hyman. DeLong, M. R., & Bye, E. K. (1990). Apparel for the senses: the use and meaning of fragrances. Journal of Pop Culture, 24(3), 81-88. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1964). Awareness con texts and social interaction. American Sociological Review, 29, 669-679. Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Books. Goulding, C., & Saren, M. (2009). Performing identity: an analysis of gender expressions at the whitby goth festival. Consumption Markets & Culture, 12(1), 27-46. Guy, A., & Banim, M. (2000). Personal collections: women's use of clothing and identity. Journal of Gender Studies, 9(3), 313-327. Imahori, T. T. & Cupach, W. R. (2005). Identity management theory. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 195-210). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kaiser, S. B. (1997). The Social psychology of clothing: symbolic appearance in context. New York: Fairchild Publications. 80 Matthew, L. B. (1963). College student?s attitudes toward clothing and their relation to certain personality traits. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. McCullagh, K. (2008). Blogging: self presentation and privacy. Information & Communications Technology Law, 17(1), 3-23. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Negrin, L. (2008). Appearance and identity. New York: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. Roach-Higgins, M. E., & Eicher, J. B. (1992). Dress and identity. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10(4), 1-8. Roberts, S. C., Little, A. C., Lyndon, A., Roberts, J., Havlicek, J., & Wright, R. L. (2009). Manipulation of body odour alters men?s self-confidence and judgments of their visual attractiveness by women. International Journal of Cosmetics Sciences, 31, 47-54. Rubinstein, R. P. (2001). Dress codes: meanings and messages in American culture (2nd edition). Boulder. CL: Westview Press. Ryan, M. S. (1966). Clothing: a study in human behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc. Schau, H. J., & Gilly, M. C. (2003). We are what we Post? self-presentation in personal web space. Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 385-404. Stone, G. P. (1962). Appearance and the self. In M. E. Roach-Higgins, J. B. Eicher, & K. P. Johnson (Ed.), Dress and identity (pp. 19-39). New York: Fairchild Publications. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Identity negotiation theory: crossing cultural boundaries. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 211-234). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 81 Trammel, K. D., & Keshelashvili, A. (2005). Examine the new influencers: a self-presentation study of a-list blogs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 82(4), 968-982. Treece, A. J. (1959). An Interpretation of clothing behavior based on social psychological theory. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms Inc. 82 Appendix 83 INSTRUCTION You are invited to participate in a study of the college student?s awareness of appearance as a communication practice to identity construction. The study is being conducted by Yi-Han Huang as a thesis project for the Master?s Degree program in the Department of Communication and Journalism under the direction of Dr. Margaret Fitch-Hauser. The study seeks to get a better understanding of the relationship between college student?s awareness of appearance and identity construction. If you decide to participate, you will fill out a web-based questionnaire that will take less than 15 minutes to complete. Your participation is solicited, although strictly voluntary. Your responses to the questionnaire will be completely anonymous. You may withdraw from this study at any time by simply not hitting the submit button at the end of the on-line survey. However, once you have provided anonymous information, you will be unable to withdraw your data since there will be no way to identify your information. Information collected in this study may be published in professional journals or presented at professional meetings. However, no individual responses will be presented or published. All information obtained in this study will remain anonymous. Your decision to participate or not will have no impact on your future relations with Auburn University or the Department of Communication and Journalism. If you have any questions, you are invited to contact Yi-Han Huang at yzh0004@auburn.edu. She will be happy to answer any questions you may have about this study. For more information regarding your rights as a research participant you may contact the AU Office of Human Subject Research or the Institutional Review Board by phone (334) 844-5966 or e-mail at hsubjec@auburn.edu or IRBChair@auburn.edu. HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED, YOU MUST DECIDE WHETHER TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS RESEARCH. IF YOU DECIDE TO PARTICIPATE, THE DATA YOU PROVIDE WILL SERVE AS YOUR AGREEMENT TO DO SO. The Auburn University Institutional Review Board has approved this document from May 7, 2010 to May 6, 2011. Protocol #10-119 EX 1005. Please click the ?next? button below if you wish to participate in the study. If you wish to end your participation in the study, please close your Internet window at this time. Thank you for your time. 84 SURVEY QUESTIONS Demographic Information: Please fill out the following questions A. Age ____________________________________________ B. Sex _____________________________________________ C. Student Graduate Level ____________________________ (Freshman/Sophomore/Junior/Senior/Graduate School) D. Ethnicity _________________________________________ (African American/Asian American/European American/Latin American/Pacific America/Others) Definitions In the following questions, CLOTHING refers to any tangible or material object connected to the human body such as shirts, pants, skirts, dresses, shoes, necklaces, earrings, rings, bracelets, pings, belts, or scarves. COSMETICS refer to things you put on your body, mostly on your face, which include makeup, skin cream, aftershave lotions, or tattoos; FRAGRANCES refer to both male and female fragrances; and HAIR STYLE refers to a hair style as well as things you put on your hair such as hair clips, hairpins, hair bands, or hair jewelries. Agreement: Please choose your level of agreement for the following questions 1: Strongly Agree 2: Agree 3: Neither Agree nor Disagree 4: Disagree 5: Strongly Disagree 1. I am comfortable with my appearance Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 2. It doesn?t matter to me if other people like my appearance or not. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 3. It is important for people my age to pay attention to their appearance. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 4. I believe my clothes reflect my personality. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 5. I believe my hair style reflects my personality. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 6. My clothes make me a more attractive person. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 7. My hair style makes me a more attractive person. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 8. It is important for me to know if other people appreciate my clothing style. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 9. It is important for me to know if other people appreciate my hair style. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 10. As long as my clothes are clean and neat, nothing else about my hair matters. 85 Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 11. As long as my body is clean, I don?t feel the need to use fragrances. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 12. As long as my face is clean, I don?t feel I have to wear cosmetics. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 13. Having clean hair is more important to me than how my hair is styled. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 14. Compared with others your age, how often do you usually wear cosmetics? ____ More often than others (go to Q.15 and continue) ____ As much often as others (go to Q.15 and continue) ____ Less often than others (go to Q.15 and continue) ____ I?ve never used cosmetics before (skip the following questions and go to Q.23) 15. I believe my cosmetics reflect my personality. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 16. My cosmetics make me a more attractive person. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 17. Most of my opposite-sex friends complement me about how I use cosmetics/make-up. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 18. Most of my same-sex friends complement me about how I use cosmetics/make-up. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 19. My significant other complements me about how I use cosmetics/make-up. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 20. My family complements me about how I use cosmetics/make-up. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 21. The cosmetics I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 22. It is important for me to know if other people appreciate my cosmetics. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 23. Compared with others your age, how often do you usually wear fragrances? ____ More often than others (go to Q.24 and continue) ____ As much often as others (go to Q.24 and continue) ____ Less often than others (go to Q.24 and continue) ____ I?ve never used fragrances before (skip the following questions and go to Q.32) 24. I believe my fragrances reflect my personality. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 25. My fragrances make me a more attractive person. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 26. Most of my opposite-sex friends appreciate the fragrances I choose. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 27. Most of my same-sex friends appreciate the fragrances I choose. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 28. My significant other appreciates the fragrances I choose. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 29. My family appreciates the fragrances I choose. 86 Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 30. The fragrances I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 31. It is important for me to know if other people appreciate my fragrances. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 32. Most of my opposite-sex friends appreciate my clothing styles on me. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 33. Most of my same-sex friends appreciate my clothing styles on me. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 34. My significant other appreciates my clothing styles on me. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 35. My family appreciates my clothing styles on me. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 36. Most of my opposite-sex friends like the way I usually wear my hair. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 37. Most of my same-sex friends like the way I usually wear my hair. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 38. My significant other likes the way I usually wear my hair. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 39. My family likes the way I usually wear my hair. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 40. The clothes I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 41. The hair style I wear to school help me to fit into the class better. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 42. I generally dress nicer than those around me. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 43. I feel I should wear nice clothes when I hang out with my opposite-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 44. I feel I should wear nice clothes when I hang out with my same-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 45. I feel I should wear nice clothes when I hang out with my significant other. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 46. I feel I should wear nice clothes when I hang out with my family. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 47. I feel I should wear fragrances when I hang out with my opposite-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 48. I feel I should wear fragrances when I hang out with my same-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 49. I feel I should wear fragrances when I hang out with my significant other. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 50. I feel I should wear fragrances when I hang out with my family. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 51. I feel I should wear cosmetics when I hang out with my opposite-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 87 52. I feel I should wear cosmetics when I hang out with my same-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 53. I feel I should wear cosmetics when I hang out with my significant other. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 54. I feel I should wear cosmetics when I hang out with my family. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 55. I feel I should have a nice hair style when I hang out with my opposite-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 56. I feel I should have a nice hair style when I hang out with my same-sex friends. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 57. I feel I should have a nice hair style when I hang out with my significant other. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree 58. I feel I should have a nice hair style when I hang out with my family. Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree Multiple Choices: Please choose ONE answer which best reflects your life 59. Who do you want to like your clothes the most? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 60. Who do you want to appreciate your fragrances the most? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 61. Who do you want to appreciate how you wear cosmetics the most? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 62. Who do you want to appreciate your hairstyle the most? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 88 63. Whose opinion counts most when you deciding what clothing to wear? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 64. Whose opinion counts most when you deciding what fragrance to wear? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 65. Whose opinion counts about the cosmetics you use is most important to you? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others 66. Whose opinion counts most when you deciding what hairstyle to wear? ____ Mother ____ Father ____ Same-sex friends ____ Opposite-sex friends ____ Significant other ____ Others